Proto-Armenian language

{{Infobox proto-language

| name = Proto-Armenian

| altname =

| region =

| era =

| familycolor = Indo-European

| ancestor = Proto-Indo-European

| target = Armenian languages

}}

{{Indo-European}}{{History of Armenia}}Proto-Armenian is the earlier, unattested stage of the Armenian language which has been reconstructed by linguists. As Armenian is the only known language of its branch of the Indo-European languages, the comparative method cannot be used to reconstruct its earlier stages. Instead, a combination of internal and external reconstruction, by reconstructions of Proto-Indo-European and other branches, has allowed linguists to piece together the earlier history of Armenian.

Definition

Proto-Armenian, as the ancestor of only one living language, has no clear definition of the term. It is generally held to include a variety of ancestral stages of Armenian between Proto-Indo-European and the earliest attestations of Classical Armenian.

It is thus not a proto-language in the strict sense, but "Proto-Armenian" is a term that has become common in the field.

The earliest attestation of Armenian is the 5th-century Bible translation of Mesrop Mashtots. The earlier history of the language is unclear and the subject of much speculation. It is clear that Armenian is an Indo-European language, but its development is opaque.

In any case, Armenian has many layers of loanwords and shows traces of long language contact with Anatolian languages such as Luwian and Hittite, Hattic, Hurro-Urartian languages, Semitic languages such as Akkadian and Aramaic, and Iranian languages such as Persian and Parthian. Armenian also has been influenced to a lesser extent by Greek and Arabic.{{Cite web|title=Armenian language resources {{!}} Etymology of Armenian language|url=http://armenianlanguage.org/etymology/etymology.html}}

Phonological development of Proto-Armenian

The Proto-Armenian sound changes are varied and eccentric (such as *dw- yielding erk-) and, in many cases, uncertain. That prevented Armenian from being immediately recognized as an Indo-European branch in its own right, and it was assumed to be simply a very divergent Iranian language until Heinrich Hübschmann established its independent character in 1874.Karl Brugmann, [http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Seite꞉Brugmann_Grundriss_der_vergleichenden_Grammatik_der_indogermanischen_Sprachen_vol._1_1897_(part_1).djvu/053 Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen] (1897) Das Armenische (II), früher fälschlicherweise für iranisch ausgegeben, von H. Hübschmann KZ. 23, 5 ff. 400 ff. als ein selbständiges Glied der idg. Sprachfamilie erwiesen

The development of voicing contrasts in Armenian is notable in being quite similar to that seen in Germanic, a fact that was significant in the formation of the Glottalic Theory. The Armenian Consonant Shift has often been compared to the famous Grimm's Law in Germanic, because in both cases, Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops became voiceless aspirates (with some complications with regard to Proto-Indo-European *p), the voiced stops became voiceless, and the voiced aspirates became voiced stops.Fortson, Benjamin W. 2004. Indo-European Language and Culture. Page 340-41. Meanwhile, Armenian shares the vocalization of word initial laryngeals before consonants with Greek and Phrygian:Fortson, Benjamin W. 2004. Indo-European Language and Culture. Page 342, 402 Proto-Indo-European *h₂nḗr ("man", "force") renders Greek anḗr, Armenian ayr from a Proto-Armenian *aynrFortson, Benjamin W. 2004. Indo-European Language and Culture. Page 342. and Phrygian anar ("man"), which may be compared to Latin Nero and neriōsus ("strict"), Albanian njeri, Persian nar, Sanskrit nara, and Welsh nerth.

