Proto-Kra language

Ostapirat (2000) provided preliminary phonological reconstructions for several lower-level groupings before attempting a reconstruction of Proto-Kra.

• Proto-Kra
• Proto-South-Western Kra
• Proto-Western Kra (Gelao, Lachi)
• Proto-Southern Kra (Laha)
• Proto-Central-East Kra
• Proto-Central Kra (Paha)
• Proto-Eastern Kra (Buyang, Qabiao)

Proto-Kra has a total of 32 consonants, seven of which (marked in green) can occur as syllable finals (Ostapirat 2000:224, 236).

Marc Miyake (2008,Miyake, Marc. 2008. [http://www.amritas.com/080809.htm Did Proto-Kra have retroflex initials?] (Parts [http://www.amritas.com/080726.htm#07262239 1], [http://www.amritas.com/080802.htm 2–6], [http://www.amritas.com/080809.htm 7–9], [http://www.amritas.com/080816.htm#08102020 10], [http://www.amritas.com/080816.htm#08140207 11]) 2021{{cite book | last=Miyake | first=Marc | chapter=Chapter 9: Retroflexion or Disyllabism? A Kra Puzzle | publisher=Brill | date=2021-05-20 | url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004448568/BP000020.xml | access-date=2023-01-19 | pages=115–136 | editor-last=Kupchik | editor-first=John | editor-last2=Alonso de la Fuente | editor-first2=José Andrés | editor-last3=Miyake | editor-first3=Marc Hideo | editor-last4=Vovin | editor-first4=Alexander | title=Studies in Asian historical linguistics, philology and beyond: festschrift presented to Alexander V. Vovin in honor of his 60th birthday | publication-place=Leiden | isbn=978-90-04-44856-8 | oclc=1250436437 }}) proposes alternative reconstructions for Ostapirat's (2000) Proto-Kra retroflex consonants, suggesting that many of them were actually non-retroflexes that had been influenced by pre-syllables, in particular with alveolar consonants leniting in intervocalic position. In synchronic Kra languages, reflexes are often attested as voiced fricatives, which Miyake (2021) does not believe to have developed from historical initial retroflex consonants. Some examples of Miyake's (2008) revised Proto-Kra reconstructions are provided below.

• *tsəm 'one' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *tʂəm^C)
• *tsun 'teach' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *tʂun^A)
• *N-tsu 'pillar' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *m-tʂu^A)
• *nok 'bird' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ɳok^D)
• *nui 'snow' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ɳui^A)
• *nəl 'fat' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *(m-)ɳəl^A)
• *CV-nəŋh 'salty' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ʔ-ɳəŋ^B)
• *na 'thick' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *C-na^A)
• *nak 'give' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *nak^D)
• *klep 'fingernail' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ʈ-lep^D)
• *(k/tV-)loŋ 'vegetable' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ɖ-loŋ^A)

Miyake (2021) reconstructs some disyllabic lexical forms for Proto-Kra, including *mata^A 'eye', *manok^D 'bird', and *kVtu^A1 'louse'.

Additionally, Miyake (2008) revises Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *pwl- as *CV-pl-, *bwl- as *CV-bl-, *m-pl- as *pl-, *(p/d/k)-l- as *(p/d/k)V-l-, *ʈ-l- as k-l-, and *ɖ-l- as *(k/tV)-l-. Proto-Kra consonants in Miyake (2021) as compared to Ostapirat (2000) are:

Proto-Kra has a total of 6 vowels (Ostapirat 2000:235).

Proto-Kra has 4 diphthongs, which are not found in closed syllables.

• {{IPA|*-ai}}
• {{IPA|*-aɯ}}
• {{IPA|*-ui}}
• {{IPA|*-au}}

Proto-Kra had an A–B–C–D tonal system typical of other Tai–Kadai languages (see Proto-Tai language#Tones). The tonal descriptions below are from Ostapirat (2000:237).

1. *A: *A is one of the most common tones.
2. *B: *B and *D are phonetically similar, as reflexes of tone *D are often the same as those of *B. This regularly occurs in all Kra languages except for Qabiao.
3. *C: *C is usually accompanied by glottal constriction and may have originally had a creaky or tense laryngeal quality. Some Gelao varieties and Yalang Buyang display the same reflex for *B and *C.
4. *D: *D is the only tone to occur exclusively in closed syllables.

