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Proto-Romance language#Palatalized consonants

{{Short description|Reconstructed ancestor of the Romance languages}}

{{Infobox proto-language

| name = Proto-Romance

| target = Romance languages

| region = Roman Empire

| familycolor = Indo-European

| ancestor = Proto-Indo-European

| ancestor2 = Proto-Italic

| child1 = Common Romanian

| child2 = Proto-Italo-Western Romance

}}

Proto-Romance is the result of applying the comparative method to reconstruct the latest common ancestor of the Romance languages. To what extent, if any, such a reconstruction reflects a real état de langue is controversial. The closest real-life counterpart would have been (vernacular) Late Latin.

Phonology

= Vowels =

== Monophthongs ==

class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

!

!Front

!Central

!Back

Close

|{{IPA link|i}}

|

|{{IPA link|u}}

Near-close

|{{IPA link|ɪ}}

|

|{{IPA link|ʊ}}

Close-mid

|{{IPA link|e}}

|

|{{IPA link|o}}

Open-mid

|{{IPA link|ɛ}}

|

|{{IPA link|ɔ}}

Open

|

|{{IPA link|ä|ä}}

|

== Diphthong ==

{{IPA|/au̯/}} appears to be the only phonemic diphthong that can be reconstructed.{{harvcolnb|Ferguson|1976|p=84}}; {{harvcolnb|Gouvert|2015|p=81}}

== Phonetics ==

  • Vowels were lengthened in stressed open syllables.{{harvcolnb|Gouvert|2015|pp=118‒9}}; {{harvcolnb|Loporcaro|2015}}
  • Stressed {{IPA|/ɛ ɔ/}} may have yielded incipient diphthongs like {{IPA|[e͡ɛ o͡ɔ]}} in metaphonic conditions.{{harvcolnb|Ferguson|1976|p=chapter 7}}{{efn|That is, when followed by a syllable containing a close vowel. |name=|group=lower-roman}}
  • Metaphony, if it can be projected back to Proto-Romance, may have initially been limited to open syllables. That is, it would have targeted allophonically lengthened {{IPA|/ɛ ɔ/}}.{{harvcolnb|Maiden|2016}}

== Constraints ==

  • {{IPA|/ɛ ɔ/}} did not occur in unstressed position.{{harvcolnb|Ferguson|1976|p=76}}; {{harvcolnb|Gouvert|2015|pp=78–81, 121–2}}
  • {{IPA|/i u/}} did not occur in the second syllable of words with the structure ˌσσˈσσ.{{harvcolnb|Gouvert|2015|pp=78–9}}{{efn|Diachronically this reflects the ‘weakening’ of vowels in this context, for which see {{harvcolnb|Lausberg|1970|p=§§292–6}}. An example, per the latter, is Latin {{lang|la|dormītorium}} > French {{lang|fr|dortoir}}.|name=|group=lower-roman}}

= Consonants =

class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

|+{{harvcoltxt|Burger|1955|p=25}}

! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |

! colspan="2" |Bilabial

! colspan="2" |Labiodental

! colspan="2" |Alveolar

! colspan="2" |Palatal

! colspan="2" |Velar

Plain

! Palatalised

! Plain

! Palatalised

! Plain

! Palatalised

! Plain

! Palatalised

! Plain

! Palatalised

colspan="2" |Nasal

| {{IPA link|m}}

| {{IPA link|mʲ}}

|

|

| n

| {{IPA link|nʲ}}

|

|

|

|

rowspan="2" |Plosive

!voiceless

| {{IPA link|p}}

| {{IPA link|pʲ}}

|

|

| t

| {{IPA link|tʲ}}

|

|

| {{IPA link|k}}

| {{IPA link|kʲ}}

voiced

| {{IPA link|b}}

| {{IPA link|bʲ}}

|

|

| d

| {{IPA link|dʲ}}

|

|

| {{IPA link|ɡ}}

| {{IPA link|ɡʲ}}

rowspan="2" |Fricative

!voiceless

|

|

| {{IPA link|f}}

| {{IPA link|fʲ}}

| s

| {{IPA link|sʲ}}

|

|

|

|

voiced

| {{IPA link|β}}

| {{IPA link|βʲ}}

|

|

|

|

|

|

|

|

colspan="2" |Approximant

| ({{IPA link|w}})

|

|

|

|

|

| ({{IPA link|j}})

|

| ({{IPA link|w}})

