cowpea

File:BlackEyedPeas.JPGs, a common name for a cowpea cultivar, are named due to the presence of a distinctive black spot on their hilum.]]

Vigna unguiculata is a member of the Vigna (peas and beans) genus. Unguiculata is Latin for "with a small claw", which reflects the small stalks on the flower petals.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nyWY_YkV7qAC&q=%27%27Vigna+unguiculata%27%27++%27%27Vigna%27%27+small+claw&pg=PA104 |title=Top 100 Food Plants |last=Small |first=Ernest |year=2009 |publisher=NRC Research Press |isbn=978-0-660-19858-3 |page=104}} Common names for cultivated cowpeas include black-eye pea,{{Cite web|title=Are black-eyed peas really peas?|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/are-black-eyed-peas-really-peas/|website=Library of Congress|access-date=2020-05-16}} southern pea,{{Cite web|title=Southern Peas - Gardening Solutions - University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences|url=https://gardeningsolutions.ifas.ufl.edu/plants/edibles/vegetables/southern-peas.html|website=gardeningsolutions.ifas.ufl.edu|access-date=2020-05-16}} niebe{{Cite web|title=Niebe: A Food of Choice to Combat Hunger|url=https://www.icco-cooperation.org/en/news/niebe-a-food-of-choice-to-combat-hunger/|website=ICCO EN|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-16|archive-date=2020-07-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728233844/https://www.icco-cooperation.org/en/news/niebe-a-food-of-choice-to-combat-hunger/|url-status=dead}} (alternatively ñebbe),{{Cite web|title=ñebbe - Wiktionary|url=https://en.m.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%B1ebbe|website=en.m.wiktionary.org|access-date=2020-05-16}} and crowder pea.{{Cite web|title=Crowder pea|url=https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Crowder+pea|website=TheFreeDictionary.com|access-date=2020-05-16}} All cultivated cowpeas are found within the universally accepted V. unguiculata subspecies unguiculata classification, which is then commonly divided into four cultivar groups: unguiculata, biflora, sesquipedalis, and textilis.{{cite book|chapter-url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnacb024.pdf|title=Advances in Cowpea Research|first1=S.|last1=Padulosil|first2=N. Q.|last2=Ng|editor2-last=Mohan|editor2-first=D. R.|editor3-last=Dashiell|editor3-first=K. E.|editor4-last=Jackai|editor4-first=L. E. N.|publisher=International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences|year=1997|location=Ibadan, Nigeria|chapter=Origin, taxonomy, and morphology of Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.|editor1-last=Singh|editor1-first=B. B.}} The classification of the wild relatives within V. unguiculata is more complicated, with over 20 different names having been used and between 3 and 10 subgroups described.{{cite journal |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |year=1999| volume=98 |issue=6–7 |pages=1104–1119 |title=Genetic relationships among subspecies of Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. based on allozyme variation |first=R. S. |last=Pasquet |doi=10.1007/s001220051174|s2cid=38331950}} The original subgroups of stenophylla, dekindtiana, and tenuis appear to be common in all taxonomic treatments, while the variations pubescens and protractor were raised to subspecies level by a 1993 characterisation.This appears to be one of the latest taxonomical classifications

File:Sea Island red peas.jpg a cultivar of cowpea grown by the Gullah people on the Sea islands.]]

The first written reference of the word 'cowpea' appeared in 1798 in the United States. The name was most likely acquired due to their use as a fodder crop for cows.{{cite book|last1=Timko|first1=M. P.|last2=Ehlers|first2=J. D.|last3=Roberts|first3=P.A.|year=2007 |chapter=Cowpea|title=Pulses, Sugar and Tuber Crops, Genome Mapping and Molecular Breeding in Plants|editor1-last=Kole|editor1-first=C.|volume=3|publisher=Springer-Verlag|location=Berlin, Heidelberg|pages=49–67|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 June 2010|chapter-url=http://www.faculty.virginia.edu/timko/pdfs/Timko%20et%20al%20%282007%29%20Chapter%203%20Cowpea.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100601172132/http://www.faculty.virginia.edu/timko/pdfs/Timko%20et%20al%20(2007)%20Chapter%203%20Cowpea.pdf}} Black-eyed pea, a common name used for the unguiculata cultivar group, describes the presence of a distinctive black spot at the hilum of the seed. Black-eyed peas were first introduced to the southern states in the United States and some early varieties had peas squashed closely together in their pods, leading to the other common names of southern pea and crowder pea.

The sesquipedalis subspecies arrived in the United States via Asia. It is characterised by unusually long pods, leading to the Latin name (sesquipedalis means "foot and a half long") and the common names of yardlong bean, asparagus bean, and Chinese long-bean.{{cite book|title = Foods & Nutrition Encyclopedia|last1 = Ensminger|first1 = Marion|publisher = CRC Press|year = 1993|isbn = 978-0-8493-8980-1|location = Florida|page = 2363|last2 = Ensminger|first2 = Audrey}}

File:Vigna unguiculata varieties.jpg

class="wikitable" |+Common names of Vigna unguiculata unguiculata cultivar groups ! Group ! Common name