The following table of phonetic characteristics of Proto-Kra tones was adapted from Ostapirat (2000:237).

Below are reconstructed Proto-Kra forms from Ostapirat (2000).

{{refbegin|20em}}

;Body parts and bodily functions

• *tai^C 'armpit (1)'
• *lje^A 'armpit (2)'
• *mum^C 'beard'
• *hmok^D 'belly'
• *plat^D 'blood (1)'
• *kɣa^C 'blood (2)'
• *plaɯ^C 'boil (n.)'
• *dək^D 'bone'
• *m-la^B 'cheek/face'
• *tək^D 'chest'
• *kaŋ^C 'chin'
• *k-ra^A 'ear'
• *kai^C 'excrement (1)'
• *ʔik^D 'excrement (2)'
• *m-ʈa^A 'eye'
• *C-tot^D 'fart'
• *ʈ-lep^D 'fingernail'
• *kok^D 'foot'
• *C-dəŋ^A 'forehead'
• *m-di^A 'gall bladder'
• *mot^D 'hair'
• *m-səm^A 'hair (head)'
• *mja^A 'hand'
• *krai^B 'head'
• *hlul^C 'heart'
• *C-si^C 'intestine'
• *C-ku^B 'knee'
• *C-ka^A 'leg'
• *təp^D 'liver'
• *ʔaɯ^C 'meat'
• *ŋuŋ^A 'mouth (1)'
• *mul^B 'mouth (2)'
• *m-ɖaɯ^A 'navel'
• *C-jo^A 'neck'
• *hŋət^D 'nose (1)'
• *teŋ^C 'nose (2)'
• *hŋwu^B 'pus'
• *t-ru^B 'saliva'
• *m-ba^B 'shoulder'
• *kwau^B 'skin (1)'
• *ta^A 'skin (2)'
• *boŋ^A 'skin (3)'
• *hloŋ^A 'stomach'
• *ʒa^C 'tear (n.)'
• *ɣwjən^A 'tendon (1)'
• *ŋen^A 'tendon (2)'
• *t-roŋ^A 'throat (1)'
• *kɣe^A 'throat (2)'
• *l-ma^A 'tongue'
• *l-pən^A 'tooth (1)'
• *C-tʃuŋ^A 'tooth (2)'
• *t-lu^C 'waist'

;Animals

• *mot^D 'ant'
• *C-me^A 'bear'
• *re^A 'bee'
• *ɳok^D 'bird'
• *kwai^A 'buffalo'
• *ku^C 'cat (wild)'
• *ki^A 'chicken'
• *ni^A 'cow'
• *d-rat^D 'crab'
• *ʔak^D 'crow (n.)'
• *dit^D 'deer'
• *x-ma^A 'dog'
• *blaɯ^A 'duck (1)'
• *kap^D 'duck (2)'
• *ʈəm^A 'egg'
• *p-la^A 'fish'
• *x-mət^D 'flea'
• *me^C 'goat'
• *d-laŋ^C 'hawk'
• *C-ku^A 'horn'
• *ŋja^C 'horse'
• *C-ʈu^A 'louse (head)'
• *m-drəl^A 'louse (body)'
• *kʒət^D 'maggot'
• *tai^C 'monkey (1)'
• *krok^D 'monkey (2)'
• *m-lu^A 'monkey (gibbon)'
• *dʒaŋ^A 'mosquito'
• *x-mu^A 'pig'
• *hlai^C 'rat'
• *tʃui^A 'shellfish'
• *C-tʃot^D 'tail'
• *ŋa^A 'snake'
• *(k-)di^A 'tiger'
• *gwja^A 'wing'

;Plants

• *tok^D 'banana'
• *m-te^C 'beans'
• *m-pwa^B 'bran'
• *ka^A 'cogon grass'
• *m-tiŋ^A 'cucumber'
• *C-kən^A 'ear of grain'
• *hŋa^C 'flower (1)'
• *bal^A 'flower (2)'
• *C-mak^D 'fruit'
• *C-sui^B 'garlic (1)'
• *kɣa^A 'garlic (2)'
• *kɣiŋ^A 'ginger'
• *t-laɯ^A 'grass/tobacco'
• *ɖiŋ^A 'leaf'
• *l-ka^A 'mushroom'
• *ca^A 'paddy (grain)'
• *m-pləŋ^A 'peach'
• *mla(ɯ)^C 'rice (cooked)'
• *sal^A 'rice (husked)'
• *kʒaŋ^A 'rice'
• *tsaŋ^A 'root'
• *pe^A 'seed'
• *l-ŋa^A 'sesame'
• *ʒaŋ^A 'sorghum'
• *p-ɣak^D 'taro (1)'
• *rwau^C 'taro (2)'
• *ŋjan^C 'thorn'
• *ti^A 'tree'
• *ɖ-loŋ^A 'vegetable (1)'
• *ʔop^D 'vegetable (2)'
• *məl^A 'yam'