In certain contexts, the aspirated stops are further reduced to w, h or zero in Armenian: Proto-Indo-European (accusative) *pódm̥ "foot" > Armenian ոտն otn vs. Greek (accusative) póda, Proto-Indo-European *tréyes "three" > Armenian երեք erekʿ vs. Greek treis.

class="wikitable"

|+PIE consonants in Armenian{{Cite book|title=A Grammatical Sketch Of Classical Armenian|last=Matasovic|first=Ranko|year=2009|location=Zagreb|pages=10–15}}^{[http://www.ffzg.hr/~rmatasov/ARMENIAN2.pdf [pdf]]}

!PIE

!→ Armenian

!Special developments and exceptions

|հ

|∅ (before օ); ⟨ւ⟩ (after vowel); ⟨փ⟩

|թ

|⟨տ⟩ (after sibilant); ⟨յ⟩ (between vowels);

⟨դ⟩ (after ⟨ր⟩); ∅ (before consonant);

⟨ւ⟩ (before ⟨ր⟩ and between back-vowels);

⟨ն⟩ (PIE *-nt → Arm. ն [n])

*ḱ

|ս

|⟨շ⟩ (PIE *ḱw → Arm. ⟨շ⟩); ⟨ւ⟩ (before ⟨ր⟩);

∅ (before consonant)

|ք

|⟨խ⟩ (PIE *kH → Arm. ⟨խ⟩);

⟨գ⟩ (PIE *[R]k → Arm. ⟨գ⟩);

⟨չ⟩ (PIE *ky → Arm. ⟨չ⟩)

*kʷ

|չ

|⟨խ, գ, ք⟩

|պ

|տ

|⟨[ր]կ⟩ (PIE *dw → Arm. ⟨[ր]կ⟩

*ǵ

|ծ

*g(ʷ)

|կ

|⟨ծ⟩

*bʰ

|բ

|⟨ւ⟩ (between vowels)

*dʰ

|դ

|⟨ջ⟩ (PIE *dʰy → Arm. ⟨ջ⟩)

*ǵʰ

|ձ

|⟨զ⟩

*gʰ

| rowspan="2" |գ

|⟨ջ⟩

*gʷʰ

|⟨ջ; ժ⟩

|հ

|⟨ս⟩ (after consonant or before obstruent); ∅; ⟨-ք⟩

*h₁

|∅

|⟨է-⟩

*h₂,

*h₃

|հ

|⟨ա-⟩; ∅

class="wikitable"

|+PIE vowels in Armenian

!PIE

!Armenian

!Special Developments

|⟨ա⟩

|⟨է⟩

|⟨ա⟩ (adjacent to *h₂);
⟨ի⟩ (before h₁ or nasals);
⟨օ⟩ (after *h₃);
⟨ու⟩ (before *h₃)

|⟨ի⟩

|⟨օ⟩

|⟨ու⟩

History

The origin of the Proto-Armenian language is subject to scholarly debate. The Armenian hypothesis would postulate the Armenian language as an in situ development of a 3rd millennium BC Proto-Indo-European language,{{cite book|last1=Gamkrelidze|first1=Tamaz V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M2aqp2n2mKkC&pg=RA1-PR4|title=Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture. Part I: The Text. Part II: Bibliography, Indexes|last2=Ivanov|first2=Vyacheslav|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=1995|isbn=978-3-11-081503-0|author-link1=Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze|author-link2=Vyacheslav Ivanov (philologist)}} while the Kurgan hypothesis suggests it arrived in the Armenian Highlands either from the Balkans or through the Caucasus. The arrival of such a population who spoke Proto-Armenian in the Armenian Highlands is assumed to have occurred sometime during the Bronze Age{{Cite book|last1=Mallory|first1=J. P.|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture|last2=Adams|first2=Douglas Q.|date=1997|publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn|isbn=978-1884964985|location=London|pages=30|oclc=37931209|quote=Armenian presence in their historical seats should then be sought at some time before c 600 BC; [...] Armenian phonology, for instance, appears to have been greatly affected by Urartian, which may suggest a long period of bilingualism.}}Robert Drews. Militarism and the Indo-Europeanizing of Europe. Routledge. 2017. p. 228.|quote="The vernacular of the Great Kingdom of Biainili was quite certainly Armenian. The Armenian language was obviously the region's vernacular in the fifth century BC, when Persian commanders and Greek writers paired it with Phrygian. That it as brought into the region between the early sixth and the early fifth century BC, and that it immediately obliterated whatever else had been spoken there, can hardly be supposed; [...] Because Proto-Armenian speakers seem to have lived not far from Hurrian speakers our conclusion must be that the Armenian language of Mesrop Mashtots was descended from an Indo-European language that had been spoken in southern Caucasia in the Bronze Age." or at the latest, during the Bronze Age Collapse around 1200 BC, according to this theory.Greppin, John A.C. and Igor Diakonoff Some Effects of the Hurro-Urartian People and Their Languages upon the Earliest Armenians, Oct–Dec 1991, pp. 727.[https://archive.org/stream/SomeEffectsOfTheHurro_urartianPeopleAndTheirLanguagesUponTheEarliest/GreppinAndDiakonof1991someEffectsOfTheHurro-urartianPeopleAndTheirLanguagesUponThe_djvu.txt]