Unguiculata | black-eyed pea, crowder-pea, southern pea, niebe, ñebbe

Biflora | catjang, sow-pea

Sesquipedalis | yardlong bean, asparagus bean, Chinese long-bean

Textilis | wild cowpea, African cowpea, Ethiopian cowpea

A large morphological diversity is found within the crop, and the growth conditions and grower preferences for each variety vary from region to region. However, as the plant is primarily self-pollinating, its genetic diversity within varieties is relatively low.{{Cite journal|last1=Egbadzor|first1=Kenneth F|last2=Ofori|first2=Kwadwo|last3=Yeboah|first3=Martin|last4=Aboagye|first4=Lawrence M|last5=Opoku-Agyeman|first5=Michael O|last6=Danquah|first6=Eric Y|last7=Offei|first7=Samuel K|year=2014|title=Diversity in 113 cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L) Walp] accessions assessed with 458 SNP markers|journal=SpringerPlus|volume=3|page=541|doi=10.1186/2193-1801-3-541|issn=2193-1801|pmc=4190189|pmid=25332852 |doi-access=free }} Cowpeas can either be short and bushy (as short as {{convert|20|cm|in|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}) or act like a vine by climbing supports or trailing along the ground (to a height of {{convert|2|m|ftin|abbr=on|disp=or}}).{{Cite web|url=https://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_viun.pdf|title=Plant guide for cowpea (Vigna unguiculata).|last=Sheahan|first=C. M.|date=2012|website=USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, Cape May Plant Materials Center, Cape May, NJ}}{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.nap.edu/read/11763/chapter/7#115|title=Lost Crops of Africa: Volume II: Vegetables|last=National Research Council|publisher=The National Academies Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-309-10333-6|location=Washington DC|pages=104–117|language=en|chapter=Cowpea|doi=10.17226/11763}} The taproot can penetrate to a depth of {{convert|2.4|m|ftin|abbr=on}} after eight weeks.{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/cowpea.html|chapter=Cowpea|last1=Davis|first1=D. W.|last2=Oelke|first2=E. A.|website=www.hort.purdue.edu|publisher= University of Wisconsin-Extension, Cooperative Extension|year=1991|access-date=2017-04-13|last3=Oplinger|first3=E. S.|last4=Doll|first4=J. D.|last5=Hanson|first5=C.V.|last6=Putnam|first6=D. H.|title=Alternative Field Crops Manual}}

The size and shape of the leaves vary greatly, making this an important feature for classifying and distinguishing cowpea varieties.{{Cite journal|last1=Pottorff|first1=Marti|last2=Ehlers|first2=Jeffrey D.|last3=Fatokun|first3=Christian|last4=Roberts|first4=Philip A.|last5=Close|first5=Timothy J.|date=2012|title=Leaf morphology in Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp]: QTL analysis, physical mapping and identifying a candidate gene using synteny with model legume species|journal=BMC Genomics|volume=13|pages=234|doi=10.1186/1471-2164-13-234|issn=1471-2164|pmc=3431217|pmid=22691139 |doi-access=free }} Another distinguishing feature of cowpeas is the long {{convert|20|-|50|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} peduncles, which hold the flowers and seed pods. One peduncle can support four or more seed pods. Flower colour varies through different shades of purple, pink, yellow, and white and blue.

Seeds and seed pods from wild cowpeas are very small, while cultivated varieties can have pods between {{convert|10|and|110|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long.{{Cite journal|last=Rawal|first=Kanti M.|date=1975|title=Natural hybridization among wild, weedy and cultivated Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.|journal=Euphytica|language=en|volume=24|issue=3|pages=699–707|doi=10.1007/BF00132908|s2cid=45539164|issn=0014-2336}} A pod can contain six to 13 seeds that are usually kidney-shaped, although the seeds become more spherical the more restricted they are within the pod. Their texture and colour are very diverse. They can have a smooth or rough coat and be speckled, mottled, or blotchy. Colours include white, cream, green, red, brown, and black, or various combinations.

Compared to most other important crops, little is known about the domestication, dispersal, and cultivation history of the cowpea.{{Cite journal|last1=Xiong|first1=Haizheng|last2=Shi|first2=Ainong|last3=Mou|first3=Beiquan|last4=Qin|first4=Jun|last5=Motes|first5=Dennis|last6=Lu|first6=Weiguo|last7=Ma|first7=Jianbing|last8=Weng|first8=Yuejin|last9=Yang|first9=Wei|date=2016|title=Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp)|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=8|pages=e0160941|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0160941|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4980000|pmid=27509049|bibcode=2016PLoSO..1160941X|doi-access=free}} Although there is no archaeological evidence for early cowpea cultivation, the centre of diversity of the cultivated cowpea is West Africa, leading an early consensus that this is the likely centre of origin and place of early domestication.{{cite journal|last1=Ogunkanmi|first1=L. A.|last2=Taiwo|first2=A.|last3=Mogaji|first3=O. L.|last4=Awobodede|first4=A.|last5=Eziashi|first5=E. E.|last6=Ogundipe|first6=O. T.|year=2005–2006|title=Assessment of genetic diversity among cultivated cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) cultivars from a range of localities across West Africa using agronomic traits|journal=Journal Sci. Res. Dev.|volume=10|pages=111–118}} New research using molecular markers has suggested that domestication may have instead occurred in East Africa and currently both theories carry equal weight.

While the date of cultivation began may be uncertain, it is still considered one of the oldest domesticated crops.{{Cite journal|last1=Chivenge|first1=Pauline|last2=Mabhaudhi|first2=Tafadzwanashe|last3=Modi|first3=Albert T.|last4=Mafongoya|first4=Paramu|date=2017|title=The Potential Role of Neglected and Underutilised Crop Species as Future Crops under Water Scarce Conditions in Sub-Saharan Africa|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=12|issue=6|pages=5685–5711|doi=10.3390/ijerph120605685|issn=1661-7827|pmc=4483666|pmid=26016431|doi-access=free}} Remains of charred cowpeas from rock shelters in Central Ghana have been dated to the 2nd millennium BC.{{cite journal|last1=D'Andrea|title=Early domesticated cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) from Central Ghana|journal=Antiquity|date= 2007|volume=81|issue=313|pages=686–698|doi=10.1017/S0003598X00095661|s2cid=161301311 |display-authors=etal}} In 2300 BC, the cowpea is believed to have made its way into Southeast Asia, where secondary domestication events may have occurred.{{cite journal|last1=Perrino|first1=P.|last2=Laghetti|first2=G.|last3=Spagnoletti Zeuli|first3=P. L.|last4=Monti|first4=L. M.|year=1993|title=Diversification of cowpea in the Mediterranean and other centres of cultivation.|journal=Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution|volume=40|issue=3|pages=121–132|doi=10.1007/bf00051116|s2cid=41138930}} From there they traveled north to the Mediterranean, where they were used by the Greeks and Romans.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XMA9gYIj-C4C&q=cowpea+cultivation+history+greek+rome&pg=PA508|title=Foods & Nutrition Encyclopedia, Two Volume Set|last1=Ensminger|first1=Marion Eugene|last2=Ensminger|first2=Audrey H.|year=1993|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-8493-8980-1|language=en}} The first written references to the cowpea were in 300 BC and they probably reached Central and North America during the slave trade through the 17th to early 19th centuries.