|

colspan="2" |Lateral Approximant

|

|

|

|

|{{IPA link|l}}

|{{IPA link| lʲ}}

|

|

|

|

colspan="2" |Trill

|

|

|

|

|{{IPA link|r}}

|{{IPA link|rʲ}}

|

|

|

|

== Palatalized consonants ==

{{See also|Palatalization in the Romance languages#/Cj/}}

  • There is scholarly disagreement over whether palatalization was phonemic in Proto-Romance.{{harvcolnb|Operstein|2010|p=107}}{{efn|In representing it as such this article follows {{harvcolnb|Burger|1955}} and {{harvcolnb|Petrovici|1956}}. Similarly, {{harvcolnb|van den Bussche|1985}} proposes a Proto-Romance consonant inventory with /ʎʎ ɲɲ (t)tʲ (d)dʲ (k)kʲ (ɡ)ɡʲ/ (p. 226) and {{harvcolnb|Pope|1952}} reconstructs Proto-Gallo-Romance with a series of palatalized consonants (§168). {{harvcolnb|Gouvert|2015}} prefers a phonetic palatalization rule for Proto-Romance, as in /basiˈare/ [baˈsʲaːɾe] (p. 83).|name=|group=lower-roman}}
  • Palatalized consonants tended to geminate between vowels. The extent of this varied by consonant.{{harvcolnb|Lausberg|1970|p=§§451–478}}; {{harvcolnb|Gouvert|2015|pages=95, 111, 115}}; {{harvcolnb|Repetti|2016|p=659}}; {{harvcolnb|Barbato|2022|p=§1}}{{efn|Gouvert assumes regular (phonetic) gemination of palatalized intervocalic /n l k/ to [ɲɲ ʎʎ cc]. Repetti points out that there exists (mixed) Romance evidence for the gemination of all consonants in this context other than original /s/.|name=|group=lower-roman}}
  • {{IPA|/tʲ/}} would have been an affricate like {{IPA|[t͡sʲ]}}{{harvcolnb|Gouvert|2015|pp=86, 92}} or {{IPA|[t͡zʲ]}}.{{harvcolnb|Lausberg|1970|p=§452}}

== Phonetics ==

  • {{IPA|/sC/}} in word-initial position was assigned a prop-vowel [ɪ], as in {{IPA|/ˈstare/}} {{IPA|[ɪsˈtaːɾe]}}.{{harvcolnb|Lausberg|1970|p=§353}}; {{harvcolnb|Gouvert|2015|pp=125–6}}{{efn|Example from Gouvert. Per Lausberg the prop-vowel would have been added only after a consonant or pause.|name=|group=lower-roman}}
  • {{IPA|/ɡn/}} was likely {{IPA|[ɣn]}} at first, with later developments varying by region.{{harvcolnb|Lausberg|1970|p=§444–8}}; {{harvcolnb|Chambon|2013}} apud {{harvcolnb|Gouvert|2015|p=95}}; {{harvcolnb|Zampaulo|2019|p=80–2}}{{efn|Lausberg supposes an initial [ɣn~i̯n].|name=|group=lower-roman}}
  • {{IPA|/d ɡ/}} might have been fricatives or approximants between vowels.{{harvcolnb|Gouvert|2016|p=48}}
  • {{IPA|/ll/}} might have been retroflex.{{harvcolnb|Gouvert|2015|p=15}}{{efn|For further discussion on /ll/, see {{harvcolnb|Zampaulo|2019|p=71–7}} and {{harvcolnb|Lausberg|1970|p=§§494–9}}.|name=|group=lower-roman}}
  • {{IPA|/f/}} might have been bilabial.{{harvcolnb|Gouvert|2016|p=§1}}

== Constraints ==

  • {{IPA|/b/}} did not occur in intervocalic position.{{harvcolnb|Gouvert|2015|p=86}}{{efn|Diachronically this reflects the development of Latin intervocalic [b] to [β], and likewise [bj] to [βj], for which see {{harvcolnb|Lausberg|1970|p=§§366, 475}}.|name=|group=lower-roman}}

Morphology

The forms below are spelt as they are in the cited sources, either in Latin style or in phonetic notation. The latter may not always agree with the phonology given above.