One of the theories about the emergence of Armenian in the region is that Paleo-Balkan-speaking settlers related to Phrygians (the Mushki or the retroactively named Armeno-Phrygians), who had already settled in the western parts of the region before the Kingdom of Van was established in Urartu,{{in lang|hy}} Katvalyan, M. and Karo Ghafadaryan. Ուրարտու [Urartu]. Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1986, vol. 12, pp. 276–283.{{cite book|last=Samuelian|first=Thomas J.|title=Armenian origins: an overview of ancient and modern sources and theories|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E6otAQAAIAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Iravunq Pub. House}}[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Asia/Armenia/_Texts/KURARM/Chronology*.html Uchicago.edu] had become the ruling elite under the Median Empire, followed by the Achaemenid Empire.{{cite book|last=Redgate|first=Anne Elizabeth|author-link=Elizabeth Redgate|title=The Armenians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e3nef10a3UcC|year=2000|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-631-22037-4}}, p. 50 The existence of Urartian words in the Armenian language and Armenian loanwords into UrartianPetrosyan, Armen. The Armenian Elements in the Language and Onomastics of Urartu. Aramazd: Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 2010. (https://www.academia.edu/2939663/The_Armenian_Elements_in_the_Language_and_Onomastics_of_Urartu) suggests early contact between the two languages and long periods of bilingualism.

According to the Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture:{{quote|The Armenians according to Diakonoff, are then an amalgam of the Hurrian (and Urartians), Luvians [Luwians] and the Proto-Armenian Mushki who carried their IE [Indo-European] language eastwards across Anatolia. After arriving in its historical territory, Proto-Armenian would appear to have undergone massive influence by the languages it eventually replaced. Armenian phonology, for instance, appears to have been greatly affected by Urartian, which may suggest a long period of bilingualism."Armenians" in {{Cite book|last=Adams|first=Douglas Q.|author-link=Douglas Q. Adams|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC|year=1997|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5}}}}

