Post-Western era

{{For|the era of American history after the 'Wild West'|American frontier#End of the frontier}}

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File:Xi Jinping meet Russian Duma.jpg in the Russian Duma. The post-Western era is often conjectured to be one dominated by Asian powers such as China.]]

The post-Western era, considered by some to be a post-American era,[https://asletoje.no/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Normative-Power-in-Europe-after-the-Post-Cold-War.pdf Normative Power Europe: Introductory Observations on a Controversial Notion] Andre Gerrits{{Cite journal |title=Not yet post-Asia: Paradoxes of identity and knowledge in transitional times {{!}} Intellect |url=https://intellectdiscover.com/content/journals/10.1386/ac.25.2.125_7 |access-date=2024-04-11 |journal=Asian Cinema |date=October 2014 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=125–137 |doi=10.1386/ac.25.2.125_7 |last1=Ang |first1=Ien |url-access=subscription }}{{Cite book |last=Brummer |first=Chris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTM4AwAAQBAJ |title=Minilateralism: How Trade Alliances, Soft Law and Financial Engineering are Redefining Economic Statecraft |date=2014-04-07 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-05314-4 |language=en}} is a conjectured time period starting around the 21st century or afterward in which the West is no longer dominant, and other civilizations (particularly Asian ones){{Cite web |last=Stuenkel |first=Oliver |title=The Post-Western World and the Rise of a Parallel Order |url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/09/the-post-western-world-and-the-rise-of-a-parallel-order/ |access-date=2023-11-16 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US}} gain power.{{cite book |last1=Serfaty |first1=Simon |title=A World Recast: An American Moment in a Post-Western Order |date=2012 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-1-4422-1589-4 }}{{pn|date=November 2023}}{{cite book |doi=10.1163/9789004309982 |title=Post-Western Revolution in Sociology |date=2016 |last1=Roulleau-Berger |first1=Laurence |isbn=978-90-04-30998-2 }}{{pn|date=November 2023}} In the context of rising Asian powers (sometimes as part of a broader Global East){{Citation |last=Tian |first=Qingyan |title=Strengthening Global Leadership Studies |date=2022 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75831-8_56-1 |work=Handbook of Global Leadership and Followership: Integrating the Best Leadership Theory and Practice |pages=1–25 |editor-last=Dhiman |editor-first=Satinder |access-date=2024-01-06 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-75831-8_56-1 |isbn=978-3-030-75831-8 |editor2-last=Marques |editor2-first=Joan |editor3-last=Schmieder-Ramirez |editor3-first=June |editor4-last=Malakyan |editor4-first=Petros G.|url-access=subscription }} or a rising Global South, the terms Easternization and Southernization respectively are sometimes applied (analogous to Westernization).{{Cite book |last=Ritzer |first=George |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=52o86uUBRRsC&pg=PA80 |title=Globalization: A Basic Text |date=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-3271-8 |language=en}}{{Cite news |last=Campbell |first=Kurt |date=2016-08-12 |title='Easternisation: War and Peace in the Asian Century', by Gideon Rachman |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/e39d32ec-5d4c-11e6-bb77-a121aa8abd95 |access-date=2023-11-19}}{{Cite journal |last=Mahler |first=Anne Garland |title="Global South." Oxford Bibliographies in Literary and Critical Theory, ed Eugene O'Brien. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017. |url=https://www.academia.edu/34955961}}{{Cite journal |title=The South in "Global IR": Worlding Beyond the "Non-West" in the Case of Brazil |date=2021 |doi=10.1093/isp/ekz029 |url=https://academic.oup.com/isp/article-abstract/22/2/218/5811309 |access-date=2023-11-19 |last1=Kristensen |first1=Peter Marcus |journal=International Studies Perspectives |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=218–239 |url-access=subscription }}{{Cite book |last1=Phillips |first1=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kxL0CAAAQBAJ |title=International Order in Diversity: War, Trade and Rule in the Indian Ocean |last2=Sharman |first2=J. C. |date=2015-04-23 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-29997-5 |language=en}}

