technical geography

Technical geography is highly theoretical and focuses on developing and testing methods and technologies for handling spatial-temporal data. These technologies are then applied to datasets and problems within the branches of both human and physical geography. Historically, technical geography was focused on cartography and globe-making. Today, while technical geographers still develop and make maps, the Information Age has pushed the development of information management techniques to handle spatial data and support decision-makers. To this end, technical geographers often adapt technology and techniques from other disciplines to spatial problems rather than create original innovations, such as using computers to aid in cartography. They also explore adapting techniques developed for one area of geography to another, such as kriging, originally created for estimating gold ore distributions but now applied to topics such as real estate appraisal.{{cite book |last1=Journel |first1=A. G. |first2=C. J. |last2=Huijbregts | pages = 167, 304–343 |year=1978 |title=Mining Geostatistics |publisher=Academic Press |location=London |isbn=0-12-391050-1 }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Richmond | first1 = A. | journal = Mathematical Geology| title = Financially Efficient Ore Selections Incorporating Grade Uncertainty| volume = 35 | issue = 2 | pages = 195–215 | doi = 10.1023/A:1023239606028 | year = 2003 | bibcode = 2003MatG...35..195R | s2cid = 116703619 }}{{cite web |last1=Barris |first1=J. |last2=Garcia Almirall |first2=P. |year=2010 |title=A density function of the appraisal value |website=European Real Estate Society |url=https://eres.architexturez.net/system/files/pdf/eres2011_135.content.pdf }} Technical geography today is theoretically grounded in information theory, or the study of mathematical laws that govern information systems.

There are several concepts related to technical geography that are considered central attributes of the discipline. In one paper, autocorrelation and frequency are listed as the concepts that technical geography is based upon. Central to technical geography are the technologies surrounding cartography and map production, which is only possible through cartographic generalization. More than just reducing the overall level of information, cartographic generalization helps discover patterns and trends in data that underlie many techniques and technologies employed and investigated by technical geographers.

{{main|Autocorrelation}}

File:Moran's I example.png' neighbors for each grid cell, setting $w\_\{ij\}=1$ for neighbours $j$ of $i$ and then row normalizing the weight matrix. Top left shows anti-correlation giving a negative I. Top right shows a spatial gradient giving a large positive I. Bottom left shows random data giving a value of I near 0 (or $-1/(N-1)\; \backslash simeq\; -0.04$). Bottom right shows an 'ink blot' or spreading pattern with positive autocorrelation.]]

File:USA Contiguous Poverty 2020 clusters.jpg

Autocorrelation is a statistical measure used to assess the degree to which a given data set is correlated with itself over different time intervals or spatial distances.{{cite book |last1=Goodchild |first1=Michael F. |title=Spatial Autocorrelation | pages = 3–5 |date=1986 |publisher=Geo Books |isbn=0-86094-223-6 |url=https://alexsingleton.files.wordpress.com/2014/09/47-spatial-aurocorrelation.pdf}}{{cite journal |last1=Mitchell |first1=David J |last2=Dujon |first2=Antoine M |last3=Beckmann |first3=Christa |last4=Biro |first4=Peter |title=Temporal autocorrelation: a neglected factor in the study of behavioral repeatability and plasticity |journal=Behavioral Ecology |date=1 November 2019 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=222–231 |doi=10.1093/beheco/arz180|doi-access=free |hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30135712 |hdl-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Gao |first1=Yong |last2=Cheng |first2=Jing |last3=Meng |first3=Haohan |last4=Liu |first4=Yu |title=Measuring spatio-temporal autocorrelation in time series data of collective human mobility |journal=Geo-spatial Information Science |date=2019 |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=166–173 |doi=10.1080/10095020.2019.1643609|doi-access=free |bibcode=2019GSIS...22..166G }} In essence, it quantifies the similarity between observations as a function of the time lag or spatial distance between them. Autocorrelation can be positive (indicating that similar values cluster together) or negative (indicating that dissimilar values are near each other). Spatial autocorrelation involves the correlation of a variable with itself across different spatial locations. Temporal autocorrelation involves the correlation of a signal with a delayed copy of itself over successive time intervals. Autocorrelation is the foundation of Tobler's first law of geography. Spatial autocorrelation is measured with tools such as Moran's I or Getis–Ord statistics.{{cite book |last1=Mitchell |first1=Andy |title=The ESRI Guide to GIS Analysis, Volume 2. |date=2005 |publisher=Esri Press |pages = 148-180 |isbn=978-1589481169 |edition=1}}

Autocorrelation is fundamental to technical geography because it provides critical insights into the spatial and temporal structure of geographical data. It enhances the ability to model, analyze, and interpret spatial patterns and relationships, supporting various applications from environmental monitoring and urban planning to resource management and public health. By understanding and leveraging autocorrelation, geographers can make more informed decisions, improve the accuracy of their analyses, and contribute to solving real-world geographical problems. The techniques and technologies used to leverage this understanding are a core focus of technical geography.

{{main|Frequency (statistics)}}

In statistics, frequency refers to the number of occurrences of a particular event or value within a dataset.{{cite book | last1 = Kenney | first1 = J. F. | last2 = Keeping | first2 = E. S. | title = Mathematics of Statistics, Part 1 | edition = 3rd | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UdlLAAAAMAAJ | location = Princeton, NJ | publisher = Van Nostrand Reinhold | year = 1962}}{{cite book |last1=Gardiner |first1=V. |last2=Gardiner |first2=G. |date=1979 |title=Analysis of Frequency Distributions | pages = 3–6 |publisher=Geo Abstracts, University of East Anglia |isbn=0-902246-98-4 |url=https://alexsingleton.files.wordpress.com/2014/09/19-analysis-of-frequency-distributions.pdf}} When dealing with spatial and temporal datasets, the concept of frequency can be applied to understand how often certain events or values occur across different locations (spatial) or over time (temporal). Spatial datasets contain data points that are associated with specific geographic locations, and frequency in spatial datasets can be used to analyze patterns and distributions across different areas. Temporal datasets involve data points that are associated with specific time points, and frequency in temporal datasets helps analyze trends and patterns over time. Analyzing how the frequency of events changes across both space and time can reveal dynamic patterns. Spatial and temporal frequency are core concepts in technical geography because they are fundamental to understanding and analyzing geographic phenomena. Geography is inherently concerned with the distribution and dynamics of features across space and over time, and technical geography researches and develops the techniques to deal with this data.{{cite book |last1=Thrift |first1=Nigel |title=Key Concepts in Geography: Space, The Fundamental Stuff of Geography |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3 |pages=85–96 |edition=2nd}}{{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Peter |title=Key Concepts in Geography: Time, From Hegemonic Change to Everyday life |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3 |pages=140–152|edition=2nd}}{{cite book |last1=Thrift |first1=Nigel |title=An Introduction to Time-Geography |date=1977 |publisher=Geo Abstracts, University of East Anglia|pages=4-5 |isbn=0-90224667-4}}

{{main|Cartographic generalization}}

Cartographic generalization is the process of simplifying the representation of geographical information on maps, making complex data more understandable and useful for specific purposes or scales. This process involves selectively reducing the detail of features to prevent clutter and ensure that the map communicates the intended information effectively. The need for generalization arises because maps often depict large areas and scales, where including every detail is impractical and can overwhelm the map reader. The primary goal of cartographic generalization is to balance detail with readability, ensuring that the map serves its intended purpose without sacrificing essential information. By placing data in a spatial context, even though it is generalized, cartographic generalization creates additional information by revealing patterns and trends in the data.