File:Black-eyed pea pods on plant in Hong Kong.jpg

Cowpeas thrive in poor dry conditions, growing well in soils up to 85% sand.{{cite journal|last1=Obatolu|first1=V. A.|year=2003|title=Growth pattern of infants fed with a mixture of extruded malted maize and cowpea.|journal=Nutrition|volume=19|issue=2|pages=174–178|doi=10.1016/s0899-9007(02)01102-4|pmid=12591556}} This makes them a particularly important crop in arid, semidesert regions where not many other crops will grow. As well as an important source of food for humans in poor, arid regions, the crop can also be used as feed for livestock.{{cite book|last1=Quin|first1=F. M.|year=1997|chapter=Introduction|editor1-last=Singh|editor1-first=B. B.|editor2-last=Mohan Raj|editor2-first=D. R.|editor3-last= Dashiell|editor3-first=K. E.|editor4-last= Jackai|editor4-first=L. E. N.|title=Advances in Cowpea Research.|publisher=International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences.|location=Ibadan, Nigeria}} Its nitrogen-fixing ability means that as well as functioning as a sole crop, the cowpea can be effectively intercropped with sorghum, millet, maize, cassava, or cotton.{{cite book|last1=Blade|first1=S. F.|last2=Shetty|first2=S. V. R.|last3=Terao|first3=T.|last4=Singh|first4=B. B.|year=1997|chapter=Recent developments in cowpea cropping systems research|editor1-last=Singh|editor1-first=B. B.|editor2-last=Mohan Raj|editor2-first=D. R.|editor3-last= Dashiell|editor3-first=K. E.|editor4-last= Jackai|editor4-first=L. E. N.|title=Advances in Cowpea Research.|publisher=International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences.|location=Ibadan, Nigeria}}

File:Wild and cultivated cowpea (7856427546).jpg

The optimum temperature for cowpea growth is {{convert|30|C|F}}, making it only available as a summer crop for most of the world. It grows best in regions with an annual rainfall between {{convert|400|and|700|mm|in|abbr=on}}. The ideal soils are sandy and it has better tolerance for infertile and acid soil than most other crops. Generally, {{convert|133000|/ha|/acre|adj=pre|seeds are planted}} for the erect varieties and {{convert|60000|/ha|/acre}} for the climbing and trailing varieties. The seeds can be harvested after about 100 days or the whole plant used as forage after about 120 days. Leaves can be picked from 4 weeks after planting.{{Cite web|url=https://www.arc.agric.za/arc-gci/Fact%20Sheets%20Library/Cowpea%20-%20Production%20guidelines%20for%20cowpea.pdf|title=Production guidelines for Cowpeas|year=2011|website=South African Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803130433/https://www.arc.agric.za/arc-gci/Fact%20Sheets%20Library/Cowpea%20-%20Production%20guidelines%20for%20cowpea.pdf|archive-date=3 August 2016|url-status=live}}

These characteristics, along with its low fertilisation requirements, make the cowpea an ideal crop for resource-poor farmers living in the Sahel region of West Africa. Early-maturing varieties of the crop can thrive in the semiarid climate, where rainfall is often less than {{convert|500|mm|in|abbr=on}}. The timing of planting is crucial, as the plant must mature during the seasonal rains.{{Cite journal|last1=Dugje|first1=I. Y.|last2=Omoigui|first2=L. O.|last3=Ekeleme|first3=F.|last4=Kamara|first4=A. Y.|last5=Ajeigbe|first5=H.|year=2009|title=Farmers' Guide to Cowpea Production in West Africa.|journal=International Institute of Tropical Agriculture|volume=Ibadan, Nigeria}} The crop is mostly intercropped with pearl millet, and plants are selected that provide both food and fodder value instead of the more specialised varieties.{{Cite journal|last1=Matsunaga|first1=R.|first2=B. B.|last2=Singh|first3=M.|last3=Adamou|first4=S.|last4=Tobita|first5=K.|last5=Hayashi|first6=A.|last6=Kamidohzono|year=2006|title=Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata] cultivation on the Sahelian region of west Africa: Farmers' preferences and production constraints|url=http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=JP2007003257|journal=Japanese Journal of Tropical Agriculture (Japan)|language=en|issn=0021-5260}}

Storage of the seeds can be problematic in Africa due to potential infestation by postharvest pests. Traditional methods of protecting stored grain include using the insecticidal properties of Neem extracts, mixing the grain with ash or sand, using vegetable oils, combining ash and oil into a soap solution or treating the cowpea pods with smoke or heat.{{Cite journal|last1=Poswal|first1=M. A. T.|last2=Akpa|first2=A. D.|year=1991|title=Current trends in the use of traditional and organic methods for the control of crop pests and diseases in Nigeria|journal=Tropical Pest Management|volume=37|issue=4|pages=329–333|doi=10.1080/09670879109371609|issn=0143-6147}} More modern methods include storage in airtight containers, using gamma irradiation, or heating or freezing the seeds.{{Cite journal|title=Toxicity and repellence of African plants traditionally used for the protection of stored cowpea against Callosobruchus maculatus|url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=15718182|journal=Journal of Stored Products Research|volume=40|issue=4|issn=0022-474X|access-date=2017-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170414163924/http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=15718182|archive-date=2017-04-14|url-status=dead}} Temperatures of {{convert|60|C|F}} kill the weevil larvae, leading to a recent push to develop cheap forms of solar heating that can be used to treat stored grain.{{Cite journal|last1=Murdock|first1=L. L.|last2=Shade|first2=R. E.|year=1991|title=Eradication of Cowpea Weevil (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)in Cowpeas by Solar Heating|journal=American Entomologist|language=en|volume=37|issue=4|pages=228–231|doi=10.1093/ae/37.4.228|issn=1046-2821|doi-access=free}} One of the more recent developments is the use a cheap, reusable double-bagging system (called PICs) that asphyxiates the cowpea weevils.{{Cite journal|last1=Baributsa|first1=D.|last2=Lowenberg-DeBoer|first2=J.|last3=Murdock|first3=L.|last4=Moussa|first4=B.|year=2010|title=Profitable chemical-free cowpea storage technology for smallholder farmers in Africa: opportunities and challenges|journal=Julius-Kühn-Archiv|language=de|issue=425|pages=1046–1052|doi=10.5073/jka.2010.425.340|issn=2199-921X}}