;Nature

• *m-tu^B1 'ash'
• *la^B 'coal'
• *muk^D 'cloud/fog'
• *lu^B 'earth'
• *ʔut^D 'earth (soil/mud)'
• *na^A 'field (wet)'
• *za^C 'field (dry)'
• *pui^A 'fire'
• *sui^A 'firewood'
• *l-me^A 'frost'
• *tsep^D 'hail'
• *kjəl^C 'iron'
• *m-ɖjan^A 'moon (1)'
• *(C-)tjan^A 'moon (2)'
• *dʐu^A 'mountain'
• *mon^A 'rain'
• *jəl^A 'rain'
• *kron^A 'road'
• *t-la^B 'rock (1)'
• *ʔuŋ^A 'rock (2)'
• *p-ra^A 'rock (3)'
• *hŋai^A 'sand'
• *praɯ^B 'silver (1)'
• *ŋjən^A 'silver (2)'
• *m-kwən^A 'smoke'
• *ɳui^A 'snow'
• *d-luŋ^A 'star'
• *t-laŋ^A 'sunlight'
• *(l-)wən^A 'sun'
• *ʔuŋ^C 'water'
• *gwjən^A 'wind'

;Material culture

• *kwan^A 'ax'
• *da^A 'boat'
• *dzaɯ^B/C 'chopsticks'
• *C-ʃe^A 'comb'
• *trau^C 'den/nest'
• *x-ŋo^A 'door'
• *d-luŋ^A 'drum'
• *t-lop^D 'hat (bamboo)'
• *kran^A 'house'
• *kwli^A 'ladder (1)'
• *kɣuŋ^A 'ladder (2)'
• *plu^A 'liquor (1)'
• *C-ka^C 'liquor (2)'
• *t-laɯ^A 'medicine'
• *dru^A 'mortar'
• *ŋlot^D 'needle'
• *tsak^D 'pestle'
• *m-tʂu^A 'pillar'
• *hɲe^A 'pillow'
• *C-ʃak^D 'rope'
• *ɲo^A 'salt'
• *gwaŋ^A 'sieve'
• *ʔen^C 'skirt'
• *ʒun^B 'thread'
• *mɣai^A 'village'

;Kinship and pronouns

• *tai^A 'brother (elder)'
• *ʒaɯ^B 'brother (younger)'
• *lak^D 'child'
• *ba^A 'father'
• *pa^B1 'father'
• *m-li^B 'female-in-law'
• *klal^A 'grandchild'
• *m-pau^B 'grandfather'
• *ja^C 'grandmother'
• *ku^A 'I (1)'
• *ʔe^A 'I (2)'
• *C-paɯ^C 'male/husband'
• *se^A 'male/husband'
• *dʒu^C 'male-in-law'
• *mai^C 'mother'
• *n(ʒ)i^A 'name'
• *bɣuŋ^C 'orphan'
• *pi^C 'sister (elder)'
• *ʔon^C 'sister (younger)'
• *ŋun^A 'spirit'
• *r-maŋ^A 'spirit'
• *ʒan^A 'strength'
• *t-ɣu^A 'we'
• *ʔ-nau^A/C 'who'
• *mə^A/B 'you'

