Reusable spacecraft

File:Gemini paraglider.JPG in August 1964; glider landings were canceled in favor of parachute splashdowns.]]

On 17 July 1962, the North American X-15 rocket plane reached an altitude of 95.9km on a sub-orbital flight. In 1963, the X-15 completed two flights above 100km.{{Cite web|url=https://www.drewexmachina.com/2020/08/22/the-first-reusable-spacecraft-the-x-15-flights-above-the-karman-line/|title=The First Reusable Spacecraft: The X-15 Flights Above the Karman Line|first=Gary|last=Heger|date=August 22, 2020|website=Drew Ex Machina|access-date=10 November 2024|archive-date=10 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241110191521/https://www.drewexmachina.com/2020/08/22/the-first-reusable-spacecraft-the-x-15-flights-above-the-karman-line/|url-status=live}} These marked the first spaceflights with a reusable vehicle.{{efn|The United States defines spaceflight as above 80km, while 100km is internationally recognized by the FAI}} The Gemini SC-2 capsule followed, making a sub-orbital flight in 1965 and another sub-orbital flight in 1966.{{cite web |url= http://afspacemuseum.org/displays/GeminiCapsule/ |title= Gemini Capsule |date= 2017 |publisher= Air Force Space and Missile Museum |author= USAF |access-date= 2017-12-31 |archive-date= 2017-02-15 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170215221823/http://afspacemuseum.org/displays/GeminiCapsule/ |url-status= dead }}

The first spacecraft to be reused in orbit was the Soviet VA spacecraft, a capsule that was part of the larger TKS spacecraft. A VA capsule that launched in 1977 was reflown in 1978.{{cite news|title=Used spacecraft for sale: Soviet-era space capsule up for auction in Belgium|url=http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-050614a-space-capsule-lempertz-auction.html|work=collectSPACE|date=May 6, 2014|archive-date=9 November 2024|access-date=9 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241109200442/http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-050614a-space-capsule-lempertz-auction.html|url-status=live}}

The Space Shuttle was the first orbital spacecraft designed for reuse according to NASA, and first launched in 1981.{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/2011.07.05-shuttle-era-facts.pdf |website=NASA |title=Space Shuttle Era Facts |access-date=9 November 2024}} Five orbiters would launch 135 times before the vehicle's retirement in 2011. Space Shuttle Discovery set the record of 39 spaceflights with a single spacecraft in 2011.{{cite web |title=Most re-used spacecraft |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/75333-most-re-used-spacecraft#:~:text=The%20most%20re-used%20spacecraft%20is%20the%20Space%20Shuttle,between%2030%20August%201984%20and%209%20March%202011. |website=Guinness World Records |access-date=10 November 2024}} The Space Shuttle program, however, faced criticism that it failed to reduce the cost of access to space and had safety concerns following the Challenger and Columbia disasters.{{cite web|url=http://www.idlewords.com/2005/08/a_rocket_to_nowhere.htm|title=A Rocket To Nowhere|last=Cegłowski|first=Maciej|author-link=Maciej Cegłowski|date=2005-08-03|publisher=Idle Words|access-date=2024-11-09|archive-date=18 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191118163626/https://idlewords.com/2005/08/a_rocket_to_nowhere.htm|url-status=live}}{{cite web |last1=Wattles |first1=Jackie |title=The space shuttle was revolutionary for its time. What went wrong? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/04/05/world/nasa-space-shuttle-columbia-what-happened-scn/index.html |website=CNN |access-date=4 December 2024 |date=12 April 2024}}