File:Maruca vitrata (Crambidae Pyraustinae).jpg, commonly called the maruca pod borer, is one of the most damaging insect pests to the cowpea plant.]]

Insects are a major factor in the low yields of African cowpea crops, and they affect each tissue component and developmental stage of the plant. In bad infestations, insect pressure is responsible for over 90% loss in yield.{{cite journal |last1=Jackai |first1=L. E. N. |last2=Daoust |first2=R. A. |year=1986 |title=Insect pests of cowpeas |journal=Annual Review of Entomology|volume=31 |pages=95–119 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.31.1.95}} The legume pod borer, Maruca vitrata, is the main preharvest pest of the cowpea.{{cite journal|last=Sharma |first=H. C. |year=1998|title= Bionomics, host plant resistance, and management of the legume pod borer, Maruca vitrata |journal=Crop Protection |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=373–386 |doi=10.1016/s0261-2194(98)00045-3|bibcode=1998CrPro..17..373S |url=http://oar.icrisat.org/1700/1/CropProt17%285%29373-386_1998.pdf }} Other important pests include pod sucking bugs, thrips, aphids, cowpea curculios and post-harvest beetles Callosobruchus maculatus and Callosobruchus chinensis.{{cite web| last=Heath |first=Jeffrey |author-link=Jeffrey Heath |title=Guide to insects, arthropods, and molluscs of northern Dogon country |url=https://dogonlanguages.org/sources/insectarthropodmolluscnotesmalijh}}{{cite journal | last1=Jackai | first1=L E N | last2=Daoust | first2=R A | title=Insect Pests of Cowpeas | journal=Annual Review of Entomology | publisher=Annual Reviews | volume=31 | issue=1 | year=1986 | issn=0066-4170 | doi=10.1146/annurev.en.31.010186.000523 | pages=95–119}}{{cite web |last1=Capinera |first1=John |title=EENY223/IN380: Cowpea Curculio, Chalcodermus aeneus Boheman (Insecta: Coleoptera: Curculionidae) |url=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN380 |website=University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences |access-date=15 June 2023}}{{Cite web |date=2006-11-26 |title=Callosobruchus chinensis, The Pulse Beetle {{!}} Zoology for IAS, IFoS and other competitive exams |url=https://www.iaszoology.com/callosobruchus-chinensis/ |access-date=2024-04-23 |language=en-GB}}

M. vitrata causes the most damage to the growing cowpea due to their large host range and cosmopolitan distribution.{{Cite journal|last1=Jayasinghe |first1=R. C. |last2=Premachandra|first2=W. T. S. Dammini |last3=Neilson|first3=Roy |year=2015|title=A study on Maruca vitrata infestation of Yard-long beans (Vigna unguiculata subspecies sesquipedalis) |journal=Heliyon|volume=1|issue=1 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2015.e00014 |pmc=4939760 |pmid=27441212 |page=e00014|doi-access=free |bibcode=2015Heliy...100014J }} It causes damage to the flower buds, flowers, and pods of the plant, with infestations resulting in a 20–88% loss of yield. While the insect can cause damage through all growth stages, most of the damage occurs during flowering. Biological control has had limited success, so most preventive methods rely on the use of agrichemicals. Genetically modified cowpeas has been developed to express the cry protein from Bacillus thuringiensis, which is toxic to lepidopteran species including the maruca.{{Cite journal|last1=Agunbiade |first1=Tolulope A.|last2=Coates|first2=Brad S.|last3=Datinon |first3=Benjamin |last4=Djouaka |first4=Rousseau|last5=Sun |first5=Weilin |last6=Tamò |first6=Manuele |last7=Pittendrigh |first7=Barry R.|year=2014 |title=Genetic Differentiation among Maruca vitrata F. (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) Populations on Cultivated Cowpea and Wild Host Plants: Implications for Insect Resistance Management and Biological Control Strategies|journal=PLOS ONE |volume=9 |issue=3 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0092072 |pmc=3960178 |pmid=24647356 |page=e92072|bibcode=2014PLoSO...992072A|doi-access=free}} BT Cowpea was commercialised in Nigeria in 2019.{{cite web |last1=Opoku Gakpo |first1=Joseph |title=Nigerian GMO cowpea farmers testify to reduced pest infestation and better yields |url=https://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2021/11/nigerian-gmo-cowpea-farmers-testify-to-reduced-pest-infestation-and-better-yields/ |website=Allianceforscience |access-date=26 January 2022}}

File:CSIRO ScienceImage 489 Cowpea bean varieties infested with weevils.jpg) infests stored cowpea seeds, resulting in major postharvest losses.]]