Effective generalization requires a deep understanding of the map's use case, the audience's needs, and the geographical context. Technological advancements, such as the World Wide Web (WWW), Geographic information systems (GIS), and information theory have greatly aided cartographers in generalizing maps more efficiently and consistently. These tools can apply generalization rules systematically, ensuring high-quality outputs even as data volume increases. Cartographic generalization is foundational in technical geography because it ensures that maps are functional, readable, and tailored to their intended use. It balances the need for detail with the practical limitations of scale and medium, enhancing the effectiveness of maps as tools for communication, analysis, and decision-making.

{{See also|History of geography}}

The term "technical geography" is a combination of the words "technical", from the Greek τεχνικός (tekhnikós, translated as artistic, skillful, workmanlike), meaning relating to a particular subject or activity and involving practical skills, and "geography", from the Greek γεωγραφία (geographia, a combination of Greek words 'Geo', the Earth, and 'Graphien', to describe. Literally "earth description"), a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. Technical geography as a distinct term in the English language within the discipline of geography dates back at least as far as 1739 to Geography Reform'd, an anonymous{{cite book|editor-last1=Domosh|editor-first1=Mona|editor-last2=Heffernan|editor-first2=Michael|editor-last3=Withers|editor-first3=Charles W. J.|year=2020|last=Mayhew|first=Robert|chapter=Pre-Histories|volume=I|title=The SAGE Handbook of Historical Geography|pages=15-16|isbn=9781526404558|oclc=1451834162}} book published by English printer Edward Cave at St John's Gate, Clerkenwell.{{cite book |last1=Sitwell |first1=O.F.G. |title=Four Centuries of Special Geography |date=1993 |publisher=UBCPress |location=Vancouver, BC |isbn=0-7748-0444-0 |page=242 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-a4HejRfsyAC&dq=%22technical++geography%22&pg=PA242 |access-date=4 January 2024}} The original authorship is unknown, but researchers believe it appears similar to the work of an anonymous scholar known under the pen names of either "John Green" or "Bradock Mead", both of whom are thought to be the same person. The second edition of the book, republished under the new title of Geography Reformed in 1749, was identical to the first edition except for its title and original preface, which was altered for the new edition. It is divided into four parts, one of which was named "containing technical geography", which focused on both globes and maps, including concepts of cartographic design, and projection. One author described the publication as being "more concerned with the construction of accurate maps (and globes) than with the descriptions that would accompany them." In this book, the author chose to use the term "technical geography" rather than "practical geography" to clarify that the branch is distinct in theory and methods. 'Geography Reformed defines technical geography with the following:

{{Blockquote

|text=The Description confider'd as to Form is of three Sorts; The first exhibits the Earth, by a Draught or Delineation; the second by Tables, or Registers; and the third by Treties or Discourse. Hence Technical Geography may be divided into Representatory, Synoptical, and Explanatory.}}

When the term technical geography first entered the English lexicon is difficult to determine. Technical geography, as a concept, extends across cultures, with techniques dating back to the origins of cartography, surveying, and remote sensing. Technical geography as a term is more than place name recollection and toponymy; it involves spatial relationships between points and theory.{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=Lawrence |title=The Michigan-Wisconsin Boundary Case in the Supreme Court of the United States, 1923–26 |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |date=1930 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=105–163 |jstor=2560596 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2560596 |access-date=1 February 2023}} Eratosthenes has been called the "founder of mathematical geography", and his activities are described as "little different from what we expect of a technical geographer."{{cite book |last1=Gee |first1=Emma |title=Mapping the Afterlife: From Homer to Dante |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190670498 |page=52 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mqbaDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Technical+geography%22&pg=PA39 |access-date=20 March 2024}} Within the "Ptolemaic tradition" of geography started by Ptolemy, scholars have identified distinct "technical elements" in "Ptolemaic cartographic theory" such as map projection, lines of latitude and longitude, coordinates, grids, scales, and the theory of astronomically defined climates.{{cite book |last1=Brentjes |first1=Sonja |title=International Encyclopedia of Human Geography |date=2009 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044911-1 |pages=414–427 |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B978008044910400002X |access-date=29 January 2024 |chapter=Cartography in Islamic Societies}} Islamic geographers later adopted these technical elements when Ptolmey's book, Geographia, was translated into Arabic in the ninth century, often mixing them with elements of traditional Islamic cartography. For example, the Kitab al-Buldan, written by Ibn al-Faqih between 902 and 903 C.E., was described by Henri Massé as "technical geography [including] themes of adab."{{cite book |last1=Scheiner |first1=Jens |last2=Toral |first2=Isabel |title=Baghdād: From Its Beginnings to the 14th Century |date=28 Jul 2022 |isbn=978-90-04-51337-2 |page=804 |publisher=BRILL |url=https://brill.com/display/title/62133 |access-date=14 December 2023}}

By the late 1800s, the term "technical geography" was in use to some capacity in American public education and academia. For example, an article in the 1889 edition of the journal School and Home Education stated that "we never hear teachers questioning whether technical geography shall be taught in the schools" and defined the term "technical" to mean "especially appropriate to any art or science."{{cite journal |title=Art of Teaching |journal=School and Home Education |date=September 1889 |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=108 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgNRAQAAMAAJ |access-date=4 January 2024}} An 1890 publication advertised that the 1891 International Geographical Congress at Berne would have five divisions in its program, with the first being technical geography listing topics like mathematical geography, geodesy, and cartography as examples of content within this division.{{cite journal |title=Geographical notes |journal=Journal of the American Geographical Society of New York |date=1890 |volume=22 |doi=10.2307/196643 |jstor=196643 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qugRAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22technical+geography%22&pg=PA599 |access-date=24 March 2024 |last1=Hurlbut |first1=George C. |pages=599–620 |url-access=subscription }}

File:ISS048-E-3055 - View of Earth.jpg passage between Wisconsin and Michigan in the 1930s resulted in a boundary defined without technical geography.]]

In 1902, geodesy was suggested as a discipline supporting technical geography by supplying the "backbone, that main axis of indisputable values from which our network of triangulations may spread during the first steps in geographical map-making."{{cite journal |last1=Holdich |first1=T. H. |title=The progress of geographical knowledge |journal=Scottish Geographical Magazine |date=1902 |volume=18 |issue=10 |pages=505–525 |doi=10.1080/00369220208733393 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00369220208733393?journalCode=rsgj19 |access-date=1 February 2023}} In 1908, geography professor George D. Hubbard included technical geography alongside regional geography, physical geography, and general research as courses that should be taught in U.S. university geography departments.{{cite journal |last1=Hubbard |first1=George D. |title=College Geography |journal=Educational Review |date=1908 |pages=381–400 |url=https://books.googleusercontent.com/books/content?req=AKW5Qae0grAUoot8_ptlKLToYyqHuK3lL6bvuozl7u16UV-9oTJfnMqHcEjvf4y7dpwDgFR_4IwSTiGah99KUwCvkWbjTNweGRRAmac2N1ed5gldSRRQkhqb8upY1_SkaORQrChXkYoBJrbepSgKTgDrwTsx_hRO7skpHgafHXrkh6FJFkMqV9tgDpvYmZO4zF1qCXPQgMCVEwp5tCn8VmF1UyFq4qgDgYK_J7H4jBTqYQr95gWdz1xPXGLXWI7avd7w_j74JyjC |access-date=4 January 2024}} Hubbard specifies that technical geography refers to topics such as "mathematical or astronomical geography", as well as cartography. A 1910 publication in the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society introduced the concept of "scientific geography" and discussed employing the scientific method to geographic concepts.{{cite journal |last1=Tower |first1=Walter S. |title=Scientific Geography: The Relation of Its Content to Its Subdivisions |journal=Bulletin of the American Geographical Society |date=1910 |volume=42 |issue=11 |pages=801–825 |doi=10.2307/199630 |jstor=199630 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/199630 |access-date=18 January 2024|url-access=subscription }} This publication proposed how a field of scientific geography could be organized, and specified that "Phytogeography", "Zoogeography", and "Anthropogeography" could be areas where scientific principles could be applied. While this publication did not use the term technical geography in its description, several later publications explicitly link scientific and technical geography. By 1917, technical geography was included among courses taught at some British schools, alongside mathematics, chemistry, and other natural sciences.{{cite journal |last1=A Secondary Schoolmaster |title=A Reform School |journal=The English Review |date=1917 |volume=64 |issue=7 |pages=331–337 |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2421484 |access-date=1 February 2023|id={{ProQuest|2421484}} }} As techniques and concepts in technical geography advanced, geographers began to lament the lack of understanding and use of more advanced geographic concepts in society and law. Specifically, this became an issue during the 1930s Michigan-Wisconsin boundary case in the Supreme Court of the United States, where the border was not defined with specific technical geographic concepts. During the 1940s, Oregon State University began focusing on technical geography as part of an applied geography program.{{cite book |last1=Jensen |first1=J. Granville |title=Association of Pacific Coast Geographers Yearbook. |date=1990 |pages=153–164 |url=https://ceoas.oregonstate.edu/sites/ceoas.oregonstate.edu/files/geography1946_1989.pdf |access-date=29 September 2023 |chapter=Geography at Oregon State University}}