Findings in Armenian genetics from 2019 reveal heavy mixing of groups from the 3000s BC until the Bronze Age Collapse. Admixture signals seem to have decreased to insignificant levels after c. 1200 BC, after which Armenian DNA remained stable, which appears to have been caused by Armenians' isolation from their surroundings, and subsequently sustained by the cultural, linguistic and religious distinctiveness that persists until today.{{Cite journal|title=Genetic evidence for an origin of the Armenians from Bronze Age mixing of multiple populations {{!}} European Journal of Human Genetics|journal=European Journal of Human Genetics |date=2019-12-30|volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=931–936 |doi=10.1038/ejhg.2015.206 |last1=Haber |first1=Marc |last2=Mezzavilla |first2=Massimo |last3=Xue |first3=Yali |last4=Comas |first4=David |last5=Gasparini |first5=Paolo |last6=Zalloua |first6=Pierre |last7=Tyler-Smith |first7=Chris |pmid=26486470 |pmc=4820045 |s2cid=3331584 }} The connection between the Mushki and Armenians is unclear as nothing is known of the Mushki language. Most modern scholars have rejected a direct linguistic relationship with Proto-Armenian if the Mushki were Thracians or Phrygians.{{cite book|author=Vavroušek P.|title=Jazyky starého Orientu|date=2010|publisher=Univerzita Karlova v Praze|isbn=978-80-7308-312-0|location=Praha|pages=129|chapter=Frýžština}}{{cite book|author=J. P. Mallory, Douglas Q. Adams.|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture|date=1997|publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers|isbn=9781884964985|location=London|pages=419}}{{cite book|author=Brixhe C.|title=The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor|date=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|pages=72|chapter=Phrygian}}Kim Ronald I. [https://www.academia.edu/37844906 Greco-Armenian. The persistence of a myth] // Indogermanische Forschungen. — 2018. — 123. Band. — S. 247–271. Additionally, recent findings in genetic research does not support significant admixture into the Armenian nation after 1200 BC, making the Mushki, if they indeed migrated from a Balkan or western Anatolian homeland during or after the Bronze Age Collapse, unlikely candidates for the Proto-Armenians.{{cite journal|last1=Haber|first1=Marc|last2=Mezzavilla|first2=Massimo|last3=Xue|first3=Yali|last4=Comas|first4=David|last5=Gasparini|first5=Paolo|last6=Zalloua|first6=Pierre|last7=Tyler-Smith|first7=Chris|year=2015|title=Genetic evidence for an origin of the Armenians from Bronze Age mixing of multiple populations|journal=European Journal of Human Genetics|volume=24|issue=6|pages=931–6|biorxiv=10.1101/015396|doi=10.1038/ejhg.2015.206|pmc=4820045|pmid=26486470}}{{Cite news|last1=Wade|first1=Nicholas|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/11/science/study-backs-5th-century-historians-date-for-founding-of-armenia.html?_r=0|title=Date of Armenia's Birth, Given in 5th Century, Gains Credence|date=2015-03-10|newspaper=The New York Times}}

However, as others have placed (at least the Eastern) Mushki homeland in the Armenian Highlands and South Caucasus region, it is possible that at least some of the Mushki were Armenian-speakers or speakers of a closely related language.[http://smea.isma.cnr.it/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Kossian_The-Mushki-problem-Reconsidered.pdf%7Clast=Kossian%7Cfirst=Aram The Mushki Problem Reconsidered] Some modern studies show that Armenian is as close to Indo-Iranian as it is to Greek and Phrygian.{{cite book|author=Clackson, James P.T.|title=The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor|date=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|pages=124|chapter=Classical Armenian}}

An alternate theory suggests that speakers of Proto-Armenian were tribes indigenous to the northern Armenian highlands, such as the Hayasans, Diauehi or Etiuni. Although these groups are only known from references left by neighboring peoples (such as Hittites, Urartians, and Assyrians), Armenian etymologies have been proposed for their names.{{cite book|author1=Armen Petrosyan|url=https://www.academia.edu/3657764|title=The Problem Of Identification Of The Proto-Armenians: A Critical Review|date=January 1, 2007|publisher=Society For Armenian Studies|pages=46, 49|access-date=23 November 2018}} While the Urartian language was used by the royal elite, the population they ruled was likely multi-lingual, and some of these peoples would have spoken Armenian. This can be reconciled with the Phrygian/Mushki theory if those groups originally came from the Caucasus region or Armenian Highlands.

Recent genetic research has found Proto-Indo-European-speaking tribes migrated from north to south across the Caucasus during the third millennium BCE; it is speculated that their dialect may have been Proto-Armenian.Lazaridis, Iosif; et al. (26 August 2022). "A genetic probe into the ancient and medieval history of Southern Europe and West Asia". Science. 377 (6609): 940–951. Bibcode:2022Sci...377..940L. doi:10.1126/science.abq0755. PMC 10019558. PMID 36007020. They can perhaps be linked to the Trialeti–Vanadzor culture.Sandra Scham. An Archaeology of Persecuted Peoples: Religion and Hate in the Mountains of Asia. Routledge. 2025. "Later in the Bronze Age (2200-1600 BCE), the Trialeti-Vanadzor culture arose in Armenia. This may have been the first Indo-European culture and possibly the origin of what would become Armenian culture."