;Adjectives

• *kəm^A 'bitter'
• *hl/dəm^A 'black'
• *ʔaŋ^C 'bright'
• *ŋəl^C 'deaf'
• *(h)lək^D 'deep'
• *r-me^A 'drunk'
• *kʒa^B 'dry'
• *k-li^A 'far'
• *(m-)ɳəl^A 'fat'
• *m-tik^D 'full'
• *ʔai^A 'good'
• *kʒəl^A 'heavy'
• *piŋ^C 'hot'
• *dok^D 'itchy'
• *pren^A 'lazy'
• *kʒa^C 'light (not heavy)'
• *ri^C 'long'
• *ʔi^B 'many'
• *d-la^C 'near'
• *mal^A 'new'
• *ku^B 'old (1)'
• *kja^C/B 'old (2)'
• *(k-)ɖep^D 'raw'
• *ŋ(w)a^B 'real'
• *hŋwu^B 'ripe'
• *roŋ^B 'rotten'
• *ʔ-ɳəŋ^B 'salty'
• *tʃi^B 'satiated'
• *ɖjel^C/B 'shallow'
• *hɲan^C 'short (not long 1)'
• *ti^C 'short (not long 2)'
• *ta^B/C 'short (not tall)'
• *gjaɯ^C 'skinny'
• *bwlat^D 'sour'
• *ʔet^D 'small'
• *mu^B 'smelly'
• *tjel^C 'sweet'
• *k-ɣwaŋ^A 'tall'
• *C-na^A 'thick'
• *ɣwə^C 'thin'
• *tu^C 'warm (1)'
• *ʔun^B 'warm (2)'
• *rək^D 'wet'
• *r-ʔuk^D 'white'
• *C-ŋil^C 'yellow'

;Verbs

• *p-la^A 'afraid'
• *pluŋ^C 'alive'
• *tsi^C 'ask'
• *m-plau^B 'bark (v.)'
• *ʔap^D 'bathe'
• *ʈai^B 'bite'
• *rəm^C 'bite'
• *tsol^A 'buy'
• *pa^C 'carry on back (1)'
• *m-blik^D 'carry on back (2)'
• *s-le^B 'choose'
• *kləp^D 'close eye (1)'
• *nəp^D 'close eye (2)'
• *(C-)ma^A 'come'
• *m-duŋ^A 'come (return)'
• *ɖəŋ^A 'crow (v.)'
• *te^C 'cut (1)'
• *hrən^C 'cut (2)'
• *caɯ^C 'descend (1)'
• *d-loŋ^A 'descend (2)'
• *pɣon^A 'die'
• *du^A 'do'
• *l-pən^A 'dream'
• *hrom^C 'drink'
• *m-ʈak^D 'dry in sun'
• *kan^A 'eat'
• *tok^D 'fall'
• *t-lui^A 'flow'
• *dəp^D 'forget'
• *nak^D 'give'
• *pwən^B 'get (1)'
• *m-to^B 'get (2)'
• *ɣwa^C 'go'
• *kəm^C 'hatch'
• *ʔən^A 'have'
• *dʒək^D 'hear'
• *kom^A 'hold in mouth (1)'
• *ʔom^A 'hold in mouth (2)'
• *p-ɣon^A 'kill'
• *so^A 'know'
• *k-so^A 'laugh'
• *lim^C 'lick'
• *(h)ŋwai^A/B 'love'
• *təm^C 'plant (v.)'
• *bet^D 'pluck'
• *(ʔ)jəŋ^A/C 'rest'
• *ʔi^B 'scold (1)'
• *kən^C 'scold (2)'
• *hɲan^B 'scold (3)'
• *kai^A 'see'
• *ti^C 'see (look)'
• *s-ɣwi^A 'sell'
• *səl^B 'shake/shiver'
• *d-ri^C 'sick'
• *ŋu^B 'sleep (1)'
• *ʔu^B 'sleep (2)'
• *mu^B 'smell'
• *pɣa^B 'split (1)'
• *de^B 'split (2)'
• *lum^C 'steal'
• *tsu^C 'steam (v.)'
• *d-lwal C/A 'swallow (v.)'
• *klut^D 'take off'
• *tʂun^A 'teach'
• *hŋa(ɯ)^A 'wait'
• *C-pwi^A 'walk'
• *le^C 'wear'
• *ɲit^D 'weep'

;Space, time, and deictics

• *lju^A 'above'
• *lon^A 'back/behind'
• *dəŋ^C 'back/behind'
• *kun^A 'before/front'
• *ɲun^B/C 'below'
• *(h)wən^A 'day'
• *t-luŋ^C 'inside'
• *mjaŋ^B 'left'
• *m-ɖjan^A 'month'
• *ri^C 'outside'
• *(x-)mit^D 'right'
• *ʔ-ɲa^C/B 'that'
• *ʔ-ni^C/B 'this'
• *m-(p)ɣiŋ^A 'year'