{{Main|Quantitative revolution}}

Technical geography differentiated more clearly during the quantitative revolution in the 1950s and 1960s.{{cite journal |last1=Kwan |first1=Mei-Po |last2=Schwanen |first2=Tim |title=Quantitative Revolution 2: The Critical (Re)Turn |journal=The Professional Geographer |date=2009 |volume=61 |pages=283-291 |doi=10.1080/00330120902931903 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00330120902931903 |access-date=24 May 2025}}{{cite book|last1=Gregory|first1=Derek|last2=Johnston|first2=Ron|last3=Pratt|first3=Geraldine|last4=Watts|first4=Michael J.|last5=Whatmore|first5=Sarah|title=The Dictionary of Human Geography|date=2009|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=US & UK|pages=611–12|edition=5th}} Before this, the techniques and methods of handling spatial information were primarily focused on supporting human or physical geography, rather than a subject of study itself. World War II, which saw the extensive use of cartography and air photos, revolutionized these techniques and brought a new focus on the benefits they offered.{{cite journal |last1=Jenks |first1=George |title=An Improved Curriculum for Cartographic Training at the College and University Level |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |date=1953 |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=317–331 |doi=10.2307/2560899 |jstor=2560899 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790251 |access-date=30 January 2023|url-access=subscription }}{{cite journal|last1=Ackerman|first1=E.A.|title=Geographic training, wartime research, and immediate professional objectives|journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers|date=1945|volume=35|issue=4|pages=121–43|doi=10.1080/00045604509357271}}--as cited in Johnston, Ron and Sideway James (2016). Geography and Geographers: Anglo-American Human Geography since 1945 (7th ed). New York: Routledge. In the years before the quantitative revolution, geography was generally fragmented and focused on descriptive approaches, and many United States universities were eliminating geography departments around the country. To address this, geographers began to debate the merits of more scientific and methods-based approaches to the discipline and advocate for the benefits these methods had to other technical courses.{{cite journal |last1=Honeybone |first1=R. C. |last2=Sugden |first2=J. C. G |last3=Wallace |first3=W. |title=Geography and Technical Education |journal=The Geographical Journal |date=1958 |volume=124 |issue=2 |pages=232–234 |doi=10.2307/1790251 |jstor=1790251 |bibcode=1958GeogJ.124..232. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790251 |access-date=30 December 2022|url-access=subscription }}{{cite journal|last1=Hartshorne|first1=Richard|title=Comment on 'Exceptionalism in geography'|journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers|date=1954|volume=38|issue=1|pages=108–9|jstor=2561120}}--as cited in Johnston, Ron and Sideway James (2016). Geography and Geographers: Anglo-American Human Geography since 1945 (7th ed). New York: Routledge.{{cite journal|last1=Hartshorne|first1=Richard|title='Exceptionalism in Geography' re-examined|journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers|date=1955|volume=45|pages=205–44|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.1955.tb01671.x}}--as cited in Johnston, Ron and Sideway James (2016). Geography and Geographers: Anglo-American Human Geography since 1945 (7th ed). New York: Routledge.{{cite journal|last1=Hartshorne|first1=Richard|title=The concept of geography as a science of space from Kant and Humboldt to Hettner|journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers|date=1958|volume=48|issue=2|pages=97–108|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.1958.tb01562.x}}--as cited in Johnston, Ron and Sideway James (2016). Geography and Geographers: Anglo-American Human Geography since 1945 (7th ed). New York: Routledge.{{cite book|last1=Hartshorne|first1=Richard|title=Perspective on the Nature of Geography|date=1959|publisher=Rand McNally|location=Chicago}}--as cited in Johnston, Ron and Sideway James (2016). Geography and Geographers: Anglo-American Human Geography since 1945 (7th ed). New York: Routledge. Some, such as the preeminent cartographer George Jenks went as far as to suggest that cartography should be a separate academic discipline from geography entirely, even if only at a few academic institutions.{{cite journal |last1=White |first1=Travis M. |title=The George F. Jenks Map Collection |journal=Cartographic Perspectives |date=2018 |volume=91 |issue=91 |doi=10.14714/CP91.1516 |url=https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/1516/1694 |access-date=4 April 2024|doi-access=free }} This approach was shunned by more traditional geographers, who viewed it as a deviation from how geographers had always viewed and interacted with maps.{{cite journal |last1=Crampton |first1=Jeremy W. |last2=Krygier |first2=John |title=An Introduction to Critical Cartography |journal=ACME: An International Journal for Critical Geographies |date=2005 |volume=4 |issue=1 |url=https://acme-journal.org/index.php/acme/article/view/723 |access-date=30 January 2023}} While the best approach to the technical aspect of geography was heavily debated among geographers, geography departments at universities across the United States began to teach a more scientific approach to geography.{{cite book|last1=Johnston|first1=Ron|last2=Sidaway|first2=James|title=Geography & Geographers: Anglo-American Human Geography since 1945|date=2016|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|pages=64–76|edition=7th}}{{cite book|last1=Gregory|first1=Derek|last2=Johnston|first2=Ron|last3=Pratt|first3=Geraldine|last4=Watts|first4=Michael J.|last5=Whatmore|first5=Robert|title=The Dictionary of Human Geography|date=2009|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=USA & UK|pages=611–12|edition=5th}}{{cite book |last1=Baker|first1=Robert|title=Geography Volume I: Modeling Geographic Systems and Prediction |date=2009 |publisher=EOLSS UNESCO |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |pages=294-297|isbn=978-1-84826-960-6 |edition=1}}

{{main|Laws of geography}}

File:Waldo Tobler 2007.jpg, originator of Tobler's first and second law of geography{{cite journal |last1=Dorling |first1=Danny |last2=Hennig |first2=Benjamin |date=2018 |title=Waldo Tobler: Remembering a genius |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/HYqyQ9SzWIj5BAF6XZS3/full |journal=The Cartographic Journal |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=303–304 |bibcode=2018CartJ..55..303D |doi=10.1080/00087041.2018.1507181 |access-date=13 January 2024}}]]