This new research has also suggested that Armenian, along with Greek and Albanian, are connected to the Yamnaya culture of the Pontic–Caspian steppe and Caucasus, whereas all other existent branches of Indo-European were mediated through the Corded Ware culture.{{cite journal |last1=Lazaridis |first1=Iosif |last2=Alpaslan-Roodenberg |first2=Songül |last3=Acar |first3=Ayşe |last4=Açıkkol |first4=Ayşen |last5=Agelarakis |first5=Anagnostis |last6=Aghikyan |first6=Levon |last7=Akyüz |first7=Uğur |last8=Andreeva |first8=Desislava |last9=Andrijašević |first9=Gojko |last10=Antonović |first10=Dragana |last11=Armit |first11=Ian |last12=Atmaca |first12=Alper |last13=Avetisyan |first13=Pavel |last14=Aytek |first14=Ahmet İhsan |last15=Bacvarov |first15=Krum |last16=Badalyan |first16=Ruben |last17=Bakardzhiev |first17=Stefan |last18=Balen |first18=Jacqueline |last19=Bejko |first19=Lorenc |last20=Bernardos |first20=Rebecca |last21=Bertsatos |first21=Andreas |last22=Biber |first22=Hanifi |last23=Bilir |first23=Ahmet |last24=Bodružić |first24=Mario |last25=Bonogofsky |first25=Michelle |last26=Bonsall |first26=Clive |last27=Borić |first27=Dušan |last28=Borovinić |first28=Nikola |last29=Bravo Morante |first29=Guillermo |last30=Buttinger |first30=Katharina |last31=Callan |first31=Kim |last32=Candilio |first32=Francesca |last33=Carić |first33=Mario |last34=Cheronet |first34=Olivia |last35=Chohadzhiev |first35=Stefan |last36=Chovalopoulou |first36=Maria-Eleni |last37=Chryssoulaki |first37=Stella |last38=Ciobanu |first38=Ion |last39=Čondić |first39=Natalija |last40=Constantinescu |first40=Mihai |last41=Cristiani |first41=Emanuela |last42=Culleton |first42=Brendan J. |last43=Curtis |first43=Elizabeth |last44=Davis |first44=Jack |last45=Davtyan |first45=Ruben |last46=Demcenco |first46=Tatiana I. |last47=Dergachev |first47=Valentin |last48=Derin |first48=Zafer |last49=Deskaj |first49=Sylvia |last50=Devejyan |first50=Seda |last51=Djordjević |first51=Vojislav |last52=Duffett Carlson |first52=Kellie Sara |last53=Eccles |first53=Laurie R. |last54=Elenski |first54=Nedko |last55=Engin |first55=Atilla |last56=Erdoğan |first56=Nihat |last57=Erir-Pazarcı |first57=Sabiha |last58=Fernandes |first58=Daniel M. |last59=Ferry |first59=Matthew |last60=Freilich |first60=Suzanne |last61=Frînculeasa |first61=Alin |last62=Galaty |first62=Michael L. |last63=Gamarra |first63=Beatriz |last64=Gasparyan |first64=Boris |last65=Gaydarska |first65=Bisserka |last66=Genç |first66=Elif |last67=Gültekin |first67=Timur |last68=Gündüz |first68=Serkan |last69=Hajdu |first69=Tamás |last70=Heyd |first70=Volker |last71=Hobosyan |first71=Suren |last72=Hovhannisyan |first72=Nelli |last73=Iliev |first73=Iliya |last74=Iliev |first74=Lora |last75=Iliev |first75=Stanislav |last76=İvgin |first76=İlkay |last77=Janković |first77=Ivor |last78=Jovanova |first78=Lence |last79=Karkanas |first79=Panagiotis |last80=Kavaz-Kındığılı |first80=Berna |last81=Kaya |first81=Esra Hilal |last82=Keating |first82=Denise |last83=Kennett |first83=Douglas J. |last84=Deniz Kesici |first84=Seda |last85=Khudaverdyan |first85=Anahit |last86=Kiss |first86=Krisztián |last87=Kılıç |first87=Sinan |last88=Klostermann |first88=Paul |last89=Kostak Boca Negra Valdes |first89=Sinem |last90=Kovačević |first90=Saša |last91=Krenz-Niedbała |first91=Marta |last92=Krznarić Škrivanko |first92=Maja |last93=Kurti |first93=Rovena |last94=Kuzman |first94=Pasko |last95=Lawson |first95=Ann Marie |last96=Lazar |first96=Catalin |last97=Leshtakov |first97=Krassimir |last98=Levy |first98=Thomas E. |last99=Liritzis |first99=Ioannis |display-authors=1 |last100=Lorentz |first100=Kirsi O. |last101=Łukasik |first101=Sylwia |last102=Mah |first102=Matthew |last103=Mallick |first103=Swapan |last104=Mandl |first104=Kirsten |last105=Martirosyan-Olshansky |first105=Kristine |last106=Matthews |first106=Roger |last107=Matthews |first107=Wendy |last108=McSweeney |first108=Kathleen |last109=Melikyan |first109=Varduhi |last110=Micco |first110=Adam |last111=Michel |first111=Megan |last112=Milašinović |first112=Lidija |last113=Mittnik |first113=Alissa |last114=Monge |first114=Janet M. |last115=Nekhrizov |first115=Georgi |last116=Nicholls |first116=Rebecca |last117=Nikitin |first117=Alexey G. |last118=Nikolov |first118=Vassil |last119=Novak |first119=Mario |last120=Olalde |first120=Iñigo |last121=Oppenheimer |first121=Jonas |last122=Osterholtz |first122=Anna |last123=Özdemir |first123=Celal |last124=Özdoğan |first124=Kadir Toykan |last125=Öztürk |first125=Nurettin |last126=Papadimitriou |first126=Nikos |last127=Papakonstantinou |first127=Niki |last128=Papathanasiou |first128=Anastasia |last129=Paraman |first129=Lujana |last130=Paskary |first130=Evgeny G. |last131=Patterson |first131=Nick |last132=Petrakiev |first132=Ilian |last133=Petrosyan |first133=Levon |last134=Petrova |first134=Vanya |last135=Philippa-Touchais |first135=Anna |last136=Piliposyan |first136=Ashot |last137=Pocuca Kuzman |first137=Nada |last138=Potrebica |first138=Hrvoje |last139=Preda-Bălănică |first139=Bianca |last140=Premužić |first140=Zrinka |last141=Price |first141=T. Douglas |last142=Qiu |first142=Lijun |last143=Radović |first143=Siniša |last144=Raeuf Aziz |first144=Kamal |last145=Rajić Šikanjić |first145=Petra |last146=Rasheed Raheem |first146=Kamal |last147=Razumov |first147=Sergei |last148=Richardson |first148=Amy |last149=Roodenberg |first149=Jacob |last150=Ruka |first150=Rudenc |last151=Russeva |first151=Victoria |last152=Şahin |first152=Mustafa |last153=Şarbak |first153=Ayşegül |last154=Savaş |first154=Emre |last155=Schattke |first155=Constanze |last156=Schepartz |first156=Lynne |last157=Selçuk |first157=Tayfun |last158=Sevim-Erol |first158=Ayla |last159=Shamoon-Pour |first159=Michel |last160=Shephard |first160=Henry M. |last161=Sideris |first161=Athanasios |last162=Simalcsik |first162=Angela |last163=Simonyan |first163=Hakob |last164=Sinika |first164=Vitalij |last165=Sirak |first165=Kendra |last166=Sirbu |first166=Ghenadie |last167=Šlaus |first167=Mario |last168=Soficaru |first168=Andrei |last169=Söğüt |first169=Bilal |last170=Sołtysiak |first170=Arkadiusz |last171=Sönmez-Sözer |first171=Çilem |last172=Stathi |first172=Maria |last173=Steskal |first173=Martin |last174=Stewardson |first174=Kristin |last175=Stocker |first175=Sharon |last176=Suata-Alpaslan |first176=Fadime |last177=Suvorov |first177=Alexander |last178=Szécsényi-Nagy |first178=Anna |last179=Szeniczey |first179=Tamás |last180=Telnov |first180=Nikolai |last181=Temov |first181=Strahil |last182=Todorova |first182=Nadezhda |last183=Tota |first183=Ulsi |last184=Touchais |first184=Gilles |last185=Triantaphyllou |first185=Sevi |last186=Türker |first186=Atila |last187=Ugarković |first187=Marina |last188=Valchev |first188=Todor |last189=Veljanovska |first189=Fanica |last190=Videvski |first190=Zlatko |last191=Virag |first191=Cristian |last192=Wagner |first192=Anna |last193=Walsh |first193=Sam |last194=Włodarczak |first194=Piotr |last195=Workman |first195=J. Noah |last196=Yardumian |first196=Aram |last197=Yarovoy |first197=Evgenii |last198=Yavuz |first198=Alper Yener |last199=Yılmaz |first199=Hakan |last200=Zalzala |first200=Fatma |last201=Zettl |first201=Anna |last202=Zhang |first202=Zhao |last203=Çavuşoğlu |first203=Rafet |last204=Rohland |first204=Nadin |last205=Pinhasi |first205=Ron |last206=Reich |first206=David |title=A genetic probe into the ancient and medieval history of Southern Europe and West Asia |journal=Science |date=26 August 2022 |volume=377 |issue=6609 |pages=940–951 |doi=10.1126/science.abq0755 |pmid=36007020 |pmc=10019558 |bibcode=2022Sci...377..940L }}