Severe C. maculatus infestations can affect 100% of the stored peas and cause up to 60% loss within a few months.{{Cite journal |last1=Kang |first1=Jung Koo |last2=Pittendrigh |first2=Barry R. |last3=Onstad |first3=David W. |year=2013 |title=Insect resistance management for stored product pests: a case study of cowpea weevil (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)|journal=Journal of Economic Entomology |volume=106 |issue=6 |pages=2473–2490 |pmid=24498750 |doi=10.1603/ec13340|s2cid=21508673 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Tarver |first1=Matthew R.|last2=Shade |first2=Richard E. |last3=Shukle|first3=Richard H. |last4=Moar |first4=William J.|last5=Muir |first5=William M.|last6=Murdock |first6=Larry M. |last7=Pittendrigh |first7=Barry R. |year=2007 |title=Pyramiding of insecticidal compounds for control of the cowpea bruchid (Callosobruchus maculatus F.) |journal=Pest Management Science|language=en|volume=63 |issue=5|pages=440–446 |doi=10.1002/ps.1343|pmid=17340671}} The weevil generally enters the cowpea pod through holes before harvest and lays eggs on the dry seed.{{Cite journal |last1=Mashela |first1=P. |last2=Pofu |first2=K. |year=2012 |title=Storing cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) seeds in active cattle kraals for suppression of Callosobruchus maculatus |journal=African Journal of Biotechnology |volume=11 |pages=14713–14715}} The larvae burrow their way into the seed, feeding on the endosperm. The weevil develops into a sexually mature adult within the seed.{{Cite journal |last=Wilson|first=Kenneth|year=1988|title=Egg laying decisions by the bean weevil Callosobruchus maculatus |journal=Ecological Entomology |language=en |volume=13|issue=1 |pages=107–118 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2311.1988.tb00338.x|bibcode=1988EcoEn..13..107W |s2cid=85942098}} An individual bruchid can lay 20–40 eggs, and in optimal conditions, each egg can develop into a reproductively active adult in 3 weeks.{{Cite journal |last1=Murdock |first1=Larry L. |last2=Seck |first2=Dogo |last3=Ntoukam |first3=Georges |last4=Kitch |first4=Laurie |last5=Shade |first5=R. E. |year=2003 |title=Preservation of cowpea grain in sub-Saharan Africa—Bean/Cowpea CRSP contributions |journal=Field Crops Research |series=Research Highlights of the Bean/Cowpea Collaborative Research Support Program, 1981–2002 |volume=82 |issue=2–3 |pages=169–178 |doi=10.1016/S0378-4290(03)00036-4|bibcode=2003FCrRe..82..169M }} The most common methods of protection involve the use of insecticides, the main pesticides used being carbamates, synthetic pyrethroids, and organophosphates.{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s_5Y5BFRU1EC&q=Pest+management+practices+in+cowpea%3A+a+review&pg=PA240|title=Advances in Cowpea Research|chapter=Pest management practices in cowpea: a review |editor1-last=Singh |editor1-first=B. B. |last1=Jackai |first1=L. E. N. |last2=Adalla |first2=C. B. |year=1997 |publisher=IITA |pages=240–258 |isbn=978-978-131-110-9 |language=en}}

Cowpea is susceptible to nematode, fungal, bacterial, and virus diseases, which can result in substantial loss in yield.{{Cite journal |title=The control of weed, pest and disease complexes in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) by the application of pesticides singly and in combination|doi=10.1016/0261-2194(87)90042-1 |language=en |volume=6 |issue=4|journal=Crop Protection |pages=222–225|year=1987|last1=Olowe|first1=T.|last2=Dina|first2=S.O.|last3=Oladiran|first3=A.O.|last4=Olunuga|first4=B.A.|bibcode=1987CrPro...6..222O }} Common diseases include blights, root rot, wilt, powdery mildew, root knot, rust and leaf spot.{{Cite web |url=http://plantdiseasehandbook.tamu.edu/food-crops/vegetable-crops/southern-pea-blackeye-cowpea/ |title=Southern Pea (Blackeye, Cowpea)|publisher=Texas Plant Disease Handbook |website=plantdiseasehandbook.tamu.edu |access-date=2017-04-14}} The plant is susceptible to mosaic viruses, which cause a green mosaic pattern to appear in the leaves. The cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV), discovered in 1959, has become a useful research tool.{{Cite journal |title=Cowpea mosaic Virus: The Plant Virus–Based Biotechnology Workhorse |journal = Annual Review of Phytopathology|volume = 48|pages = 437–455|last1=Sainsbury |first1=Frank |last2=Cañizares |first2=M. Carmen |year=2010 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-073009-114242 |pmid = 20455698|last3=Lomonossoff |first3=George P.|hdl = 10261/29182|hdl-access=free }} CPMV is stable and easy to propagate to a high yield, making it useful in vector development and protein expression systems. One of the plant's defenses against some insect attacks is the cowpea trypsin inhibitor (CpTI).{{Cite journal |last1=Boulter |first1=D. |last2=Gatehouse |first2=A. M. R.|author-link2=Angharad Gatehouse |last3=Hilder|first3=V.|title=Use of cowpea trypsin inhibitor (CpTI) to protect plants against insect predation|journal=Biotechnology Advances |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=489–497 |doi=10.1016/0734-9750(89)90720-9|pmid=14542987 |year=1989 }} CpTI has been transgenically inserted into other crops as a pest deterrent. CpTI is the only gene obtained outside of B. thuringiensis that has been inserted into a commercially available genetically modified crop.{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Hongsheng |last2=Zhang |first2=Yuhong |last3=Liu |first3=Ping |last4=Xie |first4=Jiaqin |last5=He |first5=Yunyu |last6=Deng |first6=Congshuang |last7=Clercq |first7=Patrick De |last8=Pang |first8=Hong |year=2014 |title=Effects of Transgenic Cry1Ac + CpTI Cotton on Non-Target Mealybug Pest Ferrisia virgata and its Predator Cryptolaemus montrouzieri |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=95537 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0095537 |pmc=3994093 |pmid=24751821|bibcode=2014PLoSO...995537W |doi-access=free }}

