Republic of Cuba (1902–1959)

File: Raising the Cuban flag on the Governor General's Palace at noon on May 20, 1902.gif

After the Spanish–American War, Spain and the United States signed the 1898 Treaty of Paris, by which Spain ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States for the sum of $20{{nbsp}}million (equivalent to ${{Inflation|US|20|1898|r=-1}}{{nbsp}}million in {{Inflation/year|US}}).{{cite web|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/sp1898.asp|title=Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain|date=10 December 1898|work=The Avalon Project|publisher=Yale Law School}} With the end of U.S. military government jurisdiction, Cuba gained formal independence on 20 May 1902, as the Republic of Cuba.{{cite book|author=Louis A. Pérez|title=Cuba Between Empires: 1878–1902 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qRhK4vMXe1QC&pg=PR15|access-date=19 July 2013|year=1998|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Pre|isbn=978-0-8229-7197-9|page=xv}} Under Cuba's new constitution, the U.S. retained the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and to supervise its finances and foreign relations. Under the Platt Amendment, the U.S. leased the Guantánamo Bay naval base from Cuba.

{{Main|Provisional Government of Cuba}}

Following political purging and a corrupt and rigged election in 1906, the first president, Tomás Estrada Palma, faced an armed revolt by veterans of the war.{{cite book|title=Corruption in Cuba: Castro and Beyond |page=63 |first1=Sergio|last1=Diaz-Briquets|first2=Jorge F. |last2= Pérez-López| publisher=University of Texas Press| location=Austin |year=2006|isbn=0-292-71321-5| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fiquofr8LSoC&pg=PA63|access-date=6 September 2009}} As in the independence war, Afro-Cubans were overrepresented in the insurgent army of 1906. For them, the August Revolution revived hopes for a 'rightful share' in Cuba's government. On 16 August 1906, fearing the government ready to smash the plot, former Liberation Army general Pino Guerra raised the banner of revolt. Immediately, Palma arrested every Liberal politician within reach; the remainder went underground. In an effort to avert intervention, Roosevelt sent two emissaries to Havana to seek a compromise between government and opposition. Regarding such neutrality as a censure of his government, Estrada Palma resigned and made his entire cabinet resign too, leaving the Republic without a government and forcing the United States to take control of the island. Roosevelt immediately proclaimed that the U.S. had been compelled to intervene in Cuba and that their only purpose was to create the necessary conditions for a peaceful election.{{cite web |url=https://libraries.ucsd.edu/research-and-collections/collections/notable-collections/latin-american-elections-statistics/Cuba/elections-and-events-19021911.html |title=Elections and Events 1902-1911 |website=libraries.ucsd.edu |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530001754/http://libraries.ucsd.edu/research-and-collections/collections/notable-collections/latin-american-elections-statistics/Cuba/elections-and-events-19021911.html |archive-date=2019-05-30}}

In 1909, home-rule government was restored when José Miguel Gómez was inaugurated as Cuba's second president, while the U.S. continued intervening in Cuban affairs. In the War of 1912, the Partido Independiente de Color attempted to establish a separate black republic in Oriente Province,{{cite book|title=The War of 1898, and U.S. interventions, 1898–1934: an encyclopedia|editor-first=Benjamin|editor-last= Beede|page=134|year=1994|publisher=Garland|location=New York|isbn=0-8240-5624-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=48g116X9IIwC&pg=PA134|access-date=6 September 2009}} but was suppressed by the Cuban National Army under General Monteagudo, with considerable bloodshed.

Sugar production played an important role in Cuban politics and economics. In the 1910s, during and after World War I, a shortage in the world sugar supply fueled an economic boom in Cuba, marked by prosperity and the conversion of more and more farmland to sugar cultivation. Prices peaked and then crashed in 1920, ruining the country financially and allowing foreign investors to gain more power than they already had. This economic turbulence was called "the Dance of the Millions".Kevin Grogan, [http://etd.fcla.edu/UF/UFE0006301/grogan_k.pdf Cuba's Dance of the Millions: Examining the Causes and Consequences of Violent Price Fluctuations in the Sugar Market Between 1919 and 1920]; Masters' Thesis accepted at University of Florida, August 2004.Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., "[http://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/dance-millions Dance of the Millions]"; Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture (2008).