The SpaceX Dragon 1 first flew in 2010 and became the first commercially built and operated spacecraft to be recovered from orbit. In 2012, Dragon became the first commercial vehicle to attach to the International Space Station (ISS), after which it conducted regular cargo resupply flights for NASA.{{cite web|last=Chang|first=Kenneth|title=Space X Capsule Docks at Space Station|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/26/science/space/space-x-capsule-docks-at-space-station.html|date=25 May 2012|work=New York Times|access-date=25 May 2012|archive-date=3 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150603203029/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/26/science/space/space-x-capsule-docks-at-space-station.html|url-status=live}} Its first reuse was in 2017,{{cite news |last1=Gebhart |first1=Chris |title=SpaceX's CRS-11 Dragon captured by Station for a second time |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/06/spacexs-crs-11-dragon-station-arrival/ |access-date=23 November 2024 |work=NASA Spaceflight |date=5 June 2017 |archive-date=6 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180806115924/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/06/spacexs-crs-11-dragon-station-arrival/ |url-status=live }} and the vehicle led to the development of the Dragon 2, which first reached orbit in 2019. Dragon 2 carries both cargo and crew, and has been described as the most cost-effective spacecraft ever used by NASA.{{Cite web |date=2020-06-08 |title=Infographic: Why SpaceX Is A Game Changer For NASA |url=https://www.statista.com/chart/21904/estimated-cost-per-seat-on-selected-spacecraft |access-date=2024-04-26 |website=Statista Daily Data |language=en |archive-date=10 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241110163313/https://www.statista.com/chart/21904/estimated-cost-per-seat-on-selected-spacecraft/ |url-status=live }} In 2021, Dragon 2 conducted the first orbital flight with only private astronauts onboard.{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |author-link=Dennis Overbye |title=What a Fungus Reveals About the Space Program - One thing's for sure: Escaping the dung heap doesn't come cheap. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/21/science/fungus-pilobolus-space-astronauts.html |date=21 September 2021 |work=The New York Times |access-date=24 September 2021 |archive-date=6 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406125224/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/21/science/fungus-pilobolus-space-astronauts.html |url-status=live }}

SpaceShipOne, another rocket plane, completed the first private sub-orbital spaceflight in 2004 and led to the development of SpaceShipTwo. The Blue Origin New Shepard capsule conducts commercial sub-orbital spaceflights, as did SpaceShipTwo.{{efn|SpaceShipTwo has exceeded altitudes of 80km, but not 100km}}

Development flights for SpaceX Starship test vehicles began in 2019. Starship is intended to be both a fully reusable spacecraft and launch vehicle.{{efn|Both the spacecraft and entire launch vehicle are named Starship}} Starship's first integrated launch with its booster was in 2023, and it reached space the same year. In 2024, Starship successfully reentered the atmosphere and completed propulsive splashdowns in the Indian Ocean, although {{as of|2025|1|lc=yes}} it has not been recovered from space intact.

File:NASA’s SpaceX Crew-5 Splashdown (NHQ202303110017).jpg being recovered after its second flight]]

Reusable spacecraft must survive reentry and safely return to the surface. The mass of any hardware dedicated for this reduces potential payload mass.

Orbital spacecraft initiate a deorbit burn and orient themselves for atmospheric entry. The Boeing Starliner and Orion discard their service modules, including most of their maneuvering engines. The SpaceX Dragon discards its trunk, which includes its solar panels and radiators, but retains its Draco engines in the capsule.{{Cite web|title=Coming Up: Crew Dragon Deorbit Burn – Commercial Crew Program|url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/commercialcrew/2019/03/08/coming-up-crew-dragon-deorbit-burn/|website=blogs.nasa.gov|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-31|archive-date=9 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209124439/https://blogs.nasa.gov/commercialcrew/2019/03/08/coming-up-crew-dragon-deorbit-burn/|url-status=live}} The Space Shuttle was notable for recovering the entire spacecraft.

In general, around 15% of the landed weight of a vehicle is heat shielding.{{cite web |url=http://www.projectrho.com/rocket/basicdesign.php |title=Basic Design |first=Winchell D. Jr. |last=Chung |publisher=Projectrho.com |date=2011-05-30 |work=Atomic Rockets |accessdate=2011-07-04 |archive-date=13 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413123417/http://www.projectrho.com/rocket/basicdesign.php |url-status=dead }} Thermal protection systems (TPS) can be made of a variety of materials, including reinforced carbon-carbon and ablative materials.{{cite web

| url = https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20120016878.pdf

| title = Thermal Protection Materials: Development, Characterization, and Evaluation

| last = Johnson

| first = Sylvia

| date = September 2012

| publisher = NASA Ames Research Center

| access-date = 9 May 2020

| archive-date = 13 April 2020

| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200413165653/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20120016878.pdf

| url-status = live

}} Historically, these materials were first developed on ballistic missile reentry vehicles. However, the requirements of reusable space systems differ from those of single use reentry vehicles, especially with regards to heat shield requirements. In particular the need for durable high emissivity coatings that can withstand multiple thermal cycles constitutes a key requirement in the development of new reusable spacecraft. Current materials for such high emissivity coatings include transition metal disilicides.[https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1902/1902.03943.pdf High emissivity coatings on fibrous ceramics for reusable space systems] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413151659/https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1902/1902.03943.pdf |date=13 April 2020 }} Corrosion Science 2019

Ablative heat shields are reliable, but are heavy and diminished with use. Reinforced carbon-carbon heat tiles such as those used on the Space Shuttle are fragile, contributing to the Columbia disaster. The Space Shuttle used the LI-900 material.

