Plastivore

Plastivores are "organisms that use plastic as their primary carbon and energy source". This does not necessarily mean being able to fulfill all biological needs from plastic alone. For example, mealworms fed only on plastic show very little weight gain, unlike mealworms fed on a normal diet of bran.{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Yu |last2=Yang |first2=Jun |last3=Wu |first3=Wei-Min |last4=Zhao |first4=Jiao |last5=Song |first5=Yiling |last6=Gao |first6=Longcheng |last7=Yang |first7=Ruifu |last8=Jiang |first8=Lei |date=2015-10-20 |title=Biodegradation and Mineralization of Polystyrene by Plastic-Eating Mealworms: Part 1. Chemical and Physical Characterization and Isotopic Tests |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.5b02661 |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |language=en |volume=49 |issue=20 |pages=12080–12086 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.5b02661 |pmid=26390034 |bibcode=2015EnST...4912080Y |issn=0013-936X|url-access=subscription }} This is due to plastic lacking water and nutrients needed to grow. Plastic-fed mealworms can still derive energy from their diet, so they do not lose weight like starved mealworms do.

For both bacterial and fungal plastivores, the first step is adhesion of spores to the plastic surface via hydrophobic interactions.

File:Ideonella Sakaiensis Eating Plastics.png metabolises plastic]]

Bacterial plastivores, when cultured on plastic, form biofilms on the surface as the second step.{{cite journal |last1=G. Cada |first1=Erika Joy |date=June 2019 |title=Enhanced in vitro biodegradation of low-density polyethylene using alkaliphilic bacterial consortium supplemented with iron oxide nanoparticles |url=https://www.philsciletters.net/2019/PSL%202019%20Special%20Issue%2005-Cada%20et%20al.pdf |journal=Philippine Science Letters |volume=12}}{{Cite journal |last1=Chauhan |first1=Deepika |last2=Agrawal |first2=Guncha |last3=Deshmukh |first3=Sujit |last4=Roy |first4=Susanta Sinha |last5=Priyadarshini |first5=Richa |date=2018 |title=Biofilm formation by Exiguobacterium sp. DR11 and DR14 alter polystyrene surface properties and initiate biodegradation |journal=RSC Advances |language=en |volume=8 |issue=66 |pages=37590–37599 |doi=10.1039/C8RA06448B |pmid=35558609 |pmc=9089450 |bibcode=2018RSCAd...837590C |issn=2046-2069}}{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Yu |last2=Yang |first2=Jun |last3=Wu |first3=Wei-Min |last4=Zhao |first4=Jiao |last5=Song |first5=Yiling |last6=Gao |first6=Longcheng |last7=Yang |first7=Ruifu |last8=Jiang |first8=Lei |date=2015-10-20 |title=Biodegradation and Mineralization of Polystyrene by Plastic-Eating Mealworms: Part 2. Role of Gut Microorganisms |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.5b02663 |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |language=en |volume=49 |issue=20 |pages=12087–12093 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.5b02663 |pmid=26390390 |bibcode=2015EnST...4912087Y |issn=0013-936X|url-access=subscription }} Using enzymes, they increase the roughness of the surface and oxidize the plastic. Oxidation forms oxygenated groups such as carbonyl groups, used by the bacteria for carbon and energy, and also converts the plastic into smaller molecules (depolymerization).

For fungal plastivores, the second step is growth of mycelia (root-like structures of fungi, composed of thread-like hyphae) on the surface, while the third step is secretion of enzymes. Both the enzymes as well as the mechanical force produced by fungal hyphae degrades the plastic.

The same basic steps of oxidation and depolymerization also occur in insect plastivores.{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Li |last2=Gao |first2=Jie |last3=Liu |first3=Ying |last4=Zhuang |first4=Guoqiang |last5=Peng |first5=Xiawei |last6=Wu |first6=Wei-Min |last7=Zhuang |first7=Xuliang |date=2021 |title=Biodegradation of expanded polystyrene and low-density polyethylene foams in larvae of Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae): Broad versus limited extent depolymerization and microbe-dependence versus independence |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0045653520320130 |journal=Chemosphere |language=en |volume=262 |pages=127818 |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127818|pmid=32771707 |bibcode=2021Chmsp.26227818Y |s2cid=224882094 |url-access=subscription }} For insects, the bacteria in their guts plays a role in digesting plastic. In mealworms, inhibiting these bacteria by giving antibiotics removes the ability to digest polystyrene, but low-density polyethylene can still be digested to an extent. The insects themselves also play a role: saliva of waxworms contains enzymes that oxidize and depolymerize polyethylene.{{Cite journal |last1=Sanluis-Verdes |first1=A. |last2=Colomer-Vidal |first2=P. |last3=Rodriguez-Ventura |first3=F. |last4=Bello-Villarino |first4=M. |last5=Spinola-Amilibia |first5=M. |last6=Ruiz-Lopez |first6=E. |last7=Illanes-Vicioso |first7=R. |last8=Castroviejo |first8=P. |last9=Aiese Cigliano |first9=R. |last10=Montoya |first10=M. |last11=Falabella |first11=P. |last12=Pesquera |first12=C. |last13=Gonzalez-Legarreta |first13=L. |last14=Arias-Palomo |first14=E. |last15=Solà |first15=M. |date=2022-10-04 |title=Wax worm saliva and the enzymes therein are the key to polyethylene degradation by Galleria mellonella |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=5568 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13.5568S |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-33127-w |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=9532405 |pmid=36195604}}