In 1924, Gerardo Machado was elected president, "capitalizing on widespread unrest at growing dependence on the United States and at rampant corruption".{{cite encyclopedia|title=Machado y Morales, Gerardo |encyclopedia=A Dictionary of Political Biography|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2009|isbn=9780199569137}} During his administration, tourism increased markedly, and American-owned hotels and restaurants were built to accommodate the influx of tourists. The tourist boom led to increases in gambling and prostitution in Cuba.{{cite book|author=Terry K Sanderlin, Ed D|title=The Last American Rebel in Cuba|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NFT8Mp8VuNkC&pg=PA7|access-date=19 July 2013|date=24 April 2012|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4685-9430-0|page=7}} He developed the Central Highway, increased spending on public education, and promoted industrialization.{{cite journal|title=Seeking Permission to Build a Nation: Cuban Nationalism and U.S. Response Under the First Machado Presidency|author=Jorge Dominguez|journal=Cuban Studies|volume=16|date=1986|pages=–33–48 |jstor=24485975}} Machado initially enjoyed support from much of the public and from all the country's major political parties. However, his popularity declined steadily.

Machado had pledged to only serve one term. However, in 1928 he directed a constitutional convention that amended the Constitution of Cuba to extend the term of the presidency, and that called for him to serve an additional term. In 1928 Machado held an election which was to give him another term, this one of six years.{{cite journal|title=The Machadato and Cuban Nationalism, 1928–1932|author=Jules R Benjamin|journal=Hispanic American Historical Review |date=1975|volume=55|issue=1|pages=66–91|doi=10.1215/00182168-55.1.66}}

The Wall Street crash of 1929 led to a collapse in the price of sugar, political unrest, and repression. Protesting students, known as the Generation of 1930, turned to violence in opposition to the increasingly unpopular Machado.{{cite book|author1-first=Wilber Albert |author1-last=Chaffee|author2-first=Gary |author2-last=Prevost|title=Cuba: A Different America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9CJec-NWjS0C&pg=PA4|access-date=19 July 2013|year=1992|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8476-7694-1|page=4|archive-date=8 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240108204759/https://books.google.com/books?id=9CJec-NWjS0C&pg=PA4#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}} The political opposition group Unión Nacionalista led an unsuccessful revolt in 1931. Labor unions also opposed the Machado government, calling a general strike in 1930 followed by "a long series of militant work stoppages" and the organization of the first national union for sugarcane workers. "By 1933, Cuban labor was more highly organized and more radically led than almost any proletariat in Latin America."

{{Main|Cuban Revolution of 1933}}

The Generation of 1930 and a clandestine terrorist organization known as the ABC turned to violence in opposition to the increasingly unpopular Machado. U.S. ambassador Sumner Welles arrived in May 1933 and began a diplomatic campaign which involved "mediation" with opposition groups in including the ABC. This campaign significantly weakened Machado's government and, backed with the threat of military intervention, set the stage for a regime change.Philip Dur & Christopher Gilcrease, "U.S. Diplomacy and the Downfall of a Cuban Dictator: Machado in 1933"; Journal of Latin American Studies Vol. 34, No. 2, May 2002; DOI: 10.01/S0022216X02006417; [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3875789 JSTOR].

A general strike (in which the Popular Socialist Party sided with Machado),{{cite book|title=Fulgencio Batista|volume=1|page=[https://archive.org/details/fulgenciobatista00argo/page/n75 50]|last=Argote-Freyre|first=Frank|publisher=Rutgers University Press|location=New Brunswick, NJ|year=2006|isbn=0-8135-3701-0|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/fulgenciobatista00argo}} uprisings among sugar workers, and an army revolt forced Machado into exile in August 1933. He was replaced by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada, son of Cuban patriot Carlos Manuel de Céspedes and former ambassador to the U.S.

File:1933-Pentarchy w Batista.jpg. Fulgencio Batista, who controlled the military, appears at far right.]]