Runway landings from orbit became prevalent with the introduction of the Space Shuttle. Spaceplanes that land horizontally on a runway require lifting surfaces and landing gear. Designs include the Space Shuttle's delta wing and the Dream Chaser's lifting body. Spaceplanes require access to a long enough runway, a necessary consideration for the Space Shuttle launch abort modes.

The first recoverable space capsules landed under parachute, either on land or by splashing down in a body of water. Ground landings require additional cushioning, which Starliner accomplishes with deployable airbags. This was considered for Orion as well, but was ruled out due to the extra mass required.{{cite news |last1=Scharr |first1=Jillian |title=NASA Goes 'Green': Next Spacecraft to Be Reusable |url=https://www.space.com/21541-nasa-orion-spacecraft-reusable.html |access-date=11 November 2024 |work=Space.com |date=13 June 2013}} The sub-orbital New Shepard uses retro-rockets to slow down just before touchdown, a technique that has been used by the expendable Soyuz since the 1960s. Splashing down allows the water to cushion the spacecraft, but exposure to salt water can have adverse effects on the vehicle.{{cite web |last1=Tous |first1=Marcos |title=The science behind splashdown—aerospace engineer explains how NASA and SpaceX get spacecraft safely back |date = 28 June 2024|url=https://theconversation.com/the-science-behind-splashdown-an-aerospace-engineer-explains-how-nasa-and-spacex-get-spacecraft-safely-back-on-earth-232786 |website=The Conversation |access-date=27 November 2024}}{{cite web |work = NASA|title=A FRAMEWORK FOR ASSESSING THE REUSABILITY OF HARDWARE (REUSABLE ROCKET ENGINES |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20170000606/downloads/20170000606.pdf |access-date=11 November 2024}} Despite this, SpaceX began regularly reusing Dragon capsules after splashdown.{{cite web |last1=Foust |first1=Jeff |title=NASA to allow reuse of Crew Dragon spacecraft and boosters |url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-to-allow-reuse-of-crew-dragon-spacecraft-and-boosters/ |website=SpaceNews |date=16 June 2020|access-date=2 December 2024}}

Dragon 2 was originally designed to propusively land using its SuperDraco engines; however, propulsive landings for Dragon were canceled{{efn|Crew Dragon retains the ability to propulsively land in the event of parachute failure.{{cite web |last1=McRea |first1=Aaron |title=Dragon receives long-planned propulsive landing upgrade after years of development |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2024/10/dragon-propulsive-landing/ |website=Nasa Spaceflight |access-date=11 November 2024 |archive-date=11 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111192738/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2024/10/dragon-propulsive-landing/ |url-status=live }}}} and Dragon 2 also uses parachutes to splashdown in the ocean.{{Cite web|title=SpaceX Abandons Plan To Make Astronaut Spacecraft Reusable; Boeing Sticks With Reuse Plan|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/lorenthompson/2018/09/10/spacex-abandons-plan-to-make-astronaut-spacecraft-re-usable-boeing-sticks-with-re-use-plan/|last=Thompson|first=Loren|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2020-05-31|archive-date=9 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209124431/https://www.forbes.com/sites/lorenthompson/2018/09/10/spacex-abandons-plan-to-make-astronaut-spacecraft-re-usable-boeing-sticks-with-re-use-plan/|url-status=live}} Starship is designed to propulsively land using its Raptor engines. It aims to be "caught" by the launch tower, as is done for the Super Heavy booster. This eliminates the need for traditional landing legs on the vehicle and aims to lower the turnaround time between launches.{{cite web |last1=Root |first1=Al |title=SpaceX's Mechazilla Didn't Catch Starship. That's a Bummer. |url=https://www.barrons.com/articles/spacex-mechazilla-starship-rocket-launch-b5f2c597 |website=BARRON'S |access-date=10 December 2024 |date=19 November 2024}}

After a spacecraft is recovered, it may need to be refurbished before its next flight. Depending on the spacecraft design, this process may be lengthy and expensive, and there may be a limit to how many times a spacecraft can be refurbished before it has to be retired.{{Cite web|title=SpaceX launches Dragon as it prepares for next cargo contract|url=https://spacenews.com/spacex-launches-dragon-as-it-prepares-for-next-cargo-contract/|last=Foust|first=Jeff|date=2019-07-25|website=SpaceNews.com|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-31}}

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