Proto-Niger–Congo language
{{POV|date=June 2024}}
{{Short description|Reconstructed ancestor of the Niger–Congo language family}}
{{Infobox proto-language
| name = Proto-Niger–Congo
| acceptance = hypothetical
| familycolor= Niger–Congo
| region = Africa
| era = ca. 9,000–8,000 BCE
| target = Niger–Congo languages
| child1 = Atlantic–Congo
| child2 = Proto-Mande
}}
Proto-Niger–Congo is the hypothetical reconstructed proto-language of the proposed Niger–Congo language family.
Validity
Unlike Nilo-Saharan, the Niger–Congo language phylum is accepted by mainstream linguists and Africanists. Atlantic–Congo (roughly, Niger–Congo but excluding the Mande, Kru, Siamou, Kordofanian, Dogon and Ijoid languages) is accepted by Glottolog 4.4.
Origin
{{see|Niger–Congo languages#Origin|Linguistic homeland#Niger–Congo|Haplogroup E-V38|Haplogroup E-M2|Bantu expansion}}
Blench (2006,{{Cite book|title=Archaeology, language, and the African past|last=Blench|first=Roger|publisher=AltaMira Press|year=2006|isbn=9780759104655}} 2016Blench, Roger. 2016. [https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/discussions/Can_we_visit_the_graves_of_the_first_Niger.pdf Can we visit the graves of the first Niger–Congo speakers?]. Paper presented for the 2nd International Congress "[https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/index.html Towards Proto-Niger–Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction]", Paris, 1-3 September, 2016.) proposes that Proto-Niger–Congo originated about 11,000–10,000 years before present in the western part of the "Green Sahara" of Africa (roughly the Sahel and southern Sahara), and that its dispersal can be correlated with the spread of the bow and arrow by migrating hunter-gatherers.
Phonology
=Tones=
Larry Hyman (2016) reconstructs two contrastive level tones for Proto-Niger–Congo, which are:{{cite journal|last1=Hyman|first1=Larry M.|title=On Reconstructing Tone in Proto-Niger–Congo|journal=UC Berkeley Phonology Lab Annual Reports|volume=12|year=2016|issn=2768-5047|doi=10.5070/P7121040722|doi-access=free}}Hyman, Larry. 2016. [https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/presentations/Hyman%20Paris%20Niger-Congo%20HO2.pdf Can we visit the graves of the first Niger-Congo speakers?]. Paper presented for the 2nd International Congress "[https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/index.html On Reconstructing Tone in Proto-Niger-Congo]", Paris, 1-3 September, 2016.
- *H (high tone)
- *L (low tone)
=Syllabic structure=
Proto-Niger–Congo is traditionally assumed to have had a disyllabic root structure similar to that of Proto-Bantu, namely (C)V-CVCV (Williamson 2000,Williamson, Kay. 2000. Proto-Niger-Congo. In: H. Ekkehard Wolff, Orin D. Gensler (eds). Proceedings of the 2nd World Congress of African Linguistics, Leipzig 1997, pp.49-70. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe. ISBN 9783896451248. etc.). However, Roger Blench (2016) proposes a trisyllabic (CVCVCV) syllabic structure for Proto-Niger–Congo roots,Blench, Roger. 2016. [https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/presentations/Blench-NC%20three%20consonant%20roots.pdf Supposing we have been completely wrong about the shape of early Niger-Congo roots?]. Paper presented for the 2nd International Congress "[https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/index.html Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction]", Paris, 1-3 September, 2016. while Konstantin Pozdniakov (2016) suggests that the main prototypical structure of Proto-Niger–Congo roots is *CVC, along with disyllabic, trisyllabic, and other variations.Pozdniakov, Konstantin. 2016. [https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/presentations/pozdniakov-word_structure.pptx Proto-Niger-Congo root structures]. Paper presented for the 2nd International Congress "[https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/index.html On Reconstructing Tone in Proto-Niger-Congo]", Paris, 1-3 September, 2016.