In September 1933, the Sergeants' Revolt, led by Sergeant Fulgencio Batista, overthrew Céspedes.{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Melanie|editor=Jacqueline West|title=South America, Central America and the Caribbean 2002| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o9ODxqsr-dIC&pg=PA303|access-date=19 July 2013|year=2001 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-85743-121-6|page=303}} General Alberto Herrera served briefly as president ( 12–13 August) followed by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada from 13 August until 5 September 1933. A five-member executive committee (the Pentarchy of 1933) was chosen to head a provisional government.{{cite book|author=Jaime Suchlicki|title=Cuba: From Columbus to Castro and Beyond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BHhUknsCtfIC&pg=PA95|access-date=19 July 2013|year=2002|publisher=Potomac Books, Inc.|isbn=978-1-57488-436-4|page=95}} They were ousted by a student-led organization, the Student Directory, which appointed Ramon Grau San Martin as provisional president and passed various reforms during the ensuing One Hundred Days Government. Grau resigned in 1934, after which Batista dominated Cuban politics for the next 25 years, at first through a series of puppet-presidents. The period from 1933 to 1937 was a time of "virtually unremitting social and political warfare".{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=y1oF-WQmOPgC&pg=PA76 |last=Domínguez| first=Jorge I.| title=Cuba: Order and Revolution|date=June 2009|page=76|publisher=Harvard University Press| location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=9780674034280}}

A new constitution was adopted in 1940, which engineered radical progressive ideas, including the right to labor and health care.{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=y1oF-WQmOPgC&pg=PA76 |last=Domínguez| first=Jorge I.| title=Cuba: Order and Revolution|date=June 2009|page=?|publisher=Harvard University Press| location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=9780674034280}} Batista was elected president in the same year, holding the post until 1944.{{cite book|author=Frank R. Villafana|title=Expansionism: Its Effects on Cuba's Independence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jj2mIS40lAMC&pg=PA201|access-date=19 July 2013|date=31 December 2011|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-4656-1|page=201}} He is so far the only non-white Cuban to win the nation's highest political office.{{cite book| editor-first=Irving Louis | editor-last=Horowitz| edition=6| title=Cuban Communism|year=1998 |page=662 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=hx2_y7Vu-PUC&pg=PA662 | publisher=Transition Books| isbn=9781412820851| orig-year= 1988}}{{cite book|title=Cuba|first=Leslie|last=Bethell|isbn=978-0-521-43682-3|year=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}{{cite book|last=Sweig|first=Julia E.|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ob-I8MyTqx8C&pg=PA4 |page=4|title=Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674044197}} His government carried out major social reforms. Several members of the Cuban Communist Party held office under his administration.{{cite book|last=Sweig|first=Julia E.|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ob-I8MyTqx8C |page=?|title=Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674044197}} Cuban armed forces were not greatly involved in combat during World War II, although president Batista suggested a joint U.S.-Latin American assault on Francoist Spain to overthrow its authoritarian regime.{{cite news |title=Batista's Boot |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,802544,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080825011807/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,802544,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 August 2008 |magazine=Time |date=18 January 1943 |access-date=20 April 2013 }}

Batista adhered to the 1940 constitution's structures preventing his re-election.{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=y1oF-WQmOPgC&pg=PA101 |last=Domínguez| first=Jorge I.| title=Cuba: Order and Revolution|date=June 2009|page=101|publisher=Harvard University Press| location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=9780674034280}} Ramón Grau San Martin was the winner of the next election, in 1944. Grau further corroded the base of the already teetering legitimacy of the Cuban political system, in particular by undermining the deeply flawed, though not entirely ineffectual, Congress and Supreme Court.{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=y1oF-WQmOPgC&pg=PA110 |last=Domínguez| first=Jorge I.| title=Cuba: Order and Revolution|date=June 2009|pages=110–11|publisher=Harvard University Press| location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=9780674034280}} Carlos Prío Socarrás, a protégé of Grau, became president in 1948.