Besides biotic stresses, cowpea also faces various challenges in different parts of the world such as drought, heat, and cold.{{Cite journal|last1=Ajayi|first1=Abiola|last2=Gbadamosi|first2=Alaba|last3=Olumekun|first3=Victor|date=2018-01-01|title=Screening for Drought Tolerance in Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) at Seedling Stage under Screen House Condition|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322203394}} Drought lowers the growth rate and development, ultimately reducing yield, although cowpea is considered more drought tolerant than most other crops.{{Cite journal|last1=Olajide|first1=Amos Afolarin|last2=Ilori|first2=Christopher Olumuyiwa|date=2017|title=Effects of Drought on Morphological Traits in Some Cowpea Genotypes by Evaluating Their Combining Abilities|journal=Advances in Agriculture|language=en|volume=2017|pages=1–10|doi=10.1155/2017/7265726|issn=2356-654X|doi-access=free}} Drought at the preflowering stage in cowpea can reduce the yield potential by 360 kg/ha.{{Cite journal|date=2016-03-01|title=Drought tolerance in cowpea species is driven by less sensitivity of leaf gas exchange to water deficit and rapid recovery of photosynthesis after rehydration|journal=South African Journal of Botany|language=en|volume=103|pages=101–107|doi=10.1016/j.sajb.2015.08.008|issn=0254-6299|last1=Rivas|first1=R.|last2=Falcão|first2=H.M.|last3=Ribeiro|first3=R.V.|last4=Machado|first4=E.C.|last5=Pimentel|first5=C.|last6=Santos|first6=M.G.|doi-access=free}} Crop wild relatives are the prominent source of genetic material, which can be tapped to improve biotic/abiotic tolerance in crops.{{Cite journal|last1=Iseki|first1=Kohtaro|last2=Takahashi|first2=Yu|last3=Muto|first3=Chiaki|last4=Naito|first4=Ken|last5=Tomooka|first5=Norihiko|date=2018-06-15|title=Diversity of Drought Tolerance in the Genus Vigna|journal=Frontiers in Plant Science|volume=9|pages=729|doi=10.3389/fpls.2018.00729|issn=1664-462X|pmc=6014140|pmid=29963062|doi-access=free}} International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria and Institut de l'Environment et de Recherches Agricoles are looking to tap into the genetic diversity of wild cowpeas and transfer that into cultivars to make them more tolerant to different stresses and adaptive to climate change.{{Cite web|url=https://www.cwrdiversity.org/partnership/cowpea-pre-breeding-project/|title=CWR » Cowpea Pre-breeding Project|website=www.cwrdiversity.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-08-15}}

{{Cookbook|Cowpea}}File:Hoppin-john-bowl.JPG is a common meal in the rural Southern United States.|alt=|left]]

Cowpeas are grown mostly for their edible beans, although the leaves, green seeds and pods can also be consumed, meaning the cowpea can be used as a food source before the dried peas are harvested.{{cite journal|last1=Ehlers|first1=J. D.|last2=Hall|first2=A. E.|year=1997|title=Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.)|journal=Field Crops Res|volume=53|issue=1–3|pages=187–204|doi=10.1016/s0378-4290(97)00031-2|bibcode=1997FCrRe..53..187E }} Like other legumes, cowpeas are cooked to make them edible, usually by boiling.{{Cite journal|last1=Hamid|first1=Saima|last2=Muzaffar|first2=Sabeera|last3=Wani|first3=Idrees Ahmed|last4=Masoodi|first4=Farooq Ahmad|last5=Bhat|first5=Mohd. Munaf|year=2016|title=Physical and cooking characteristics of two cowpea cultivars grown in temperate Indian climate|journal=Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences|volume=15|issue=2|pages=127–134|doi=10.1016/j.jssas.2014.08.002|doi-access=free}} Cowpeas can be prepared in stews, soups, purees, casseroles and curries.{{Cite news|url=http://www.africanfoods.co.uk/cowpeas-recipe.html|title=Cowpeas Recipe|work=African Foods|access-date=2017-04-14}}{{Cite web|url=http://africaimports.com/poultry6.asp?url=|title=Africa Imports - African Recipes - Red-Red Stew|website=africaimports.com|access-date=2017-04-14}} They can also be processed into a paste or flour.{{Cite journal|last1=Gonçalves|first1=Alexandre|last2=Goufo|first2=Piebiep|last3=Barros|first3=Ana|last4=Domínguez-Perles|first4=Raúl|last5=Trindade|first5=Henrique|last6=Rosa|first6=Eduardo A. S.|last7=Ferreira|first7=Luis|last8=Rodrigues|first8=Miguel|year=2016|title=Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp), a renewed multipurpose crop for a more sustainable agrifood system: nutritional advantages and constraints|journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture|language=en|volume=96|issue=9|pages=2941–2951|doi=10.1002/jsfa.7644|pmid=26804459|bibcode=2016JSFA...96.2941G |issn=1097-0010}} Chinese long beans can be eaten raw or cooked, but as they easily become waterlogged are usually sautéed, stir-fried, or deep-fried.{{Cite news|url=https://food52.com/blog/14265-the-long-and-the-short-of-yard-long-beans|title=The Long and the Short of Yard-Long Beans|year=2015|work=Food52|access-date=2017-04-14|language=en}}