Proponents often argue in favor of a post-Western era by pointing out Western abuses of power during the colonial and post-colonial eras,{{Cite web |title=The Emerging World Order is Post-Western and Pre-Plural |url=https://www.institutmontaigne.org/en/expressions/emerging-world-order-post-western-and-pre-plural |access-date=2023-11-16 |website=Institut Montaigne |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Marshall |first=Yannick Giovanni |title=The future is post-Western |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2022/5/20/the-future-is-post-western |access-date=2023-11-16 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}} while opponents argue that Western values and civilization are pivotal to human progress and an orderly world, and that a post-Western world might not honor them to the same extent as the West has.{{Cite web |last=Aybet |first=Gülnur |date=2017-04-29 |title=Making the most of a post-Western world |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/op-ed/2017/04/29/making-the-most-of-a-post-western-world |access-date=2023-11-16 |website=Daily Sabah |language=en-US}}{{cite book |last1=Stuenkel |first1=Oliver |title=Post-Western World: How Emerging Powers Are Remaking Global Order |date=2017 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-5095-0458-9 }}{{pn|date=November 2023}}

History

{{See also|History of Western civilization#Fall of the Western empires: 1945–1999}}

= Debated start dates for a post-Western era =

The Russo-Ukrainian War was noted to have demonstrated the emergence of some features of a post-Western world order during its major escalation in the 2020s, as the West was unable to rally Global South nations to support Ukraine despite Western solidarity, in what was seen as various countries prioritizing their own interests and a blow to the rules-based world order.{{Cite news |last1=Henley |first1=Jon |last2=correspondent |first2=Jon Henley Europe |date=2023-02-22 |title=War in Ukraine defining new world order, says thinktank |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/21/war-in-ukraine-defining-new-world-order-says-thinktank |access-date=2023-11-18 |issn=0261-3077}}{{Cite web |title=The war in Ukraine and the Emergence of the Post-Western World: A View from Brazil |url=https://www.institutmontaigne.org/en/expressions/war-ukraine-and-emergence-post-western-world-view-brazil |access-date=2023-11-18 |website=Institut Montaigne |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Leonard |first=Timothy Garton Ash, Ivan Krastev, Mark |date=2023-02-22 |title=United West, divided from the rest: Global public opinion one year into Russia's war on Ukraine |url=https://ecfr.eu/publication/united-west-divided-from-the-rest-global-public-opinion-one-year-into-russias-war-on-ukraine/ |access-date=2023-11-18 |website=ECFR |language=en-GB}}{{Cite web |last1=Bradley |first1=Sorcha |last2=published |first2=The Week UK |date=2023-02-22 |title=Ukraine and a post-Western world: are we entering a new era in global politics? |url=https://theweek.com/news/politics/959789/ukraine-and-a-post-western-world-are-we-entering-a-new-era-in-global-politics |access-date=2023-11-18 |website=theweek |language=en}} The COVID-19 pandemic and the fall of Afghanistan to the Taliban in the early 2020s have also been identified as possible starting points for a post-American era.{{cite web |author1=Le Monde |date=23 August 2021 |title=The Taliban's Return to Power Is a Scathing Illustration of the Post-American World that Is Taking Shape |url=https://www.gmfus.org/news/talibans-return-power-scathing-illustration-post-american-world-taking-shape |access-date=13 May 2024 |website=German Marshall Fund of the United States}} Some columnists believe that the Gaza war that started in 2023 created further doubts about the West maintaining leadership of the world order, as Southern countries alleged a double standard by the West resulting in the genocide of Gazans.{{Cite news |date=2023-11-16 |title=The West Never Had a Chance at Winning Over the World |language=en |work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2023-11-16/western-fantasies-of-wooing-the-global-south-are-dead |access-date=2023-11-19}}{{Cite web |date=2023-11-10 |title=Opinion: Gaza and 'the graveyard for children': the moral decline of Western politics |url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/opinion/article/3241045/gaza-and-graveyard-children-moral-decline-western-politics |access-date=2023-11-19 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Shapiro |first=Julien Barnes-Dacey, Jeremy |date=2023-11-27 |title=The West Should Give Up the Battle of Narratives |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/11/20/west-global-south-narrative-rules-order/ |access-date=2023-11-21 |website=Foreign Policy |language=en-US}}

Debated causes

= The West =

{{See also|American decline}}File:We Are The 99%.jpg protest, an American movement against economic inequality and corporate greed from 2011.]]