= Nouns =

Nouns are reconstructed as having three cases: a nominative, an accusative, and a genitive-dative:{{harvcoltxt|Lausberg|1973|pp=§§590–600, 616–27}}{{efn|{{harvcoltxt|de Dardel|Gaeng|1992|p=104}} differ from Lausberg on the following points: 1) They believe that the genitive-dative case was limited to animate nouns. 2) They reconstruct a universal gen-dat. plural ending -orum. 3) They reconstruct, for class -a type nouns, a nominative plural -ae, albeit one in competition with -as according to {{harvcoltxt|de Dardel|Wüest|1993|p=57}}. They are in agreement with Lausberg regarding the remaining inflections.|name=|group=lower-roman}}

class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

!Type

| rowspan="6" |

! colspan="2"

a (f)

| rowspan="6" |

! colspan="2"

o (m)

| rowspan="6" |

! colspan="2"

C (m)

| rowspan="6" |

! colspan="2"

C (f)
Number

!SG

!PL

!SG

!PL

!SG

!PL

!SG

!PL

NOM

| rowspan="2" |capra

| rowspan="2" |capras

|caballus

|caballi

|frater

|fratres/-i

|noctis

| rowspan="2" |noctes

ACC

|caballu

|caballos

|fratre

|fratres

|nocte

GEN-DAT

|caprae

|capris

|caballo

|caballis

|fratri

|fratris

|nocti

|noctis

Gloss

| colspan="2" |‘goat’

| colspan="2" |‘horse’

| colspan="2" |‘brother’

| colspan="2" |‘night’

Some nouns of the –C type had inflections with alternating stress or syllable count:{{harvcoltxt|Lausberg|1973|pp=§§628–38}}

class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

!Type

| rowspan="6" |

! colspan="2"

C (m)

| rowspan="6" |

! colspan="2"

C (f)
Number

!SG

!PL

!SG

!PL

NOM

|hómo

|hómines/-i

|múlier

| rowspan="2" |muliéres

ACC

|hómine

|hómines

|muliére

GEN-DAT

|hómini

|hóminis

|muliéri

|muliéris

Gloss

| colspan="2" |‘man’

| colspan="2" |‘woman’

There were also ‘neuter’ nouns. In the singular they would have been treated as masculine and in the plural as feminine, often with a collective sense.{{harvcoltxt|Lausberg|1973|pp=§§601–15, 639–45, 668}}

class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

!Type

| rowspan="6" |

! colspan="2"

o (n)

| rowspan="6" |

! colspan="2"

C (n)
Number

!SG

!PL

!SG

!PL

NOM

| rowspan="2" |bracchiu

| rowspan="2" |bracchia

| rowspan="2" |corpus

| rowspan="2" |corpora

ACC
GEN-DAT

|bracchio

|bracchiis

|corpori

|corporis

Gloss

| colspan="2" |‘arm’

| colspan="2" |‘body’

= Adjectives =

== Positive ==

class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

|+{{harvcoltxt|Lausberg|1973|pp=§§668–73}}

!Type

| rowspan="7" |

! colspan="5"

o/-a

| rowspan="7" |

! colspan="5" |

Gender

! colspan="2" |M

| rowspan="5" |

! colspan="2" |F

! colspan="2" |M

| rowspan="5" |

! colspan="2" |F

Number

!SG

!PL

!SG

!PL

!SG

!PL

!SG

!PL

NOM

|bonus

|boni

| rowspan="2" |bona

| rowspan="2" |bonas

|virdis

|virdes/-i

|virdis

| rowspan="2" |virdes

ACC

|bonu

|bonos

|virde

|virdes

|virde

GEN-DAT

|bono

|bonis

|bonae

|bonis

|virdi

|virdis

|virdi

|virdis

Gloss

| colspan="5" |‘good’

| colspan="5" |‘green’

== Comparative ==

For the most part, the typical way to form a comparative would have been to add magis or plus (‘more’) to a positive adjective. A few words can be reconstructed as having a comparative ending -ior, which would have been inflected as follows:{{harvcoltxt|Lausberg|1973|pp=§§679–81}}

class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

!Number

| rowspan="5" |

! colspan="2" |SG

Gender

!M or F

!N

NOM

|mélior

| rowspan="2" |mélius

ACC

|melióre

Gloss

| colspan="2" |‘better’

== Superlative ==

Superlatives would have been formed by adding definite articles to comparatives.{{harvcoltxt|Lausberg|1973|pp=§687}}

= Pronouns =

== Personal ==

=== Tonic ===

The stressed or 'strong' forms:{{harvcoltxt|Lausberg|1973|pp=§§707–22}}

class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

!Person

| rowspan="5" |

! colspan="2" |1

| rowspan="5" |

! colspan="2" |2

Number

!SG

!PL

!SG

!PL

NOM

|ego

| rowspan="2" |nos

|tu

| rowspan="2" |vos

ACC

|me/mene

|te/tene

DAT

|mi/mibi

|nobis

|ti/tibi

|vobis

class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

!Person

| rowspan="5" |

! colspan="2" |3 (m)

| rowspan="5" |

! colspan="2" |3 (f)