{{See also|1952 Cuban coup d'état}}File:HavanaSlums1954.jpg (bohio) dwellings in Havana, Cuba in 1954, just outside the Havana baseball stadium. In the background is advertising for a nearby casino.]]

Before presidential election in 1952, Batista staged a coup. Back in power and receiving financial, military and logistical support from the United States government, Batista suspended the 1940 Constitution and revoked most political liberties, including the right to strike. He outlawed the Cuban Communist Party in 1952.{{cite book|last=Sweig|first=Julia E.|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ob-I8MyTqx8C&pg=PA6 |page=6|title=Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674044197}} He then aligned with the wealthiest landowners who owned the largest sugar plantations, and presided over a stagnating economy that widened the gap between rich and poor Cubans. Eventually it reached the point where most of the sugar industry was in U.S. hands, and foreigners owned 70% of the arable land. As such, Batista's repressive government then began to systematically profit from the exploitation of Cuba's commercial interests, by negotiating lucrative relationships with both the American Mafia, who controlled the drug, gambling, and prostitution businesses in Havana, and with large U.S.-based multinational companies who were awarded lucrative contracts. To quell the growing discontent amongst the populace—which was subsequently displayed through frequent student riots and demonstrations—Batista established tighter censorship of the media, while also using his Bureau for the Repression of Communist Activities secret police to carry out wide-scale violence, torture and public executions. These murders mounted in 1957, as socialism became more influential. Many people were killed, with estimates ranging from hundreds to about 20,000 people killed. Cuba had Latin America's highest per capita consumption rates of meat, vegetables, cereals, automobiles, telephones and radios, though about one third of the population was considered poor and enjoyed relatively little of this consumption.{{cite book|title=Authoritarian Regimes in Latin America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LAvw-YXm4TsC&pg=PA186|author=Paul H. Lewis|page=186|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|location=Oxford, UK|isbn=0-7425-3739-0|access-date=14 September 2009|year=2006}}

While Cuba had the highest ratio of hospital beds to population in Latin America, around 80% of these beds were located in the city of Havana, there was only one rural hospital and it was equipped with only 10 beds.{{Cite journal|last=Valdés|first=Nelson P.|date=1971|title=Health and Revolution in Cuba|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40401580|journal=Science & Society|volume=35|issue=3|pages=311–335|jstor=40401580|issn=0036-8237}} In 1951, the World Bank reported that between 80 and 90% of children in rural areas suffered from some form of intestinal parasites, in 1956 about 13% of the rural population had a history of typhoid and 14% at one point had tuberculosis.{{Cite web|title=The Threat of a Good|url=http://www3.uakron.edu/worldciv/pascher/cuba.html|access-date=2 January 2021|website=www3.uakron.edu}} A study conducted in 1959 by public health authorities found that throughout the country around 72% of the population was afflicted with parasitism and in the rural areas this percentage was as high as 86.54%. Only 11% of farm worker families drank milk, and rural infant mortality stood at 100 per 1000 live births.{{Cite journal|last1=Keck|first1=C. William|last2=Reed|first2=Gail A.|date=August 2012|title=The Curious Case of Cuba|journal=American Journal of Public Health|volume=102|issue=8|pages=e13–e22|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2012.300822|issn=0090-0036|pmc=3464859|pmid=22698011}} Only 1 in 4 peasants were able to afford regularly eating meat, eggs and fish and chronic unemployment was at 25%.{{Cite web|last=Lupan|first=Alexandru|date=April 2014|title=Poverty in Cuba|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271724976|access-date=|website=Researchgate}} Cuba was a very unequal society with a mere 8% of landowners owning approximately 75% of the land, and while one-fifth of the population took in 58% of the national income, the bottom fifth got 2% of it, the lowest rates for the bottom 20% in the world then and even now.{{Cite journal|last=Pineo|first=Ronn|date=1 March 2019|title=Cuban Public Healthcare: A Model of Success for Developing Nations|journal=Journal of Developing Societies|language=en|volume=35|issue=1|pages=16–61|doi=10.1177/0169796X19826731|issn=0169-796X|doi-access=free}}