The quantitative revolution is primarily credited with shifting descriptive, or idiographic, geography to an empirical law-making, or nomothetic, geography.{{cite book |last1=DeLyser |first1=Dydia |last2=Herbert |first2=Steve |last3=Aitken |first3=Stuart |last4=Crang |first4=Mike |last5=McDowell |first5=Linda |title=The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Geography |date=November 2009 |publisher=SAGE Publications|pages=2-5 |isbn=9781412919913 |edition=1 |url=https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/the-sage-handbook-of-qualitative-geography/book228796#preview |access-date=27 April 2023}} The first of these laws was proposed by Waldo Tobler in a 1970 paper, and more have been proposed since.{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=Robert Toovey |title=Geography, Von Thünen, and Tobler's first law: Tracing the evolution of a concept |journal=Geographical Review |date=28 Apr 2021 |volume=112 |issue=4 |pages=591–607 |doi=10.1080/00167428.2021.1906670|s2cid=233620037 }} Some geographers argue against the idea that laws in geography are necessary or even valid.{{cite journal |last1=Tobler |first1=Waldo |title=A Computer Movie Simulating Urban Growth in the Detroit Region |journal=Economic Geography |date=1970 |volume=46 |pages=234–240 |doi=10.2307/143141 |jstor=143141 |s2cid=34085823 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/eaa5/eefedd4fa34b7de7448c0c8e0822e9fdf956.pdf |access-date=22 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308014451/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/eaa5/eefedd4fa34b7de7448c0c8e0822e9fdf956.pdf |archive-date=8 March 2019 |url-status=dead}}{{cite journal |last1=Tobler |first1=Waldo |title=On the First Law of Geography: A Reply |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |date=2004 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=304–310 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.09402009.x |s2cid=33201684 |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.09402009.x |access-date=10 March 2022|url-access=subscription }}{{cite journal |last1=Goodchild |first1=Michael |title=The Validity and Usefulness of Laws in Geographic Information Science and Geography |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |date=2004 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=300–303 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.09402008.x|s2cid=17912938 }} These criticisms have been addressed by Tobler and others. Examples of these laws include Tobler's first law of geography, Tobler's second law of geography, and Arbia's law of geography.{{cite journal |last1=Arbia |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Benedetti |first2=R. |last3=Espa |first3=G. |title="Effects of MAUP on image classification" |journal=Journal of Geographical Systems |date=1996 |volume=3 |pages=123–141}}{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Peter |title=The laws of geography |journal=Teaching Geography |date=2005 |volume=30 |issue=3 |page=150}} French geographer Ionel Haidu noted Tobler's first law of geography, and the associated concept of spatial autocorrelation, as central concepts to technical geography.

The 20th century saw the rapid emergence of technologies such as computers, satellites, and the corresponding software to operate them. These technologies rapidly changed how geographers operated, and significant effort went into considering how best to incorporate them into the discipline. With these technologies came new disciplines and terms like analytical cartography, which focus on mathematical modeling and theoretical implications of cartography.{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=Keith C. |last2=Cloud |first2=John G. |title=On the Origins of Analytical Cartography |journal=Cartography and Geographic Information Science |date=2000 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=195–204 |doi=10.1559/152304000783547821 |bibcode=2000CGISc..27..195C |s2cid=7501501 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1559/152304000783547821 |access-date=25 January 2024|url-access=subscription }} These terms often compete and overlap with each other and often originate in separate countries, such as geographic information science in the United States, geomatics in France, and geoinformatics in Sweden.{{cite journal |last1=Krawczyk |first1=Artur |title=Proposal of Redefinition of the Terms Geomatics and Geoinformatics on the Basis of Terminological Postulates |journal= ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information|date=9 November 2022 |volume=11 |issue=11 |pages=Krawczyk |doi=10.3390/ijgi11110557 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022IJGI...11..557K }} Three major technologies, remote sensing (RS), Geographic information systems (GIS), and the global positioning system (GPS) are highlighted as examples of technologies characterizing technical geography.

{{Main|Remote sensing}}

Image:Usaf.u2.750pix.jpg reconnaissance/surveillance aircraft is one example of Cold War era platforms that advanced remote sensing technology.]]

Along with computers and GIS, new spatial data sources emerged during the quantitative revolution. Air photo technology was widely used in World War I and, in subsequent years, was applied to civilian endeavors.{{cite book|last1=Bagley|first1=James|title=Aerophotography and Aerosurverying|date=1941|publisher=The Maple Press Company|location=York, PA|edition=1st|page=vii|oclc=938332}} James W. Bagley's 1941 textbook titled Aerophotography and Aerosurverying stated the following in the first line of its preface:

{{Blockquote

|text=There is no longer any need to preach for aerial photography—not in the United States—for so widespread has become its use and so great its value that even the farmer who plants his fields in a remote corner of the country knows its value.}}

Remote sensing technology again advanced rapidly during World War II, and the techniques employed were rapidly assimilated as aids in geographical studies.{{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=F. |title=Geography from the Air |date=1953 |publisher=Methuen & Co. LTD |location=London |edition=1}} During the Cold War, advancements in photography, aircraft (such as the Lockheed U-2 and Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird), and rockets only increased the effectiveness of remote sensing techniques.{{cite book |last1=Jensen |first1=John |title=Introductory digital image processing: a remote sensing perspective |date=2016 |publisher=Pearson Education, Inc |location=Glenview, IL |isbn=978-0-13-405816-0 |pages=623}} As the technology became available to the general public, geographers were soon overwhelmed with large volumes of satellite and aerial images. New techniques were required to store, process, analyze, and use this new data source, birthing remote sensing scientists.

{{Main|Computer cartography|Geographic information systems}}

File:QGIS Interface Screenshot with Map of Median Income in Houston (2010).png Interface Screenshot with Map of Median Income in Houston (2010)]]

Coinciding with the quantitative revolution was the emergence of early computers. The interdisciplinary nature of geography forces geographers to look at developments in other fields, and geographers tend to observe and adapt technological innovations from other disciplines rather than developing unique technologies to conduct geographic studies.{{cite book |last1=Monmonier |first1=Mark |title=Technological Transition in Cartography |date=1985 |publisher=Univ of Wisconsin |pages=11–14, 159–172 |isbn=0299100707 |edition=1}} More than a decade after the first computers were developed, Waldo Tobler published the first paper detailing the use of computers in the map-making process titled "Automation and Cartography" in 1959.{{cite journal |last1=Tobler |first1=Waldo |title=Automation and Cartography |journal=Geographical Review |date=1959 |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=526–534 |doi=10.2307/212211 |jstor=212211 |bibcode=1959GeoRv..49..526T |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/212211 |access-date=10 March 2022|url-access=subscription }} While novel in terms of application, the process detailed by Tobler did not allow for storing or analyzing of geographic data. As computer technology progressed and better hardware became available, geographers rapidly adopted the technology to create maps.{{cite web |url=http://www.broward.org/library/bienes/lii14009.htm |title=Map Printing Methods |first=Joseph H. |last=Fitzgerald |access-date=9 June 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070604194024/http://www.broward.org/library/bienes/lii14009.htm |archive-date = 4 June 2007}} In 1960, Roger Tomlinson created the first geographic information system, which allowed for storing and analysis of spatial data within a computer.{{cite web|title=The 50th Anniversary of GIS|url=http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/fall12articles/the-fiftieth-anniversary-of-gis.html|publisher=ESRI|access-date=18 April 2013}} These tools revolutionized the discipline of geography by contributing to the positivist scientific approaches to the discipline during the quantitative revolution.{{cite journal |last1=St. Martin |first1=Kevin |last2=Wing |first2=John |title=The Discourse and Discipline of GIS |journal=Cartographica |date=2007 |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=235–248|doi=10.3138/carto.42.3.235 }} In the 1985 book Technological Transition in Cartography, Mark Monmonier speculated that computer cartography facilitated by GIS would largely replace traditional pen and paper cartography. Geographers began to heavily debate the place of GIS in geography, with some rejecting its methods and others heavily advocating for it. In response to critics, British geographer Stan Openshaw stated:{{cite journal |last1=Openshaw |first1=Stan |title=A View on the GIS Crisis in Geography, or, Using GIS to Put Humpty-Dumpty Back Together Again |journal=Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space |date=May 1991 |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=621–628 |doi=10.1068/a230621|bibcode=1991EnPlA..23..621O |s2cid=131571153 }}