Morphology
=Noun classes=
Noun classes can be reconstructed for Proto-Atlantic–Congo, and these are sometimes assumed to be Proto-Niger–Congo. Noun class prefixes in Proto-Atlantic–Congo include:
- noun class 1: prefix for human singular
- noun class 2: prefix for human plural
- noun class 6A: prefix for liquid and mass nouns ("uncountables")
Below are some Niger–Congo noun class markers (Good 2020:145,Good, Jeff. 2020. Niger-Congo, with a special focus on Benue-Congo. In: Vossen, Rainer and Gerrit J. Dimmendaal (eds.). 2020. The Oxford Handbook of African Languages, pp. 139-160. Oxford: Oxford University Press. from Schadeberg 1989:72Schadeberg, Thilo C. (1989). ‘Kordofanian’, in J. Bendor-Samuel (ed.). The Niger-Congo Languages: A classification and description of Africa's largest language family, 66-80. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.):
| class="wikitable sortable"
! Branch !! 1 !! 1 (semantic category) !! 3 !! 4 !! 4 (semantic category)!! 5 !! 6 !! 6 (semantic categories) !! 6a !! 6a (semantic category) | ||||||||||
| Kordofanian | *gu- | humans | *gu- | *j- | ‘tree’ | *li- | *ŋu- | ‘egg’ | *ŋ- | liquids |
| Atlantic | *gu- | humans | *gʊ- | *Ci- | ‘trees’ | *de- | *ga- | ‘head, name’ | *ma- | liquids |
| Oti–Volta (Gur) | *-ʊ | humans | *-bʊ | *-Ci | ‘tree’ | *-ɖɪ | *-a | ‘egg, head’ | *-ma | liquids |
| Ghana–Togo (Kwa) | *o- | humans | *o- | *i- | ‘firewood’ | *li- | *a- | ‘egg, head, name’ | *N- | liquids |
| Benue–Congo | *u- | humans | *u- | *(t)i- | ‘tree’ | *li- | *a- | ‘egg, head, name’ | *ma- | liquids |
| Bantu (noun) | *mu- | humans | *mu- | *mi- | ‘tree’ | *i̧- | *ma- | ‘egg, name’ | *ma- | liquids |
| Bantu (pronoun) | *ju- | *gu- | *gi- | *di- | *ga- | *ga- |
=Verbal extensions=
Below are some Proto-Niger/Atlantic–Congo, Proto-Bantu, and Proto-Atlantic verbal extensions (Good 2020:146, from Hyman 2007:157Hyman, L. M. (2007). ‘Niger-Congo verb extensions: overview and discussion’, in D. L. Payne and J. Pena (eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 37th Annual Conference on African Linguistics. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla, 149-63.):
| class="wikitable sortable"
! Type of suffix !! Proto-Niger/Atlantic–Congo !! Proto-Bantu !! Proto-Atlantic |
| applicative
| *-de || *-ɪd || *-ed |
|---|
| causative
| *-ci, *-ti || *-ic-i || *-an |
| passive
| *-o || *-ɪb-ʊ || *-V[+back] |
| reciprocal
| *-na || *-an || *-ad |
| reversive
| *-to || *-ʊd || *-ɪt |
For example, in Swahili:
- verb root: penda 'to love'
- reciprocal: pendana 'to love each other'
- applicative: pendea 'to love for'
- causative: pendeza 'to please'
Pronouns
Güldemann's (2018) Proto-Niger–Congo pronoun reconstructions, for the first and second person pronouns (singular and plural), are given below.{{Cite book|title=The Languages and Linguistics of Africa|last=Güldemann|first=Tom|editor-last=Güldemann|editor-first=Tom|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|chapter=Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa|year=2018|isbn=978-3-11-042606-9|doi=10.1515/9783110421668-002|location=Berlin|pages=58–444|series=The World of Linguistics series|volume=11|s2cid=133888593 }}