;Numerals

• *tʂəm^C 'one'
• *sa^A 'two'
• *tu^A 'three'
• *pə^A 'four'
• *r-ma^A 'five'
• *x-nəm^A 'six'
• *t-ru^A 'seven'
• *m-ru^A 'eight'
• *s-ɣwa^B 'nine'
• *pwlot^D 'ten'
• *kjən^A 'hundred'

{{refend}}

{{Reflist}}

{{div col|colwidth=30em}}

• Chen, Y.-L. (2018). Proto-Ong-Be. Doctoral dissertation, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.
• Hsiu, Andrew. 2017. [https://sites.google.com/site/msealangs/home/blog/kra Potential loanwords in Kra].
• Miyake, Marc. 2018. [http://www.amritas.com/180512.htm#05112359 Chu and Kra-Dai].
• Miyake, Marc. 2013. The other Kra-Dai numerals (Parts [http://www.amritas.com/131005.htm#10052320 1], [http://www.amritas.com/131012.htm#10062359 2]).
• Miyake, Marc. 2013. [http://www.amritas.com/131005.htm#10022350 Proto-Kra 'seven'].
• Miyake, Marc. 2013. [http://www.amritas.com/130928.htm#09282306 Retroflexion or lenition?: Kra-Dai 'eye'].
• Miyake, Marc. 2013. [http://www.amritas.com/131012.htm#10122349 Thurgood's "Tai-Kadai and Austronesian: the nature of the historical relationship" (1994)].
• Miyake, Marc. 2012. [http://www.amritas.com/120908.htm#09022359 t for *p in Vietnamese].
• Miyake, Marc. 2011. [http://www.amritas.com/111008.htm#10052345 Dating Proto-Kra-Dai: the clue of the old chicken].
• Miyake, Marc. 2008. [http://www.amritas.com/080809.htm Did Proto-Kra have retroflex initials?] (Parts [http://www.amritas.com/080726.htm#07262239 1], [http://www.amritas.com/080802.htm 2–6], [http://www.amritas.com/080809.htm 7–9], [http://www.amritas.com/080816.htm#08102020 10], [http://www.amritas.com/080816.htm#08140207 11])
• Miyake, Marc. 2008. [http://www.amritas.com/080726.htm#07250325 Correspondences between Proto-Kra and Proto-Tai implosives].
• Miyake, Marc. 2008. [http://www.amritas.com/080412.htm#04081536 From presyllables to Proto-Kra clusters?]
• Miyake, Marc. 2008. [http://www.amritas.com/080412.htm#08112355 Proto-Kra presyllables and clusters with labial stops]
• Miyake, Marc. 2008. [http://www.amritas.com/080816.htm#08122359 Were Kra words for 'chopsticks' borrowed from Chinese?]
• Miyake, Marc. 2008. [http://www.amritas.com/080301.htm#02280321 布央 Cloth center consonants].
• Miyake, Marc. 2008. [http://www.amritas.com/111008.htm#10042054 Limited knowledge only gets you *so far].
• Miyake, Marc. 2008. [http://www.amritas.com/111008.htm#10032205 What's *so funny about knowledge?]
• Ostapirat, Weera. 2000. "[http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/weera2000proto.pdf Proto-Kra]." Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 23 (1): 1–251.
• Ostapirat, Weera. (2009). [https://www.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/JLC/article/view/20210 Proto-Tai and Kra-Dai Finals *-l and *-c]. Journal of Language and Culture, 28(2), 41–56.
• Ostapirat, Weera. (2013). [https://brill.com/view/journals/bcl/7/1/article-p189_6.xml The Rime System of Proto-Tai]. Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics, 7(1), 189–227.
• Pittayaporn, Pittayawat. (2009). [https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/13855/Pittayaporn,%20Pittayawat.pdf The Phonology of Proto-Tai (Doctoral dissertation).] Cornell University.

{{div col end}}

• Proto-Austronesian language
• Proto-Hlai language
• Proto-Kam–Sui language
• Proto-Tai language
• Austro-Tai languages

{{wiktionarycat}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20130426145447/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=690 ABVD: Proto-Kra word list]
• [https://abvd.shh.mpg.de/austronesian/classification.php?node=Tai-Kadai ABVD: word lists of Kra-Dai languages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031135614/https://abvd.shh.mpg.de/austronesian/classification.php?node=Tai-Kadai |date=2020-10-31 }}

{{Tai-Kadai languages}}

Category:Kra languages

Kra