{{Blockquote

|text={{nbsp}}... if geographers reject GIS then it could fundamentally affect the outside world's perception of what geography is all about. Certainly, these external perceptions may well be based on a picture of geography as it once was, but nevertheless they cannot be ignored. "How could they be so foolish as to disown the very core of their discipline?"}}

With the emergence of GIS, researchers rapidly began to explore methods to use the technology for various geographic problems.{{cite journal|doi=10.5311/JOSIS.2010.1.2|title=Twenty years of progress: GIScience in 2010|year=2010|last1=Goodchild|first1=Michael F|journal=Journal of Spatial Information Science|issue=1|doi-access=free}} This led some geographers to declare the study of the computer-based methods their own science within geography. GIS serves as the primary technology driving the field of geodesign by enabling real-time feedback in considering geography and landscape with community planning.{{cite book |last1=McElvaney |first1=Shannon |title=Geodesign: Case Studies in Regional and Urban Planning |date=2012 |publisher=Esri Press |isbn=978-1589483163}}

{{Main|Global Positioning System}}

File:ConstellationGPS.gif

In 1978, the United States military launched the first satellites to enable the modern Global Positioning System (GPS), and the system's full capability was made available to the general public in 2000.{{cite journal | title = Evolution of the Global Navigation satellite system (GNSS) | first1 = Christopher J. | last1 = Hegarty | first2 = Eric | last2 = Chatre | journal = Proceedings of the IEEE | date = December 2008 | pages = 1902–1917 | doi = 10.1109/JPROC.2008.2006090 | volume=96| issue = 12 | s2cid = 838848 }} This facilitated a level of rapid acquisition of spatial coordinates that previously would have been expensive. Geographers began studying methods and applications for this data.{{cite journal |last1=Dardanelli |first1=Gino |last2=Lo Brutto |first2=Mauro |last3=Pipitone |first3=Claudia |title=GNSS CORS Network of the University of Palermo: Design and First Analysis of Data |journal=Geographia Technica |date=2020 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=43–69 |doi=10.21163/GT_2020.151.05|s2cid=215889035 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020GeogT..15...43D |hdl=10447/401186 |hdl-access=free }} In subsequent years, other countries have launched satellite constellations enabling Satellite navigation, including Russia's GLONASS,{{cite magazine|title=Russia Launches Three More GLONASS-M Space Vehicles|url=http://www.insidegnss.com/node/982|magazine=Inside GNSS|access-date=December 26, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206081945/http://insidegnss.com/node/982|archive-date=February 6, 2009}} China's BeiDou Navigation Satellite System,{{cite news |title=China launches final satellite in GPS-like Beidou system |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-06-china-satellite-gps-like-beidou.html |access-date=June 24, 2020 |work=phys.org |agency=The Associated Press |date=June 23, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200624080233/https://phys.org/news/2020-06-china-satellite-gps-like-beidou.html |archive-date=June 24, 2020 |url-status=live}} and the European Union's Galileo navigation satellite system.{{cite web|url=http://www.dw.com/en/galileo-navigation-satellite-system-goes-live/a-36422029|title=Galileo navigation satellite system goes live|publisher=dw.com|access-date=December 17, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018202016/http://www.dw.com/en/galileo-navigation-satellite-system-goes-live/a-36422029|archive-date=October 18, 2017|url-status=live}}

During the quantitative revolution, several new subdisciplines arose from within the field of technical geography. These include quantitative geography, geomatics, geoinformatics, and geographic information science. These terms all overlap to some degree, but at least one study indicates they differ substantially enough to continue using. The proliferation of these new terms may have been detrimental to their popularity, and it has been suggested that they were possibly created carelessly or hastily. This has led to some confusion, and properly defining the areas covered by each term is an active field of research. One paper by Artur Krawczyk on the topic stated the following:

{{Blockquote

|text=With the appearance of the next new technologies, immediately, new proposals of new sciences, new subdisciplines, appear. Many authors with great ease announce the origination of a new science, frequently not caring for the proper justification of its name definition. The old definitions, developed in the context of previous technological conditions, remain in the shadow of new technologies, and are not modernised. The lack of specific terminological conditions, determined boundaries, or scopes of such definition use, encourages one to define the next terms, and the next science and research disciplines.}}

{{main|quantitative geography}}

During the early days of the quantitative revolution, the term quantitative geography emerged as a subdiscipline within technical geography, focusing exclusively on new quantitative methods, such as spatial statistics, time geography (including visualizations such as the space-time prism and continuous transportation modeling approach), and GIS, for handling spatial-temporal data generated by novel technology like GPS and remote sensing.{{cite book |last1=Fotheringham |first1=A. Stewart |last2=Brunsdon |first2=Chris |last3=Charlton |first3=Martin |title=Quantitative Geography: Perspectives on Spatial Data Analysis | pages = 4–13 |date=2000 |publisher=Sage Publications Ltd |isbn=978-0-7619-5948-9}}{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Harvey J. |last2=Bridwell |first2=Scott A. |title=A Field-Based Theory for Time Geography |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |date=2008 |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=49–75 |doi=10.1080/00045600802471049 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00045600802471049 |access-date=28 May 2024|url-access=subscription }}{{cite book|last1=Murakami |first1=Daisuke |last2=Yamagata |first2=Yoshiki |title=Spatial Analysis Using Big Data: Methods and Urban Applications |chapter=Chapter Six – Models in quantitative geography |date=2020 |pages=159–178 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-813127-5.00006-0 |isbn=9780128131275 |s2cid=213700891 |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128131275000060 |access-date=3 February 2023}}{{cite journal |last1=Haggett |first1=Peter |title=The Local Shape of Revolution: Reflections on Quantitative Geography at Cambridge in the 1950s and 1960s |journal=Geographical Analysis |date=16 July 2008 |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=336–352 |doi=10.1111/j.1538-4632.2008.00731.x |bibcode=2008GeoAn..40..336H |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1538-4632.2008.00731.x |access-date=3 February 2023|url-access=subscription }} This part of technical geography focuses on spatial statistics and visualizing spatial information, emphasizing quantitative data and the scientific method.{{cite journal |last1=Juuso |first1=Ilkka |last2=Kretzschmar Jr. |first2=William A. |title=Creation of Regions for Dialect Features Using a Cellular Automaton |journal=Journal of English Linguistics |date=January 2016 |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=4–33 |doi=10.1177/0075424215620279 |s2cid=130940338 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0075424215620279 |access-date=7 January 2023|url-access=subscription }}

{{main|Geomatics}}

In 1960, Bernard Dubuisson coined the term "géomatique" in French. English-speaking Canadians Pierre Gagnon and David Coleman translated the term as "geomatics", which was popularized in Canada through the 1980s and early 1990s. Today, it is defined by the ISO/TC 211, an International Organization for Standardization committee focused on geographic information, as the discipline concerned with handling geographic data or geographic information.ISO/TR 19122:2004(en) Geographic information/Geomatics — Qualification and certification of personnel [https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:tr:19122:ed-1:v1:en] In Canada, an effort was made to replace and absorb the term geodesy with geomatics, but this attempt was not successful. Globally, geodesy is generally considered "immutable" as a term. Geomatics was included in the UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems under technical geography.