The following is not an exhaustive list. Plastivorous activity seems to be quite common in nature, with a 2011 sampling of endophytic fungi in the Amazon finding that almost half of the fungi showed some activity.{{Cite journal |last1=Russell |first1=Jonathan R. |last2=Huang |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Anand |first3=Pria |last4=Kucera |first4=Kaury |last5=Sandoval |first5=Amanda G. |last6=Dantzler |first6=Kathleen W. |last7=Hickman |first7=DaShawn |last8=Jee |first8=Justin |last9=Kimovec |first9=Farrah M. |last10=Koppstein |first10=David |last11=Marks |first11=Daniel H. |last12=Mittermiller |first12=Paul A. |last13=Núñez |first13=Salvador Joel |last14=Santiago |first14=Marina |last15=Townes |first15=Maria A. |date=2011 |title=Biodegradation of Polyester Polyurethane by Endophytic Fungi |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |language=en |volume=77 |issue=17 |pages=6076–6084 |doi=10.1128/AEM.00521-11 |issn=0099-2240 |pmc=3165411 |pmid=21764951|bibcode=2011ApEnM..77.6076R }}

{{Further|Plastic degradation by marine bacteria}}

The plastic pollution in the oceans supports many species of bacteria.

The alkaliphilic bacteria Bacillus pseudofirmus and Salipaludibacillus agaradhaerens can degrade low-density polyethylene (LDPE). These bacteria can degrade LDPE on their own but work more quickly as a consortium of both species, and degradation is faster still when iron oxide nanoparticles are added.

Exiguobacterium sibiricum and E. undae, isolated from a wetland in India, can degrade polystyrene. Similarly, Exiguobacterium sp. strain YT2 has been isolated from the gut of mealworms, which are themselves plastivores, and can degrade polystyrene on its own, though less quickly than mealworms.

Acinetobacter sp. AnTc-1, isolated from the gut of plastivorous red flour beetle larvae, can likewise degrade polystyrene on its own.{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Zhe |last2=Xin |first2=Xin |last3=Shi |first3=Xiaofan |last4=Zhang |first4=Yalin |date=2020-07-15 |title=A polystyrene-degrading Acinetobacter bacterium isolated from the larvae of Tribolium castaneum |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720320805 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=726 |pages=138564 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138564 |pmid=32315854 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.72638564W |s2cid=216075743 |issn=0048-9697|url-access=subscription }}

Ideonella sakaiensis and Comamonas testosteroni can degrade polyethylene terephthalate.{{Cite journal |last1=Yoshida |first1=Shosuke |last2=Hiraga |first2=Kazumi |last3=Takehana |first3=Toshihiko |last4=Taniguchi |first4=Ikuo |last5=Yamaji |first5=Hironao |last6=Maeda |first6=Yasuhito |last7=Toyohara |first7=Kiyotsuna |last8=Miyamoto |first8=Kenji |last9=Kimura |first9=Yoshiharu |last10=Oda |first10=Kohei |date=2016-03-11 |title=A bacterium that degrades and assimilates poly(ethylene terephthalate) |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aad6359 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=351 |issue=6278 |pages=1196–1199 |doi=10.1126/science.aad6359 |pmid=26965627 |bibcode=2016Sci...351.1196Y |s2cid=31146235 |issn=0036-8075|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Gong |first1=Jixian |last2=Kong |first2=Tongtong |last3=Li |first3=Yuqiang |last4=Li |first4=Qiujin |last5=Li |first5=Zheng |last6=Zhang |first6=Jianfei |date=2018-11-30 |title=Biodegradation of Microplastic Derived from Poly(ethylene terephthalate) with Bacterial Whole-Cell Biocatalysts |journal=Polymers |language=en |volume=10 |issue=12 |pages=1326 |doi=10.3390/polym10121326 |doi-access=free |issn=2073-4360 |pmc=6401706 |pmid=30961251}}