Cuba was also under a lot of influence from the United States to the point where the U.S. controlled 80% of Cuba's trade. In 1959, around 40% of Cuban sugar land, almost all the cattle ranches, 90% of mines and 80% of the utilities were owned by American firms.{{Cite web|title=Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy at Democratic Dinner, Cincinnati, Ohio, October 6, 1960 {{!}} JFK Library|url=https://www.jfklibrary.org/archives/other-resources/john-f-kennedy-speeches/cincinnati-oh-19601006-democratic-dinner|access-date=2 January 2021|website=www.jfklibrary.org}}

In 1958, Cuba was a relatively well-advanced country by Latin American standards, and in some cases by world standards.{{Harvnb|Smith|Llorens|1998}}. On the other hand, Cuba was affected by perhaps the largest labor union privileges in Latin America, including bans on dismissals and mechanization. They were obtained in large measure "at the cost of the unemployed and the peasants", leading to disparities.{{Harvnb|Baklanoff|1998}}. Between 1933 and 1958, Cuba extended economic regulations enormously, causing economic problems.{{cite book| last=Thomas |first= Hugh|year= 1998 |title=Cuba or the Pursuit of Freedom |isbn=978-0-306-80827-2| page= 1173|publisher= Da Capo Press}} Unemployment became a problem as graduates entering the workforce could not find jobs. The middle class, which was comparable to that of the United States, became increasingly dissatisfied with unemployment and political persecution. The labor unions supported Batista until the very end. Batista stayed in power until he was forced into exile in December 1958 during the Cuban Revolution.{{cite book|author1= Maureen Ihrie | author2=Salvador Oropesa|title=World Literature in Spanish: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zPDFHE_5besC&pg=PA262|access-date=19 July 2013|date=31 October 2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO| isbn=978-0-313-08083-8|page=262}}

Between 1915 and 1930, Havana hosted more tourists than any other location in the Caribbean.{{cite conference |last1=Figueras |first1=Miguel Alejandro |title=International Tourism and the Formation of Productive Clusters in the Cuban Economy |url=http://www.world-tourism.org/quality/E/docs/trade/cubacontrib.pdf |conference=Latin American Studies Association, 22nd Congress |access-date=August 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040805035546/http://www.world-tourism.org/quality/E/docs/trade/cubacontrib.pdf |archive-date=2004-08-05 |location=Washington, D.C. |date=September 2001 |url-status=dead}} The influx was due in large part to Cuba's proximity to the United States, where restrictive prohibition on alcohol and other pastimes stood in stark contrast to the island's traditionally relaxed attitude to leisure pursuits. Such tourism became Cuba's third largest source of foreign currency, behind the two dominant industries of sugar and tobacco. Cuban drinks such as the daiquiri and mojito became common in the United States during this time, after Prohibition was repealed.

A combination of the Great Depression of the 1930s, the end of prohibition, and World War II severely dampened Cuba's tourist industry, and it wasn't until the 1950s that numbers began to return to the island in any significant force. During this period, American organized crime came to dominate the leisure and tourist industries, a modus operandi outlined at the infamous Havana Conference of 1946. By the mid-1950s Havana became one of the main markets and the favourite route for the narcotics trade to the United States. Despite this, tourist numbers grew steadily at a rate of 8% a year and Havana became known as "the Latin Las Vegas".[http://www.historyofcuba.com/history/funfacts/batist.htm History of Cuba] written and compiled by J.A. Sierra

The sugar industry was one of the largest industries in the country and had been for centuries.{{Cite book |last=Perez-Lopez |first=Jorge |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f-MxZ49JYVYC |title=The Economics of Cuban Sugar |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |year=1991 |isbn=9780822976714}}{{Cite book |last=Kapcia |first=Antoni |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbpmEAAAQBAJ |title=Historical Dictionary of Cuba |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |year=2022 |isbn=9781442264557 |pages=311 |via=Google Books}}