In some sense, Europe itself has been argued to be increasingly post-Western, as it has successfully integrated a previously fractious and conflict-ridden group of countries into the European Union and into institutions that command respect for certain values such as democracy. With the acceptance in the rest of the world of Western systems, Europe has become increasingly open to mixing with and acknowledging its influences from other civilizations.{{Citation |last=Therborn |first=Göran |title=Post-Western Europe and the plural Asias |date=2006 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/oa-edit/10.4324/9780203963104-4/post-western-europe-plural-asias-g%C3%B6ran-therborn |work=Europe and Asia beyond East and West |access-date=2023-11-24 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203963104-4 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |isbn=978-0-203-96310-4}}{{Cite journal |last=Delanty |first=Gerard |date=2003 |title=The Making of a Post-western Europe: a Civilizational Analysis |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0725513603072001002 |journal=Thesis Eleven |language=en |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=8–25 |doi=10.1177/0725513603072001002 |s2cid=144134560 |issn=0725-5136|url-access=subscription }}{{Citation |last=Delanty |first=Gerard |title=Introduction: The idea of a post-Western Europe |date=2006 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/oa-edit/10.4324/9780203963104-1/introduction-gerard-delanty |work=Europe and Asia beyond East and West |access-date=2023-11-24 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203963104-1 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |isbn=978-0-203-96310-4}}{{Cite book |last1=Browning |first1=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUWPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT135 |title=The Struggle for the West: A Divided and Contested Legacy |last2=Lehti |first2=Marko |date=2009-09-29 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-25978-5 |language=en}}

The West has a significantly aging population, with the cost of care associated with the elderly along with decreasing standards of living for those on a median income and other negative economic factors creating the possibility of a decline in Western military and economic power.{{cite book |last1=Burrows |first1=Mathew |chapter=The Difficult Transition to a Post-Western Order |pages=55–66 |jstor=resrep03678.13 |title=Global Risks 2035: The Search for a New Normal |journal=Global Risks 2035 |date=2016 |publisher=Atlantic Council |isbn=978-1-61977-466-7 }} Opposition by some in the West to various forms of globalization, which are perceived to have spurred on economic inequality and primarily be for the benefit of a global elite, has also created a decline in desire within the West to fully engage with the rules-based order.{{cite journal |last1=Ikenberry |first1=G. John |title=The end of liberal international order? |journal=International Affairs |date=2018 |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=7–23 |doi=10.1093/ia/iix241 |doi-access=free }}

Some debate has emerged within the West around how it should manage its relations with other parts of the world to best transition into a post-Western era, with some calling for the West to maintain internal solidarity around its values,{{cite journal |last1=Wæver |first1=Ole |title=A Post-Western Europe: Strange Identities in a Less Liberal World Order |journal=Ethics & International Affairs |date=2018 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=75–88 |doi=10.1017/S0892679418000114 |s2cid=149182426 }} while others call for the West to less stringently uphold its values in its foreign relations so as to better integrate with and potentially influence the increasingly influential non-Western nations.{{cite book |last1=Flockhart |first1=Trine |last2=Kupchan |first2=Charles A. |last3=Lin |first3=Christina |last4=Nowak |first4=Bartlomiej E. |last5=Quirk |first5=Patrick W. |last6=Xiang |first6=Lanxin |title=Liberal Order in a Post-Western World |date=2014 |publisher=German Marshall Fund of the United States |jstor=resrep18958 |url=https://www.bosch-stiftung.de/en/publication/liberal-order-post-western-world }}{{pn|date=November 2023}}

= The non-West =

File:MTR Ktt with 2010 Guangzhou Asian Games advertisement.jpg on the MTR KTT train that runs from mainland China through Hong Kong. China has increasingly incorporated e-sports and technology into its Asian Games events.{{Cite news |last=Prasad |first=Aashin |date=2023-09-26 |title=Hangzhou Asian Games {{!}} The future of sports is here and it is not on a traditional playing field |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/other-sports/hangzhou-asian-games-gaming-makes-debut-as-medal-event-in-major-step-towards-future-of-sports/article67349672.ece |access-date=2023-11-19 |issn=0971-751X}}{{Cite web |date=2023-10-05 |title=Hangzhou 2022 moved Asian Games into "digital world", claim organisers |url=https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1141427/hangzhou-2022-enter-digital-world |access-date=2023-11-19 |website=www.insidethegames.biz}}]]