Aspergillus tubingensis and several isolates of Pestalotiopsis are capable of degrading polyurethane.{{Cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=Sehroon |last2=Nadir |first2=Sadia |last3=Shah |first3=Zia Ullah |last4=Shah |first4=Aamer Ali |last5=Karunarathna |first5=Samantha C. |last6=Xu |first6=Jianchu |last7=Khan |first7=Afsar |last8=Munir |first8=Shahzad |last9=Hasan |first9=Fariha |date=2017 |title=Biodegradation of polyester polyurethane by Aspergillus tubingensis |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0269749117300295 |journal=Environmental Pollution |language=en |volume=225 |pages=469–480 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2017.03.012|pmid=28318785 |bibcode=2017EPoll.225..469K |url-access=subscription }}

Polycarbonate, the main material in CDs, is attacked by a range of fungi: Bjerkandera adusta{{Cite journal |last1=Romero |first1=Elvira |last2=Speranza |first2=Mariela |last3=García-Guinea |first3=Javier |last4=Martínez |first4=Ángel T. |last5=Martínez |first5=María Jesús |date=2007 |title=An anamorph of the white-rot fungus Bjerkandera adusta capable of colonizing and degrading compact disc components |url=https://academic.oup.com/femsle/article-lookup/doi/10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.00876.x |journal=FEMS Microbiology Letters |language=en |volume=275 |issue=1 |pages=122–129 |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.00876.x|pmid=17854471 |hdl=10261/47650 |hdl-access=free }} (initially misidentified as Geotrichum sp.{{Cite journal |last1=Garcia-Guinea |first1=Javier |last2=Cárdenes |first2=Victor |last3=Martínez |first3=Angel T. |last4=Martínez |first4=Maria |date=2001 |title=Fungal bioturbation paths in a compact disk |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s001140100249 |journal=Naturwissenschaften |language=en |volume=88 |issue=8 |pages=351–354 |doi=10.1007/s001140100249 |pmid=11572018 |bibcode=2001NW.....88..351G |s2cid=7599290 |issn=0028-1042|url-access=subscription }}), Chaetomium globosum, Trichoderma atroviride, Coniochaeta sp., Cladosporium cladosporioides and Penicillium chrysogenum.{{Cite journal |last1=Palermo |first1=Anna M. |last2=Gentile |first2=Antonio |last3=Pellegrino |first3=Giuseppe |date=2021 |title=Documentary heritage: fungal deterioration in Compact Discs |journal=Heritage Science |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |doi=10.1186/s40494-021-00609-x |doi-access=free |issn=2050-7445}}

Mealworms (Tenebrio molitor), a species commonly used as animal feed, can consume polyethylene and polystyrene. Its congener T. obscurus can also consume polystyrene,{{Cite journal |last1=Peng |first1=Bo-Yu |last2=Su |first2=Yiming |last3=Chen |first3=Zhibin |last4=Chen |first4=Jiabin |last5=Zhou |first5=Xuefei |last6=Benbow |first6=Mark Eric |last7=Criddle |first7=Craig S. |last8=Wu |first8=Wei-Min |last9=Zhang |first9=Yalei |date=2019-05-07 |title=Biodegradation of Polystyrene by Dark ( Tenebrio obscurus ) and Yellow ( Tenebrio molitor ) Mealworms (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.8b06963 |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |language=en |volume=53 |issue=9 |pages=5256–5265 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.8b06963 |pmid=30990998 |bibcode=2019EnST...53.5256P |s2cid=119102958 |issn=0013-936X|url-access=subscription }} as can superworm (Zophobas morio) and red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum) from different genera in the same family.{{Cite journal |last1=Sun |first1=Jiarui |last2=Prabhu |first2=Apoorva |last3=Aroney |first3=Samuel T. N. |last4=Rinke |first4=Christian |date=2022-06-30 |title=Insights into plastic biodegradation: community composition and functional capabilities of the superworm (Zophobas morio) microbiome in styrofoam feeding trials |journal=Microbial Genomics |language=en |volume=8 |issue=6 |doi=10.1099/mgen.0.000842 |doi-access=free |issn=2057-5858 |pmc=9455710 |pmid=35678705}}

File:Wax worm, U, Maryland, side 2015-07-13-13.01.17 ZS PMax.jpg

Plastivory also occurs in Lepidoptera, with waxworms (Galleria mellonella) able to consume polyethylene.{{Cite journal |last1=Bombelli |first1=Paolo |last2=Howe |first2=Christopher J. |last3=Bertocchini |first3=Federica |date=2017 |title=Polyethylene bio-degradation by caterpillars of the wax moth Galleria mellonella |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982217302312 |journal=Current Biology |language=en |volume=27 |issue=8 |pages=R292–R293 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2017.02.060|pmid=28441558 |bibcode=2017CBio...27.R292B |hdl=10261/164618 |hdl-access=free }} Even homogenising waxworms and applying the homogenate to polyethylene can cause degradation. This species is the fastest known organism to chemically modify polyethylene, with oxidation occurring within one hour from exposure.{{clear}}

• Plastisphere

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{{Feeding}}

Category:Eating behaviors