References

Sources

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{{cite journal|last1=Barton|first1=Charles R.|title=The Etymology of Armenian ert'am|journal=Language|date=October 1963|volume=39|issue=4|pages=620|doi=10.2307/411956|jstor=411956}}
{{cite journal|last1=Bonfante|first1=G.|title=The Armenian Aorist|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|date=June 1942|volume=62|issue=2|pages=102–105|doi=10.2307/594462|jstor=594462}}
{{cite journal|last1=Diakonoff|first1=Igor|title=First evidence of the Proto-Armenian language in Eastern Anatolia|journal=Annual of Armenian Linguistics|date=1992|volume=13|pages=51–54}}
{{cite journal|last1=Diakonoff|first1=I. M.|title=Hurro-Urartian Borrowings in Old Armenian|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|date=October 1985|volume=105|issue=4|pages=597–603|doi=10.2307/602722|jstor=602722|s2cid=163807245 }}
{{cite journal|last1=Greppin|first1=John A. C.|last2=Diakonoff|first2=I. M.|title=Some Effects of the Hurro-Urartian People and Their Languages upon the Earliest Armenians|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|date=October 1991|volume=111|issue=4|pages=720|doi=10.2307/603403|jstor=603403}}
{{cite book|last=Meillet|first=Antoine|author-link=Antoine Meillet|title=Esquisse d'une grammaire comparée de l'arménien classique|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ICFgAAAAMAAJ|year=1903|publisher=Impr. des PP. mékhitharistes}}
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{{cite journal|last1=Kerns|first1=J. Alexander|last2=Schwartz|first2=Benjamin I.|title=On the Placing of Armenian|journal=Language|date=July 1942|volume=18|issue=3|pages=226–228|doi=10.2307/409558|jstor=409558}}
K. H. Schmidt, The Indo-European Basis of Proto-Armenian : Principles of Reconstruction, Annual of Armenian linguistics, Cleveland State University, 11, 33-47, 1990.
Werner Winter, Problems of Armenian Phonology I, Language 30, No. 2 (Apr., 1954), pp. 197–201
Werner Winter, Problems of Armenian Phonology II, Language 31, No. 1 (Jan., 1955), pp. 4–8
Werner Winter Problems of Armenian Phonology III, Language 38, No. 3, Part 1 (Jul., 1962), pp. 254–262

External links

[https://web.archive.org/web/20180514140029/http://www.public.iastate.edu/~cfford/Indoeuropean%20language%20family%20tree.jpg Indo-European family tree, showing Indo-European languages and sub branches]
[https://web.archive.org/web/20080227020636/http://www.history.upenn.edu/coursepages/hist086/material/indoeuropeanlanguagemigation.jpg Image of Indo-European migrations from the Armenian Highlands]

Armenian

Category:Armenian languages

Category:Languages of ancient Anatolia