Various factors are said to indicate the decline of Western power and potentially Western values around the world. Asia's youth population has grown significantly relative to the West, with countries such as China acquiring more technological capabilities that can influence the world and potentially be used to reduce individuals' abilities to express their individual rights and/or share power with other individuals in a democratic form of government (see Techno-nationalism).{{Cite news |date=2018-09-08 |title=Techno-nationalism could determine the 21st Century |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-45370052 |access-date=2023-11-17}}

South–South cooperation has become more discussed, with the developing world trading more within itself than with OECD countries since 2013.{{Cite journal |last=Manning |first=Robert A. |date=2013 |title=US Strategy in a Post-Western World |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00396338.2013.841815 |journal=Survival |language=en |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=115–132 |doi=10.1080/00396338.2013.841815 |s2cid=154972575 |issn=0039-6338|url-access=subscription }} By 2050, one projection shows that the world's economic center of gravity may lie between India and China.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=akW6DQAAQBAJ |title=Asia in Post-Western Age |date=2014-09-15 |publisher=KW Publishers Pvt Ltd |isbn=978-93-85714-29-0 |language=en}}

Authoritarian non-Western nations have increasingly sought to reshape global institutions to reduce human rights enforcement upon themselves.

India has come to exemplify a kind of neutral, self-interested model among non-Western countries during the Russo-Ukrainian War, demonstrating a desire to move towards a multipolar world where it can work with multiple partners. It has also shown a decreasing interest in full democracy and pluralism, as seen in the rise of Hindu nationalism and increasing attacks upon political opponents of the Indian government.{{Cite web |date=2022-05-03 |title=India is creating a new world order {{!}} Chris Ogden |url=https://iai.tv/articles/india-is-creating-a-new-world-order-auid-2118 |access-date=2023-11-19 |website=IAI TV - Changing how the world thinks |language=en-GB}}

Civilizational exceptionalism has increasingly been used as a rationale by non-Western countries to carve out space for themselves on the world stage and to justify domestic authoritarianism.{{cite journal |last1=Haug |first1=Sebastian |last2=Roychoudhury |first2=Supriya |title=Civilizational exceptionalism in international affairs: making sense of Indian and Turkish claims |journal=International Affairs |date=6 March 2023 |volume=99 |issue=2 |pages=531–549 |doi=10.1093/ia/iiac317 |doi-access=free }}

Impact on global issues

File:Global Warming Predictions Map.jpg

= Climate change =

Some post-Western advocates believe that non-Western countries can do a better job than the West in terms of addressing climate change, referencing climate change's origins in various actions taken by the West.{{cite book |last1=Nair |first1=Chandran |title=Dismantling Global White Privilege: Equity for a Post-Western World |date=2022 |publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers |isbn=978-1-5230-0001-2 }}{{pn|date=November 2023}} Western voices have debated how to address climate change in an era where the West is less likely to lead or be able to create cooperation with non-Western countries.{{cite news |last1=Leonard |first1=Mark |title=Governing a Post-Western World {{!}} by Mark Leonard |url=https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/post-western-multipolar-international-order-engagement-competition-by-mark-leonard-2023-07 |work=Project Syndicate |date=5 July 2023 }}

= Christianity =

Christianity's decline in the West has been argued by some to be contributing to what they see as the West's declining ability to enforce its values both within itself and in the wider world.{{Cite web |last=fad-admin |date=2003-10-08 |title=Western Civilization, Our Tradition |url=https://isi.org/intercollegiate-review/western-civilization-our-tradition/ |access-date=2023-11-18 |website=Intercollegiate Studies Institute |language=en-US}}{{cite news |last1=Meacham |first1=Jon |title=Meacham: The End of Christian America |url=https://www.newsweek.com/meacham-end-christian-america-77125 |work=Newsweek |date=3 April 2009 }}