| class="wikitable"
! !! singular !! plural |
| 1st person
| *mVfront || *TVclose |
|---|
| 2nd person
| *mVback || *NVclose |
Babaev (2013) is a detailed survey of pronouns in Niger–Congo languages, along with detailed reconstructions.{{cite book|last=Babaev|first=Kirill Vladimirovich|title=Нигеро-конголезский праязык: Личные местоимения|publisher=Языки славянской культуры (ЯСК)|publication-place=Moscow|year=2013|isbn=978-5-9551-0642-7|oclc=861922684|language=ru}}
Numerals
Konstantin Pozdniakov (2018) has published a detailed reconstruction of Proto-Niger–Congo numerals, as well as comprehensive reconstructions for the lower-order branches of the Niger–Congo phylum. Pozdniakov (2018: 293){{Cite book|last=Pozdniakov|first=Konstantin|author-link=Konstantin Pozdniakov|title=The numeral system of Proto-Niger-Congo: A step-by-step reconstructio |series=Niger-Congo Comparative Studies |place=Berlin|publisher=Language Science Press|date=2018|format=pdf|url=http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/191|doi=10.5281/zenodo.1311704 |doi-access=free|isbn=978-3-96110-098-9}} and Güldemann (2018: 147) reconstruct the following numerals for Proto-Niger–Congo.
| class="wikitable sortable"
! Numeral !! Proto-Niger–Congo |
| 1
| *ku-(n)-di (> ni/-in), *do, *gbo/*kpo || |
|---|
| 2
| *ba-di || *Ri |
| 3
| *tat / *tath || *ta(C) |
| 4
| *na(h)i || *na(C) |
| 5
| *tan, *nu(n) || *nU |
| 6
| 5+1 || |
| 7
| 5+2 || |
| 8
| *na(i)nai (< 4 reduplicated) || |
| 9
| 5+4 || |
| 10
| *pu / *fu || |
| 20
| < ‘person’ || |
The numerals 6-9 are formed by combining lower numerals, while ‘20’ is derived from ‘person’.
Lexicon
There is currently no comprehensive, systematic reconstruction for Proto-Niger–Congo lexical roots. Nevertheless, quasi-reconstructions (preliminary, tentative reconstructions, which are marked using the number sign #) have been attempted by Roger Blench, who is currently compiling a Niger–Congo etymological dictionary. Some examples from Blench (2016):
| class="wikitable sortable"
! Proto-Niger–Congo !! Gloss | |
| *keɗeri | to split, cut, break |
| *suŋguri | to wash (transitive) |
| #tokori | chew |
| *siŋguri | rub, smear |
| *ɗumigbi | bury, dig, grave, plant |
| #tɪ́gbʊ́rɪ́ | head |
| #gbukuru | tortoise, turtle |
| #goŋgboro | chest |
| #kpagara | leg, foot |
| #ku(n)duŋo | knee |
| #-bugbulu | hole |
| #kVnV | one |
| *tunuru | five |
{{ill|Hans Günther Mukarovsky|de|Hans Günther Mukarovsky}}'s reconstruction of Proto-Western Nigritic (roughly equivalent to Proto-Atlantic–CongoBlench, Roger. [http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Niger-Congo/General/Westermann%20complete.pdf Kordofanian and Niger-Congo: new and revised lexical evidence]. Cambridge: Kay Williamson Educational Foundation.) was published in 2 volumes in 1976 and 1977.Mukarovsky, Hans. 1976-1977. A study of Western Nigritic (2 vols). Wien: Institut für Ägyptologie und Afrikanistik, Universität Wien.