Number

!SG

!PL

!SG

!PL

NOM

|ille/illi/ipse

|illi/ipsi

| rowspan="2" |illa/ipsa

| rowspan="2" |illas/ipsas

ACC

|illu/ipsu

|illos/ipsos

(GEN-)DAT

|illui/ipsui

|illoru/ipsoru

|illaei/ipsaei

|illoru/ipsoru

=== Atonic ===

The unstressed or 'weak' forms:{{harvcoltxt|Lausberg|1973|pp=§§723–37}}

class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

!Person

| rowspan="4" |

! colspan="2" |1

| rowspan="4" |

! colspan="2" |2

| rowspan="4" |

! colspan="2" |3 (m)

| rowspan="4" |

! colspan="2" |3 (f)

Number

!SG

!PL

!SG

!PL

!SG

!PL

!SG

!PL

ACC

|me

| rowspan="2" |nos

|te

| rowspan="2" |vos

|lu

|los

|la

|las

DAT

|mi

|tī

|li

|lis

|li

|lis

== Interrogative/relative ==

As follows:{{harvcoltxt|Lausberg|1973|pp=§§746–7}}

class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

!Gender

| rowspan="4" |

!M or F

!N

NOM

|qui

| rowspan="2" |quid

(/quod?)

ACC

|quem

DAT

|cui

|–

= Verbs =

== Present ==

class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

|+{{harvcoltxt|van den Bussche|1985|pp=§2.3.2}}

! rowspan="2" |Verb class

| rowspan="9" |

! colspan="2" |1P

| rowspan="9" |

! colspan="2" |2P

| rowspan="9" |

! colspan="2" |3P

| rowspan="9" |

! rowspan="2" |Infinitive

SG

!PL

!SG

!PL

!SG

!PL

I

|kánto

|kantámųs

|kántas

|kantátįs

|kántat

|kántant

|kantáre

IIa

|dǫ́rm(j)o

|dormímųs

|dǫ́rmįs

|dormítįs

|dǫ́rmįt

|dǫ́rmųnt/-ent

|dormíre

IIb

|florésko/-í-

|florímųs

|floréskįs/-í-

|florítįs

|floréskįt/-í-

|floréskųnt/-í-

|floríre

IIIa

|wį́dd’o

|wįdémųs

|wį́des

|wįdétįs

|wį́det

|wį́dųnt/-ent (wį́dd’ųnt)

|wįdére

IIIb

|wę́ndo

|wę́ndįmųs

|wę́ndįs

|wę́ndįtįs

|wę́ndįt

|wę́ndųnt/-ent

|wę́ndere

rowspan="2" |Irregular

|dáo

|dámųs

|dás

|dátįs

|dát

|dánt/dáųnt/dáent

|dáre

ábjo/ájjo

|abémųs

|áes/ás

|abétįs

|áet/át

|ánt/áųnt/áent

|abére

== Preterite ==

class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

|+{{harvcoltxt|van den Bussche|1985|pp=§2.3.3}}

! rowspan="2" |Verb class

| rowspan="7" |

! colspan="2" |1P

| rowspan="7" |

! colspan="2" |2P

| rowspan="7" |

! colspan="2" |3P

| rowspan="7" |

! rowspan="2" |Infinitive

SG

!PL

!SG

!PL

!SG

!PL

I

|kantáj

|kantámmųs

|kantásti

|kantástįs

|kantáwt/-át

|kantárųnt

|kantáre

IIa

|dormíj

|dormímmųs

|dormísti

|dormístįs

|dormíwt/-ít

|dormírųnt

|dormíre

IIIb

|battę́j

|battę́mmųs

|battę́sti 

|battę́stįs

|battę́wt/-ę́t

|battę́rųnt

|báttere

rowspan="2" |Irregular

|féki

|fékįmųs/-kį́mm-

|fekį́sti

|fekį́stįs

|fékįt

|fékerųnt/-ér-

|fákere

díksi

|díksįmųs/-kį́mm-

|dikį́sti

|dikį́stįs

|díksįt

|díkserųnt

|díkere

== Participles ==

class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

|+{{harvcoltxt|van den Bussche|1985|pp=§2.3.4}}

!Verb Class

| rowspan="4" |

!present

!preterite

I

|kantánte

|kantátų

II

|dormę́nte

|dormítų

III

|wendę́nte

|(wę́ndįtų/-útų)

See also

Notes

{{notelist-lr}}

References

{{reflist}}

Bibliography

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  • {{cite book |last=Zampaulo |first=André |title=Palatal sound change in the Romance languages: Diachronic and synchronic perspectives |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198807384.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-880738-4 }}

{{Romance languages|state=collapsed}}

Category:Forms of Latin

Category:Romance languages

Romance