A common snack in Africa is koki or moin-moin, where the cowpeas are mashed into a paste, mixed with spices and steamed in banana leaves.{{Cite web|url=http://www.congocookbook.com/snack_recipes/koki.html|title=Koki|website=The Congo Cookbook|language=en|access-date=2017-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518010156/http://www.congocookbook.com/snack_recipes/koki.html|archive-date=2017-05-18|url-status=dead}} Dan wake cowpea dumplings are common in northern Nigeria and environs.{{cite journal |last1=Sani |first1=M. H. |first2=U. F. |last2=Abubakar |first3=R. M. |last3=Sani |title=Households' Preference and Usage of Cowpea-Based Products and Varieties in Western Zone of Bauchi State, Nigeria |journal=Journal of Agripreneurship and Sustainable Development |volume=5 |issue=1 |year=2022 |pages=16–29|doi=10.59331/jasd.v5i1.284 |doi-access=free }} They also use the cowpea paste as a supplement in infant formula when weaning babies off milk.{{Cite journal|last1=Oyeleke |first1=O. A.|last2=Morton|first2=I. D.|last3=Bender|first3=A. E.|year=1985|title=The use of cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata) in improving a popular Nigerian weaning food|journal=The British Journal of Nutrition|volume=54|issue=2|pages=343–347|issn=0007-1145|pmid=4063322|doi=10.1079/bjn19850119|s2cid=17382544|doi-access=free}} Slaves brought to America and the West Indies cooked cowpeas much the same way as they did in Africa, although many people in the American South considered cowpeas not suitable for human consumption.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xhpBsIa5yqEC&q=cowpeas+cookbook&pg=PA84 |title=What the Slaves Ate: Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives |last1=Covey |first1=Herbert C.|last2=Eisnach |first2=Dwight|year=2009 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-37497-5 |language=en}} A popular dish was Hoppin' John, which contained black-eyed peas cooked with rice and seasoned with pork. Over time, cowpeas became more universally accepted and now Hoppin' John is seen as a traditional Southern dish ritually served on New Year's Day.{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/30/dining/black-eyed-peas-cowpea-field-peas.html|title=Field Peas, a Southern Good Luck Charm|last=Severson|first=Kim|year=2015|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-04-14|issn=0362-4331}}

{{nutritional value | name= Cowpea (raw seeds)

| water=11.95 g

| kcal=336

| protein=23.52 g

| fat=1.26 g

| carbs=60.03 g

| fiber=10.6 g

| sugars=6.9 g

| calcium_mg=110

| iron_mg=8.27

| magnesium_mg=184

| phosphorus_mg=424

| potassium_mg=1112

| sodium_mg=16

| zinc_mg=3.37

| vitC_mg=1.5

| thiamin_mg=0.853

| riboflavin_mg=0.226

| niacin_mg=2.075

| vitB6_mg=0.357

| folate_ug=633

| vitA_ug=3

| vitA_IU=50

| vitK_ug=5

| satfat_g= 0.331

| transfat_g=

| monofat_g= 0.011

| polyfat_g=0.542

| source_usda=1

| note=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190910192920/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/4801?manu=&fgcd=&ds= Link to USDA Database entry]

}}

Cowpea seeds provide a rich source of proteins and food energy, as well as minerals and vitamins. This complements the mainly cereal diet in countries that grow cowpeas as a major food crop.{{cite journal |last1=Phillips|first1=R. D.|last2=McWatters|first2=K. H.|last3=Chinnan|first3=M. S.|last4=Hung|first4=Y. C. |last5=Beuchat|first5=L. R.|last6=Sefa-Dedeh|first6=S.|last7=Sakyi-Dawson |first7=E.|last8=Ngoddy |first8=P.|last9=Nnanyelugo |first9=D.|last10=Enwere|first10=J.|year=2003 |title=Utilization of cowpeas for human food.|journal=Field Crops Res.|volume=82 |issue=2–3|pages=193–213 |doi=10.1016/s0378-4290(03)00038-8|bibcode=2003FCrRe..82..193P }} A seed can consist of 25% protein and has very low fat content.{{cite journal |last1=Rangel|first1=A.|last2=Domont|first2=G. B. |last3=Pedrosa |first3=C.|last4=Ferreira|first4=S. T. |year=2003|title=Functional properties of purified vicilins from cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and pea (Pisum sativum) and cowpea protein isolate |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=51 |issue=19|pages=5792–5797 |doi=10.1021/jf0340052|pmid=12952435|bibcode=2003JAFC...51.5792R }} Cowpea starch is digested more slowly than the starch from cereals, which is more beneficial to human health. The grain is a rich source of folic acid, an important vitamin that helps prevent neural tube defects in unborn babies.{{Cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00300-7|title=Encyclopedia of Food and Health |last1=Witthöft |first1=C. |last2=Hefni |first2=M. |year=2016 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-384953-3 |location=Oxford |pages=724–730}}

The cowpea has often been referred to as "poor man's meat" due to the high levels of protein found in the seeds and leaves. However, it does contain some antinutritional elements, notable phytic acid and protease inhibitors, which reduce the nutritional value of the crop. Methods such as fermentation, soaking, germination, debranning, and autoclaving are used to combat the antinutritional properties of the cowpea by increasing the bioavailability of nutrients within the crop.{{Cite journal|last1=Owade|first1=Joshua O.|last2=Abong’|first2=George|last3=Okoth|first3=Michael|last4=Mwang’ombe|first4=Agnes W.|date=2019-12-17|title=A review of the contribution of cowpea leaves to food and nutrition security in East Africa|journal=Food Science & Nutrition|volume=8|issue=1|pages=36–47|doi=10.1002/fsn3.1337|issn=2048-7177|pmc=6977510|pmid=31993130}} Although little research has been conducted on the nutritional value of the leaves and immature pods, what is available suggests that the leaves have a similar nutritional value to black nightshade and sweet potato leaves, while the green pods have less antinutritional factors than the dried seeds.

class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:right; float:right; margin-top:0; margin-left:2em;" |+ Cow peas, dry production, 2020{{cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL|title= Cow peas, dry production in 2020, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)|date=2022|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|access-date=10 September 2022}}
scope="col"| Country !scope="col"| Weight (tonnes)
scope="row"| {{NGA}} | 3,647,115
scope="row"| {{NER}} | 2,637,486
scope="row"| {{BFA}} | 666,023
scope="row"| {{KEN}} | 264,160
scope="row"| {{SEN}} | 253,897
scope="row"| All others | 1,447,422
scope="row"|World |8,916,103