{{main|geoinformatics}}

In the late 1980s, the term geoinformatics was coined by Swedish scientist Kjell Samuelson and later defined in the 1990s as the science of integrating spatial data derived from various technologies, such as remote sensing, GPS, and GIS. It was later defined by geographer Michael DeMers to include processing of spatial data through the use of computers.{{cite book |last1=DeMers |first1=Michael |title=Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, inc. |isbn=978-0-470-12906-7 |edition=4th}} This term has been described as being outside the branch of geography entirely and instead placed fully under the discipline of computer science, while other sources place it under the branch of technical geography. Sources have noted that there is no universally accepted definition of geoinformatics.

{{main|Geographic Information Science}}

In the 1990s, the term Geographic Information Science (GIScience) was coined and popularized in the United States by geographer Michael Frank Goodchild to describe "the subset of information science that is about geographic information."{{Cite book|title = Foundations of Geographic Information Science|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_0sDF-0vT0wC&q=Foundations+of+Geographic+Information+Science&pg=PP1|publisher = CRC Press|date = 2004-11-23|isbn = 9780203009543|language = en|first1 = Matt|last1 = Duckham|first2 = Michael F.|last2 = Goodchild|first3 = Michael|last3 = Worboys|pages = 4}} GIScience is mentioned explicitly as being separate from quantitative geography, but under the branch of technical geography.{{cite book |last1=Medina |first1=Richard M. |last2=Hepner |first2=George F. |title=The Geography of International Terrorism An Introduction to Spaces and Places of Violent Non-State Groups |date=2013 | publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781439886885 |page=xi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abbMBQAAQBAJ |access-date=16 March 2024}} In 1995, the University Consortium for Geographic Information Science (UCGIS) was established in the United States to support the field of GIScience, such as the creation of a "model curricula" by geographer Duane Marble to help educators teach GIScience.{{cite web |title=History |url=https://www.ucgis.org/history |website=University Consortium for Geographic Information Science |access-date=8 January 2024}} There has been significant debate around the term GIScience, including questioning if it can be considered a science.{{cite journal |last1=Reitsma |first1=Femke |title=Revisiting the 'Is GIScience a science?' debate (or quite possibly scientific gerrymandering) |journal=International Journal of Geographical Information Science |date=2013 |volume=27 |issue=13 |pages=211–221 |doi=10.1080/13658816.2012.674529 |bibcode=2013IJGIS..27..211R |s2cid=27150014 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13658816.2012.674529 |access-date=20 January 2024|url-access=subscription }} Many geographers, including Michael Goodchild, continue to advance the use of the term today.

{{Main|Critical geography|Critical cartography}}

File:Yi-Fu Tuan-Festival international de géographie 2012 (1).jpg.{{Cite journal |last=Tuan |first=Yi-Fu |year=1991 |title=Language and the Making of Place: A Narrative-Descriptive Approach |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=81 |issue=4 |pages=684–696 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.1991.tb01715.x}}{{cite web |last1=Gabriel |first1=Mary Ellen |title=Yi-Fu Tuan 1930 - 2022 |url=http://aag.org/memorial/yi-fu-tuan/ |website=American Association of Geographers |access-date=24 April 2025}}]]

In Cave's discussion of technical geography in Geography Reformed (1749), critical geography was considered an important part of the process within geography to correct errors on maps and other products to improve models of the world. In the 1970s, critical geography took on the framework of critical theory and Marxist philosophy, and became an umbrella uniting various theoretical frameworks in geography, including Marxist geography, feminist geography, and radical geography (a branch of geography that advocates that geographic research should focus on social issues transforming society).{{cite journal |last1=Peet |first1=J. Richard |title=Radical Geography |journal=International Encyclopedia of Human Geography (Second Edition) |date=2020 |pages=197–205 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-102295-5.10691-2 |isbn=978-0-08-102296-2 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102295-5.10691-2 |access-date=26 May 2024|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal|last=Castree|first=Noel|year=2000|title=Professionalisation, Activism, and the University: Whither 'Critical Geography'?|journal=Environment and Planning A|language=en|volume=32|issue=6|pages=955–970|doi=10.1068/a3263|doi-access=free|bibcode=2000EnPlA..32..955C }}{{Cite journal|last=Peet|first=Richard|year=2000|title=Celebrating Thirty Years of Radical Geography|journal=Environment and Planning A|language=en|volume=32|issue=6|pages=951–953|doi=10.1068/a32202|bibcode=2000EnPlA..32..951P |s2cid=128738768}} These frameworks were advanced mostly by human geographers, leading to an observed gap between human and physical geographers.{{cite journal |last1=Graf |first1=W. |title=Why Physical Geographers Whine so Much |journal=The Association of American Geographers' Newsletter |date=1998 |volume=33 |issue=8}}{{cite journal |last1=Kwan |first1=Mei-Po |title=Beyond Difference: From Canonical Geography to Hybrid Geographies |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |date=2004 |volume=94 |issue=4 |pages=756–763 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.00432.x}} In response to the ideas and philosophies advanced during the quantitative revolution, particularly positivism and the emphasis on quantitative methods, the term critical geography was applied to ideological and theoretical criticisms of the methods and ideas of technical geographers.{{cite journal |last1=Schuurman |first1=Nadine |title=Women and technology in geography: a cyborg manifesto for GIS |journal=Canadian Geographer |date=28 June 2008 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=258–265 |doi=10.1111/j.1541-0064.2002.tb00748.x |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1541-0064.2002.tb00748.x |access-date=7 January 2023|url-access=subscription }} Other geographers, such as Yi-Fu Tuan, criticized the quantitative geography for moving away from the abstract, unquantifiable aspects of place that are essential to the understanding of geography.{{cite journal |last1=Tuan |first1=Yi-Fu |title=A View of Geography |journal=Geographical Review |date=1991 |volume=81 |issue=1 |pages=99–107 |doi=10.2307/215179 |jstor=215179 |bibcode=1991GeoRv..81...99T |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/215179 |access-date=5 January 2023|url-access=subscription }}

In the history of geography since the quantitative revolution, theorists from critical geography are often viewed as in direct confrontation with those of technical and quantitative geography.{{cite book |last1=Melgaço |first1=Lucas |last2=Prouse |first2=Carolyn |editor1-last=Melgaço |editor1-first=Lucas |editor2-last=Prouse |editor2-first=Carolyn |editor3-last=Brauch |editor3-first=Hans Günter |title=Milton Santos: A Pioneer in Critical Geography from the Global South |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-53825-9 |pages=5–10 |edition=1 |chapter=Milton Santos and the Centrality of the Periphery}} Some, such as Peter Gould, argued that these criticisms were largely due to the difficulty in learning the emerging novel technologies.{{cite journal |last1=Hepple |first1=L. |title=Context, Social Construction and Statistics: Regression, Social Science and Human geography |journal=Environment and Planning A |date=1998 |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=225–234|doi=10.1068/a300225 |bibcode=1998EnPlA..30..225H |s2cid=144335512 }} Some geographers, including Stewart Fotheringham, argue that many of the early criticisms of quantitative methods have been addressed with advances in technology, and persist due to ignorance of quantitative geography. Geographer William Graf noted that some physical geographers suspect several of the philosophies underlying critical geography are "fundamentally anti-scientific".