Christianity's strong historical identification with the West has also become increasingly relevant, as Christians seek to modify their promotion of the religion in a way which can better reach non-Western peoples, and as the religion increasingly grows in the Global South in a form that comes in some conflict with Western-style Christianity.{{cite journal |last1=Danzig |first1=David |title=Christianity in a 'Post-Western' Era |journal=Commentary |date=1961 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=46– |url=https://www.commentary.org/articles/david-danzig/christianity-in-a-post-western-era/ }}{{cite book |doi=10.1093/0195177282.003.0001 |chapter=The Changing Face of Christianity |date=2005 |last1=Sanneh |first1=Lamin |pages=3–18 |isbn=978-0-19-517728-2 }}{{cite book |last1=Sanneh |first1=Lamin O. |title=Disciples of All Nations: Pillars of World Christianity |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-804084-2 }}{{pn|date=November 2023}} Over time, more Western Christians have come to the conclusion that the spread of Christianity need not be strongly paired with Western culture or values to be successful or beneficial.{{cite journal |last1=Sanneh |first1=Lamin |title=Prospects for Post-Western Christianity in Asia and Elsewhere |journal=The Brown Journal of World Affairs |date=2006 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=117–128 |jstor=24590623 }} There has also been some debate around how Western Christians should engage with or protect non-Western Christians, particularly in the context of religious repression of non-Western Christians.{{cite journal |last1=Sanneh |first1=Lamin |title=Persecuted Post-Western Christianity and the Post-Christian West |journal=The Review of Faith & International Affairs |date=March 2009 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=21–28 |doi=10.1080/15570274.2009.9523377 |s2cid=143019007 |doi-access=free }}

= Migration =

Postcolonial migration to Western countries has been described as "super-diverse", raising questions around how the migrants can be assimilated and what it means for the world order.{{Citation |last=Tarumoto |first=Hideki |title=Considering Super-diversity in Immigration: Post-Western Sociology and the Japanese Case |date=2023-03-27 |work=Handbook of Post-Western Sociology: From East Asia to Europe |pages=664–676 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004529328/BP000048.xml |access-date=2024-10-25 |publisher=Brill |language=en |isbn=978-90-04-52932-8}} Internal migration has also become a notable topic in countries such as China.{{Citation |last1=Rouleau-Berger |first1=Laurence |title=Post-Western Theory and Sociology of Migration |date=2021 |work=Sociology of Migration and Post-Western Theory |pages=11–50 |editor-last=Roulleau-Berger |editor-first=Laurence |url=https://books.openedition.org/enseditions/38572?lang=en |access-date=2024-10-25 |series=De l’Orient à l’Occident |place=Lyon |publisher=ENS Éditions |language=en |isbn=979-10-362-0406-7 |last2=Yuzhao |first2=Liu}}

= Sport =

{{See also|Sportswashing|Traditional Sports and Games}}File:Barabati Stadium IPL Match Pune Warriors India vs. Deccan Chargers.jpg, the second-most valued sports league in the world in terms of per-match media rights fees.{{Cite web |date=2022-06-13 |title=IPL media rights set to be the most expensive after NFL, hits INR 105 crores per match on day 1 |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/sports/ipl-media-rights-set-be-most-expensive-after-nfl-hits-inr-105-crores-match-day-1-438910 |access-date=2023-11-18 |website=The Business Standard |language=en}}]]

Though many modern sports came from the West and originally dispersed through the world via colonialism, there is now an increasing tendency of former colonies to dominate these sports' organizational apparatuses.{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-22825-4_23 |chapter=The Circus Comes to Town: Formula 1, Globalization, and the Uber-Sport Spectacle |title=The History and Politics of Motor Racing |series=Global Culture and Sport Series |date=2023 |last1=Bustad |first1=Jacob J. |last2=Andrews |first2=David L. |pages=595–617 |isbn=978-3-031-22824-7 }} For example, India has been noted for becoming the dominant power in world cricket, a sport which it had been introduced to during British rule, through its ability to use its large population and market to earn vast revenues through the Indian Premier League and the commercial appeal of the T20 format (see also: Cricket in South Asia).{{cite journal |last1=Rumford |first1=Chris |title=More than a game: globalization and the post-Westernization of world cricket |journal=Global Networks |date=April 2007 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=202–214 |doi=10.1111/j.1471-0374.2007.00165.x }}{{cite journal |last1=Gupta |first1=Amit |title=The IPL and the Indian domination of global cricket |journal=Sport in Society |date=December 2011 |volume=14 |issue=10 |pages=1316–1325 |doi=10.1080/17430437.2011.620373 |s2cid=144943832 }} It now generates over 80% of international revenue for the sport.{{Cite news |last=Bose |first=Mihir |date=2024-01-25 |title=Dear England: you gave cricket to the world, but it's an Indian game now |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2024/jan/25/dear-england-you-gave-cricket-to-the-world-but-its-an-indian-game-now |access-date=2024-11-15 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}