Most cowpeas are grown on the African continent, particularly in Nigeria and Niger, which account for 66% of world cowpea production.[http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor 24/01/2015 FAO 2012 FAOSTAT Gateway] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906230329/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor |date=September 6, 2015 }} The Sahel region also contains other major producers such as Burkina Faso, Ghana, Senegal, and Mali. Niger is the main exporter of cowpeas and Nigeria the main importer. Exact figures for cowpea production are hard to come up with as it is not a major export crop. Estimating world cowpea production is rather difficult, as it is usually grown in a mixture with other crops, but according to a 1997 estimate, cowpeas were cultivated on {{convert|12.5|ha||disp=preunit|million }} and had a worldwide production of {{convert|3|e6MT}}.{{cite book|chapter-url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnacb024.pdf|title=Advances in Cowpea Research |first1=B. B.|last1=Singh|first2=O. L.|last2=Chambliss|last3=Sharma|first3=B.|editor2-last=Mohan|editor2-first=D. R.|editor3-last=Dashiell|editor3-first=K. E.|editor4-last=Jackai|editor4-first=L. E. N.|publisher=International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences|year=1997|location=Ibadan, Nigeria|chapter=Recent advances in cowpea breeding |editor1-last=Singh|editor1-first=B. B.}} While they play a key role in subsistence farming and livestock fodder, the cowpea is also seen as a major cash crop by Central and West African farmers, with an estimated 200 million people consuming cowpea on a daily basis.{{cite journal|last1=Langyintuo|first1=A. S.|last2=Lowenberg-Deboer |first2=J. |last3=Faye |first3=M. |last4=Lambert |first4=D.|last5=Ibro|first5=G. |last6=Moussa|first6=B. |last7=Kergna |first7= A.|last8=Kushwaha |first8=S.|last9=Musa |first9=S.|last10=Ntoukam |first10=G. |year=2003 |title=Cowpea supply and demand in West and Central Africa |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=82 |issue=2–3|pages=215–231 |doi=10.1016/s0378-4290(03)00039-x|bibcode=2003FCrRe..82..215L }}

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, as of 2012, the average cowpea yield in Western Africa was an estimated {{convert|483|kg/ha|lb/acre}}, which is still 50% below the estimated potential production yield.{{cite book |last1=Kormawa|first1=P. M.|last2=Chianu|first2=J. N.|last3=Manyong |first3=V. M. |year=2002 |chapter=Cowpea demand and supply patterns in West Africa: the case of Nigeria |editor1-last=Fatokun |editor1-first=C. A. |editor2-last=Tarawali |editor2-first=S. A.|editor3-last=Singh |editor3-first=B. B.|editor4-last=Kormawa|editor4-first=P. M.|editor5-last=Tamo |editor5-first=M. |title=Challenges and Opportunities for enhancing sustainable Cowpea production |publisher=International Institute of Tropical Agriculture}} In some tradition cropping methods, the yield can be as low as {{convert|100|kg/ha|lb/acre}}.

Outside Africa, the major production areas are Asia, Central America, and South America. Brazil is the world's second-leading producer of cowpea seed, accounting for 17% of annual cowpea production, although most is consumed within the country.{{Cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/inpho/documents/Cowpea%20Postharvest%20III%20Definit.pdf|title=Cowpea Post-harvest Operations|last=Gómez |first=Carlos |date=2004 |website=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|language=en |access-date=2017-04-19}}

{{Reflist|30em|refs=

{{cite journal | title=Transgenic potato plants with enhanced resistance to the tomato moth, Lacanobia oleracea: growth room trials | s2cid=23765916 | last1=Gatehouse | first1=Angharad M.R. | last2=Davison | first2=Gillian M. | last3=Newell | first3=Christine A. | last4=Merryweather | first4=Andrew | last5=Hamilton | first5=William D.O. | last6=Burgess | first6=Elisabeth P.J. | last7=Gilbert | first7=Robert J.C. | last8=Gatehouse | first8=John A. | journal=Molecular Breeding | publisher=Springer Science+Business | volume=3 | issue=1 | year=1997 | issn=1380-3743 | doi=10.1023/a:1009600321838 | pages=49–63}}

}}

{{Commons category|Vigna unguiculata|Cowpea}}

• [https://www.iita.org/cowpea/ Cowpea research at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)]
• [http://www.entm.purdue.edu/NGICA/ Network for Genetic Improvement of Cowpea for All (NGICA)]
• [http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=env%2Fjm%2Fmono(2018)36&doclanguage=en Consensus Document on Compositional Considerations for New Varieties of COWPEA (Vigna unguiculata): Key Food and Feed Nutrients, Anti-nutrients and Other Constituents, OECD Series on the Safety of Novel Foods and Feeds No. 30]
• Adam D. Steinbrenner, Maria Muñoz-Amatriaín, Antonio F. Chaparro, Jessica Montserrat Aguilar-Venegas, Sassoum Lo, Satohiro Okuda, Gaetan Glauser, Julien Dongiovanni, Da Shi, Marlo Hall, Daniel Crubaugh, Nicholas Holton, Cyril Zipfel, Ruben Abagyan, Ted C. J. Turlings, Timothy J. Close, Alisa Huffaker, and Eric A. Schmelz: [https://www.pnas.org/content/early/2020/11/20/2018415117 A receptor-like protein mediates plant immune responses to herbivore-associated molecular patterns]. In: PNAS. November 23, 2020. doi:10.1073/pnas.2018415117. See also:

:* Carly Cassella: [https://www.sciencealert.com/black-eyed-peas-can-sense-the-saliva-of-very-hungry-caterpillars-and-fight-back Saliva From Hungry Caterpillars Alerts Cowpea Plants to Turn on Their Defenses]. On: science^alert. 5 December 2020

{{WestAfricanPlants|Vigna unguiculata}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q498940}}

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Category:Edible legumes

Category:Flora of Nepal

Category:Nitrogen-fixing crops

Category:Vigna

Category:Taxa named by Wilhelm Gerhard Walpers