As new technologies and methods applied by geographers, such as spatial analysis, cartography/GIS, remote sensing, and GPS, are widely applicable to various disciplines, concern grew among geographers that these other non-geographers in other disciplines might become better at using them than geographers. In response to this, in 2006, the peer-reviewed journal Geographia Technica was established to serve as an outlet for research employing quantitative, technical, and scientific methods within geography.{{cite journal| title = Geographia Technica Volume 1|journal=Geographia Technica |date=2006 |volume=1 |issue=2 |url=http://www.technicalgeography.org/pdf/2_2006/gt_2_2006.pdf |access-date=1 January 2023}}{{cite web |title=Technical Geography – an International Journal for the progress of Scientific Geography: Aims and Scopes |url=http://www.technicalgeography.org/index.php/aims-and-scope |website=Geographia Technica |publisher="Geographia Technica" Association |access-date=1 January 2023}} In a 2016 paper within this journal, Ionel Haidu stated:

{{Blockquote

|text=The risk is that non-geographers mastering these methods analyze the spatiotemporal data and information better than the geographers. That is why the need to deal with competition induced by other sciences claiming the geographic space as their subject of study and research becomes a serious challenge for geographers. Geographers need to test and adapt to the new methods, models and procedures and implement them in all fields and development trends of Geography. By these also, Technical Geography as a new line of research and professional training becomes a necessity.}}

Technical geography as a concept re-emerges to correct the historical trend in geography of adapting rather than developing new methods, technologies, and techniques for conducting geographic research by encouraging trained geographers to pursue this line of inquiry. While the use of the term "technical geography" itself has been debated since at least the 1700s, concepts within technical geography are often separated from the rest of geography when organizing and categorizing subfields in the discipline. Terms such as "techniques of geographic analysis", "geographic information technology", are used synonymously with the term within textbooks.

Critical Geographic Information Science emerged during the early 2000s from the debates between critical human geographers and GIScientists.{{cite journal |last1=O’Sullivan |first1=David |title=Geographical information science: critical GIS |journal=Progress in Human Geography |date=2006 |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=783-791 |doi=10.1177/0309132506071528 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0309132506071528 |access-date=10 April 2025|url-access=subscription }}{{cite book |editor1-last=Warf |editor1-first=Barney |title=Encyclopedia of Geography |date=2010 |pages=614-616 |url=https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412939591 |chapter=Critical GIS}}{{cite journal |last1=Thatcher |first1=Jim |last2=Bergmann |first2=Luke |last3=Ricker |first3=Britta |last4=Rose-Redwood |first4=Reuben |last5=O'Sullivan |first5=David |last6=J Barnes |first6=Trevor |last7=Barnesmoore |first7=Luke R |last8=Beltz Imaoka |first8=Laura |last9=Burns |first9=Ryan |last10=Cinnamon |first10=Jonathan |last11=M Dalton |first11=Craig |last12=Davis |first12=Clinton |last13=Dunn |first13=Stuart |last14=Harvey |first14=Francis |last15=Jung |first15=Jin-Kyu |last16=Kersten |first16=Ellen |last17=Knigge |first17=LaDona |last18=Lally |first18=Nick |last19=Lin |first19=Wen |last20=Mahmoudi |first20=Dillon |last21=Martin |first21=Michael |last22=Payne |first22=Will |last23=Sheikh |first23=Amir |last24=Shelton |first24=Taylor |last25=Sheppard |first25=Eric |last26=Strother |first26=Chris W |last27=Tarr |first27=Alexander |last28=Wilson |first28=Matthew W |last29=Young |title=Revisiting critical GIS |journal=Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space |date=2016 |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=815-824 |doi=10.1177/0308518X15622208 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epub/10.1177/0308518X15622208 |access-date=10 April 2025|hdl=11603/7894 |hdl-access=free }} After listening to critiques from critical human geographers, GIScientists began to "straddle the fence" and incorporate social and feminist theory, and use qualitative methods such as public participation GIS. The Encyclopedia of Geography describes the result as a "creative blend of human and technical geography that has the potential to uniquely shape GIS and obliquely influence other information sciences." Critical Geographic Information Science has had limited adoption outside academic geography.

{{Main|Geographic Information Science and Technology Body of Knowledge}}

As technology such as GIS began to dominate geography departments, the need to develop new curriculum to teach the fundamental concepts became apparent.{{cite book |last1=National Research Council |title=Rediscovering Geography: New Relevance for Science and Society (1997) |date=1997 |publisher=The National Academies Press |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-309-05199-6 |pages=259 |url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/4913/chapter/1 |access-date=21 May 2023 |ref=RediscoveringGeography1}} In response to this, in 2006, the UCGIS published Geographic Information Science and Technology Body of Knowledge (GISTBoK), building on the "Model curricula" of the mid 90s.{{cite book |last1=DiBiase |first1=David |last2=DeMers|first2=Michael |last3=Johnson |first3=Ann |last4=Kemp |first4=Karen |last5=Luck |first5=Ann Taylor |last6=Plewe |first6=Brandon |last7=Wentz |first7=Elizabeth |title=Geographic information science and technology body of knowledge |date=2006 |publisher=Association of American Geographers |isbn=978-0-89291-267-4}} The GISTBoK is designed to inform curriculum teaching GIS and other geospatial technologies. This book is noted as having expanded the term "GIScience" to "GIScience and technology" (GIS&T).

{{Main|Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems}}

In 2009, UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) employed the term technical geography to organize their literature related to geography, establishing a three-branch model of technical, human, and physical geography, referring to human and physical as the primary two.{{cite book |last1=Ormeling |first1=Ferjan |author-link1=Ferjan Ormeling Jr.|title=GEOGRAPHY – Vol. II: Technical Geography Core concepts in the mapping sciences |year=2009 |publisher=EOLSS UNESCO |isbn=978-1-84826-960-6 |pages=482 |url=https://www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/c01/e6-14-04.pdf}} The benefit of this wording is that it is consistent with the other two branches and clearly places the discipline within geography.{{cite journal |last1=Lemmens |first1=Mathias |title=Education: Surveying the Issues |journal=Surveying World |date=April 2001 |pages=36–38}} The categorization of technical geography in the EOLSS as a branch is expanded upon by Ionel Haidu in his 2016 paper "What is technical geography" as being a consequence of cartography shifting from simply producing maps to producing spatial information, influenced by a culmination of information theory and technology like the World Wide Web.

File:Stourhead Pantheon.jpg|Geodesign

File:Meridian convergence and spehrical excess.png|Geodesy

File:Worldwind.png|Geoinformatics

File:Fig 4.4.png|Geographic information science

File:Survey instruments-2.png|Geomatics

File:Euclidean Voronoi diagram.svg|Statistical geography

File:Example_krig.png|Spatial analysis

File:Sample of time geographical description.png|Time geography

File:Delaunay-Triangulation.svg|Quantitative geography

File:Indo-Aryan language map.svg|Qualitative geography

File:The Cartographic Process.png|Cartography{{cite journal |last1=Kainz |first1=Wolfgang |title=Cartography and the others – aspects of a complicated relationship |journal=Geo-spatial Information Science |date=2020 |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=52-60 |doi=10.1080/10095020.2020.1718000 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10095020.2020.1718000 |access-date=19 May 2025}}