Cuba in 1950 was the first country in Latin America to broadcast television. Eight years later the first color television broadcasting was done and it was one of the first countries in the world to do color broadcasts. Television in Cuba grew dramatically in the 1950s and by the late 1950s it had the 9th highest number of TV sets out of any country in the world and the 4th highest number of TV channels out of any country.{{Cite book |last=Pérez Jr. |first=Louis A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u-VRqkpThREC |title=On Becoming Cuban: Identity, Nationality, and Culture |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |year=2012 |isbn=9781469601410 |pages=333 & 334 |via=Google Books}}

Cuba had close relations with the United States during this period.{{Cite journal |last=Miguel-Steams |first=Teresa M. |date=2017 |title=CUBA IN THE INTERNATIONAL ARENA |url=https://law.arizona.edu/sites/default/files/2023-08/Cuba%20In%20The%20International%20Arena.pdf |journal=International Journal of Legal Information |volume=45 |issue=2 |access-date=July 22, 2024 |via=The University of Arizona: James E. Rogers College of Law}}

Cuba was involved in World War 1 committing 10,000 soldiers to be used in Europe{{Cite journal |last=Miguel-Stearns |first=Teresa M. |date=2017 |title=Cuba in the International Arena Section |url=https://law.arizona.edu/sites/default/files/2023-08/Cuba%20In%20The%20International%20Arena.pdf |journal=Cuba in the International Arena Section |volume=45 |issue=2 |quote=Two elections later, in 1917, U.S. Marines returned to Cuba to quell a revolution and restore the President. That same year, Cuba, following the United States, declared war on Germany and committed 10,000 men to the disposal of the U.S. military in Europe. |via=The University of Arizona: James E. Rogers College of Law}} along with declaring war being on the side of the Allied Powers.{{Cite web |title=Participants in World War I |url=https://www.worldwar1centennial.org/index.php/edu-home/edu-topics/583-the-world-at-war/5048-participants-in-world-war-i.html |access-date=July 22, 2024 |website=United States World War One Centennial Commission}} The most meaningful impact on Cuba that World War I had was on its sugar trade as much of the world's European supply was cut off with demand exploding along with profits from the industry.{{Cite book |last=Ferrer |first=Ada |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lTlyEAAAQBAJ |title=Cuba: An American History |publisher=Scribner |year=2022 |pages=217 |chapter=BOOM, CRASH, AWAKE |isbn=978-1-5011-5456-0 |access-date=July 22, 2024 |via=Google Books}} Cuba later ended up signing the Treaty of Versailles. Cuba was a member of the League of Nations and later on its successor, the United Nations (UN). During World War II, Cuba declared war on the Axis.

After Fidel Castro came to power, Cuba has remained in the UN.

{{Reflist}}

• {{Cite book |last=Baklanoff |first=Eric N. |year=1998 |chapter=Cuba on the Eve of the Socialist Transition: A Reassessment of the Backwardness-Stagnation Thesis |chapter-url=http://www.ascecuba.org/c/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/v08-31baklanoff.pdf |title=Cuba in Transition, Volume 8 |url=http://www.ascecuba.org/publications/annual-proceedings/cuba-in-transition-volume-08/ |location=Silver Spring, MD |publisher=ASCE |pages=260–272 |isbn=978-0-9649082-7-7 |access-date=25 March 2013 |archive-date=6 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406061627/https://www.ascecuba.org/publications/annual-proceedings/cuba-in-transition-volume-08/ |url-status=dead }}
• {{Cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Kirby |last2=Llorens |first2=Hugo |year=1998 |chapter=Renaissance and Decay: A Comparison of Socioeconomic Indicators in Pre-Castro and Current-Day Cuba |chapter-url=http://www.ascecuba.org/c/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/v08-30smith.pdf |title=Cuba in Transition, Volume 8 |url=http://www.ascecuba.org/publications/annual-proceedings/cuba-in-transition-volume-08/ |location=Silver Spring, MD |publisher=ASCE |pages=247–259 |isbn=978-0-9649082-7-7 |access-date=25 March 2013 |archive-date=6 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406061627/https://www.ascecuba.org/publications/annual-proceedings/cuba-in-transition-volume-08/ |url-status=dead }}

• {{Commons category-inline}}
• https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.159198/page/n9/mode/2up

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Category:States and territories established in 1902

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