=Plants=
Blench (2009) lists various Niger–Congo quasi-reconstructions for plants with important economic uses (note that not all of them necessarily reconstruct to Proto-Niger–Congo). These roots are generally widespread areal forms (Wanderworts), with some of them also found in Afroasiatic and Nilo-Saharan languages.Blench, Roger. 2009. [https://www.academia.edu/4345929/New_reconstructions_of_West_African_economic_plants New reconstructions of West African economic plants]. In: Jörg Adelberger & Rudolf Leger (eds.): Language, History and Reconstructions. Frankfurter Afrikanistische Blätter 21 (2009) XX-XX. Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, Köln. A few forms are also added from some of Blench's other works (2006, 2012, 2016).
Other plant names with widespread areal distributions in West Africa:
- Milicia excelsa: odum, iroko (in Ghana and Nigeria)
- Funtumia elastica (bush rubber tree): o-fruntum (in Ghana)
- Sesamum indicum (sesame): #-sVwa (Benue-Congo)
- Abelmoschus esculentus (okra): ɔ́kʊrʊ, ɪkɪabʊ, akɛnɛta (in southern Nigeria)
=Animals=
Below are some quasi-reconstructions of Niger–Congo areal forms for animal names given by Blench (2007Blench, Roger. 2007. [http://www.rogerblench.info/Ethnoscience/Animals/Mammals/Blench%20Paris%202007%20final%20published.pdf Lexical avoidance taboos and the reconstruction of names for large animals in Niger-Congo, an African language phylum]. In: Edmond Dounias, Elisabeth Motte-Florac and Margaret Dunham (eds). Le symbolisme des animaux - l’animal “clef de voûte” dans la tradition orale et les interactions homme-nature. 545-569 + unpaginated appendices. Paris: Editions IRD.), with some reconstructions also based on Blench (2006).
| class="wikitable sortable"
! Niger–Congo form !! Common name !! Distribution | ||
| #jata | lion | Mande-Congo |
| #guni | lion | areal form |
| #-bungu | hyena | Volta-Congo |
| #-biti | hyena | Proto-Benue-Kwa |
| #murum | hyena | Central Nigeria |
| #gbali | elephant | Mande-Congo |
| #-nyi | elephant | Benue-Kwa ?; also means 'tusk' |
| #-solu | elephant | Volta-Congo |
| #-bu | dog | Proto-Niger–Congo |
| #kuru | crocodile | Niger-Congo (Proto-Bantu has #-gandu) |
| #budi | goat | Niger-Congo (Afroasiatic and Nilo-Saharan have #k-r-) |
| #-ga | village weaver | Benue-Congo |
See also
Bibliography
- {{cite book|last1=Güldemann|first1=Tom|title=Geographical Typology and Linguistic Areas |chapter=Proto-Bantu and Proto-Niger-Congo: Macro-areal Typology and Linguistic Reconstruction|series=Tokyo University of Foreign Studies |volume=2|year=2011|pages=109|issn=1877-6248|doi=10.1075/tufs.2.09gul|isbn=978-90-272-0769-2 }}
- {{cite journal|last1=Sim|first1=Galina|title=Towards Proto-Niger–Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction, Paris, LLACAN, September 1–3, 2016|journal=Journal of Language Relationship|volume=14|issue=3–4|year=2017|pages=207–210|issn=2219-4029|doi=10.31826/jlr-2017-143-408|doi-access=free}}
- Grollemund, Rebecca, Simon Branford, Jean-Marie Hombert & Mark Pagel. 2016. [https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/abstracts/Grollemund_Hombert_Pagel-Genetic%20Unity%20of%20the%20Niger-Congo%20family.pdf Genetic unity of the Niger-Congo family]. Paper presented for the 2nd International Congress "[https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/index.html Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction]", Paris, 1-3 September, 2016.
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
- [https://llacan.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/index.html Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction]
- [http://sumale.vjf.cnrs.fr/NC/ Niger-Congo Reconstruction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509020508/http://sumale.vjf.cnrs.fr/NC/ |date=2021-05-09 }} project at LLACAN
{{Niger-Congo branches}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Proto-Niger-Congo Language}}