File:Geoservices server with apps.png|Geographic information systems

File:Interpolation-nearest.svg|Geostatistics

File:gislayers.jpg|Geovisualization

File:GPS-IIR.jpg|Global Positioning System

File:MapAlgebra.png|Map algebra

File:Stereoskop 2.jpg|Photogrammetry

File:Remote Sensing Illustration.jpg|Remote sensing

File:Vermessungspunkt.jpg|Surveying

Attempts at subdividing geography have often been met with criticism. Geography has a history spanning cultures and thousands of years and is described as a "mother science" from which more specialized disciplines emerge, resulting in a fragmented discipline.{{cite journal |last1=Cockburn |first1=John A. |title=Historical Geography of the British Colonies |journal=Nature |date=1908 |volume=78 |pages=49–50 |doi=10.1038/078049a0|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/078049a0 |access-date=4 June 2025}}{{cite journal |last1=D'Alessandro-Scarpari |first1=Cristina |last2=Elmes |first2=Gregory |last3=Miller |first3=Jennifer |last4=Weiner |first4=Daniel |title=Book Review: Geography and technology |journal=Progress in Human Geography |date=2016 |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=675–677 |doi=10.1177/0309132506070191|s2cid=128681685 }} Other existing models to subdivide the discipline of geography into categories and focuses, including William Pattison's four traditions of geography, vary dramatically between publications and cultures.{{cite journal |last1=Pattison |first1=William |title=The Four Traditions of Geography |journal=Journal of Geography |date=1964 |volume=63 |issue=5 |pages=211–216 |doi=10.1080/00221346408985265 |bibcode=1964JGeog..63..211P |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00221346408985265 |access-date=27 August 2022}} While the term {{em|technical geography}} has been put forward as a distinct branch and umbrella for these wider concepts, the terms used to describe the study of spatial information as a distinct category vary.{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Xin |last2=Zheng |first2=Donghai |last3=Feng |first3=Min |last4=Chen |first4=Fahu |title=Information geography: The information revolution reshapes geography |journal=Science China Earth Sciences |date=November 2021 |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=379–382 |doi=10.1007/s11430-021-9857-5|s2cid=243866306 }} When subdividing the discipline within the literature, similar categories—such as "the Spatial Tradition", "techniques of geographic analysis",{{cite book |last1=Getis |first1=Arthur |last2=Bjelland |first2=Mark |last3=Getis |first3=Victoria |title=Introduction to Geography |date=2018 |publisher=McGraw Hill |pages=20–45 |isbn=978-1-259-57000-1 |edition=15}} "geographic information and analysis",{{cite book |last1=Mark |first1=David M. |editor1-last=Duckham |editor1-first=Matt |editor2-last=Goodchild |editor2-first=Michael F. |editor3-last=Worboys |editor3-first=Michael |title=Foundations of Geographic Information Science |date=January 30, 2003 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9780203009543 |pages=1-17 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Foundations_of_Geographic_Information_Sc/_0sDF-0vT0wC?hl=en&gbpv=0 |access-date=11 April 2025 |chapter=Geographic Information Science: Defining the field}} "geographic information technology",{{cite book |last1=Dahlman |first1=Carl |last2=Renwick |first2=William |title=Introduction to Geography: People, Places & Environment |date=2013 |publisher=Pearson |pages=31–42|isbn=978-0321843333 |edition=6th}} "geography methods and techniques",{{cite book |title=Fundamentals of Physical Geography: Geography as a Discipline |date=2006 |publisher=National Council of Educational Research and Training |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-7450-518-0 |pages=1–12 |edition=1}} "geographic information technology", "scientific geography", and "quantitative geography"{{cite book |last1=A. Stewart |first1=Fotheringham |title=Quantitative Geography: Perspectives on Spatial Data Analysis |date=May 2, 2000 |publisher=SAGE Publications Ltd|page=1–14 |isbn=0761959483 |edition=1}}{{cite journal |last1=Couclelis |first1=Helen |title=Ontology: Theoretical Perspectives |journal=International Encyclopedia of Geography: People, the Earth, Environment and Technology |date=March 2017 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg0680|isbn=9780470659632 }}—are used to describe the same, or similar, concepts as technical geography. Some of the discrepancy in terminology is due to different cultures and languages having their own method of organization; for example, the term "information geography" is popular in research from China to describe similar concepts. It is closely associated with and sometimes used interchangeably with, the subfields of geographic information science and geoinformatics.{{cite book |last1=Lake |first1=Ron |last2=Burggraf |first2=David |last3=Trninic |first3=Milan |last4=Rae |first4=Laurie |title=Geography Mark-Up Language: Foundation for the Geo-Web |date=2004 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons Inc. |page=Back cover|isbn=0-470-87154-7 |edition=1}}{{cite journal |last1=Bello |first1=Innocent E. |title=Critical Issues in the Methods of Data Collection in Geoinformatics and Environmental Sciences |journal=International Journal of Social Sciences and Management Research |date=October 2023 |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=18–28 |doi=10.56201/ijssmr.v9.no8.2023.pg18.28|doi-access=free }} Each term has slightly differing definitions and scopes, and the best word choice has been debated in the literature since at least the 1700s when Cave defended the use of technical geography over practical geography. Despite this, many of these alternative terms or phrases are poorly constructed and do not link the discipline explicitly as a branch of geography in the same way as technical geography. This is an area of active scholarly debate, and any word choice will be inevitably met with criticism by others using a different model. Other discrepancies involve some sources discribing techniques employed by technical geographers as stand alone fields, such as cartography and remote sensing.{{cite book |last1=Quattrochi |first1=Dale A. |last2=Walsh |first2=Stephen J. |last3=Jensen |first3=John R. |last4=Ridd |first4=Merrill K |editor1-last=Willmott |editor1-first=Cort J. |editor2-last=Gaile |editor2-first=Gary L. |title=Geography in America at the Dawn of the 21st Century |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press, UK |isbn=9780191567193 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Geography_in_America_at_the_Dawn_of_the/Df1QEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=remote+sensing+and+geography+relationship&pg=PA376&printsec=frontcover |chapter=Remote Sensing}}

More controversially, others deny the idea that the thought and techniques of geography constitute a new branch. This argument asserts that geography must be applied and, therefore, must focus on some subset of human or physical geography.{{cite web |last1=Collins |first1=Eric |title=What is the Difference Between Geomatics and Geography? |url=https://gogeomatics.ca/what-is-the-difference-between-geomatics-and-geography/ |website=Geomatics Canada |date=15 February 2016 |access-date=7 January 2024}} They also argue that there is not enough well-established peer-reviewed literature to back the term as a new branch.

Some have brought allegations that the culture in technical geography has introduced gender bias into geography departments as the discipline is disproportionately practiced by men and seen by some as more masculine.{{cite journal |last1=Pujol |first1=Hermínia |last2=Ramon |first2=M. Dolors Garcia |last3=Ortiz |first3=Anna |title=Academic careers in Spanish geography: a gender perspective |journal=Boletín de la Asociación de Geógrafos Españoles |date=2012 |volume=59 |pages=465–467 |url=https://bage.age-geografia.es/ojs/index.php/bage/article/view/1476/1397}} Nadine Schuurman states that while there is not one reason for this discrepancy, it may be related to the broader perception of science as a "masculine domain", and the perception that tools, like GIS, employed by technical geographers are part of the military-industrial complex.

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• {{Annotated link|Areography (geography of Mars)}}
• {{Annotated link|History of cartography}}
• {{Annotated link|Map communication model}}
• {{Annotated link|Neogeography}}
• {{Annotated link|Planetary science}}
• {{Annotated link|Technical communication}}
• {{Annotated link|Technical drawing}}
• {{Annotated link|Technical writing}}

{{div col end}}

{{reflist|group=Note|refs=

While Cave published the "Geography reformed: a new system of general geography, according to an accurate analysis of the science in four parts", how much he wrote or edited is unclear. Other authors are not given within the text.

The 1917 English review article is unclear on what was included in these British technical geography courses.

}}

{{Reflist}}

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{{Geography topics|state=uncollapsed}}

Category:Technical communication