spaceplane
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{{Short description|Spacecraft capable of aerodynamic flight in atmosphere}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
File:STS-133_Space_Shuttle_Discovery_after_undocking_3_(cropped).jpg]]
{{Spaceflight sidebar}}
A spaceplane is a vehicle that can fly and glide as an aircraft in Earth's atmosphere and function as a spacecraft in outer space.{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/21/science/25-years-ago-nasa-envisioned-its-own-orient-express.html |title=25 Years Ago, NASA Envisioned Its Own 'Orient Express' |work=The New York Times |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |date=20 October 2014 |access-date=21 October 2014}} To do so, spaceplanes must incorporate features of both aircraft and spacecraft. Orbital spaceplanes tend to be more similar to conventional spacecraft, while sub-orbital spaceplanes tend to be more similar to fixed-wing aircraft. All spaceplanes as of 2024 have been rocket-powered for takeoff and climb, but have then landed as unpowered gliders.
Four examples of spaceplanes have successfully launched to orbit, reentered Earth's atmosphere, and landed: the U.S. Space Shuttle, Russian Buran, U.S. X-37,{{cite web |last1=Piesing |first1=Mark |title=Spaceplanes: The return of the reusable spacecraft? |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210121-spaceplanes-the-return-of-the-reuseable-spacecraft |website=BBC |access-date=15 February 2021 |date=22 January 2021}} and the Chinese Shenlong. Another, Dream Chaser, is under development in the U.S. As of 2024 all past and current orbital spaceplanes launch vertically; some are carried as a payload in a conventional fairing, while the Space Shuttle used its own engines with the assistance of boosters and an external tank. Orbital spaceflight takes place at high velocities, with orbital kinetic energies typically greater than suborbital trajectories. This kinetic energy is shed as heat during re-entry. Many more spaceplanes have been proposed.
At least two suborbital rocket-powered aircraft have been launched horizontally into sub-orbital spaceflight from an airborne carrier aircraft before rocketing beyond the Kármán line: the X-15 and SpaceShipOne.{{efn| In 2018, SpaceShipTwo passed the US definition of space of 80km, but not the 100km Kármán line.}}
Operational principles
File:Atlantis is landing after STS-30 mission.jpg
Spaceplanes must operate in space, like traditional spacecraft, but also must be capable of atmospheric flight, like an aircraft.
Spaceplanes do not necessarily have to fly by their own propulsion, but instead often glide with their inertia while using aerodynamic surfaces to maneuver in the atmosphere during descent and landing. The U.S. Space Shuttle for instance, could not fly under its own propulsion but used its momentum after de-orbit to glide to the runway destination.{{Cite web |date=2024-02-23 |title=Re-entry and Landing Procedures: A Guide to Safe Spacecraft Descent - Space Voyage Ventures |url=https://spacevoyageventures.com/re-entry-and-landing-procedures/ |access-date=2024-12-13 |language=en-GB}}{{Cite web |date=2003-12-29 |title=The Aeronautics of the Space Shuttle - NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/langley/the-aeronautics-of-the-space-shuttle/ |access-date=2024-12-13 |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |title=Returning from Space: Re-entry |url=https://www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/files/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/avs/III.4.1.7_Returning_from_Space.pdf |website=faa.gov}}
These requirements drive up the complexity, risk, dry mass, and cost of spaceplane designs. The following sections will draw heavily on the US Space Shuttle as the biggest, most complex, most expensive, most flown, and only crewed orbital spaceplane, but other designs have been successfully flown.
= Launch to space =
The flight trajectory required to reach orbit results in significant aerodynamic loads, vibrations, and accelerations, all of which have to be withstood by the vehicle structure.{{Cite web |title=Aerodynamics and Debris Transport for the Space Shuttle Launch Vehicle |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20120014272/downloads/20120014272.pdf |website=ntrs.nasa.gov}}{{Cite web |date=August 1973 |title=UNSTEADY AERODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF SPACE SHUTTLE VEHICLES |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19730024030/downloads/19730024030.pdf |website=ntrs.nasa.gov}}{{Cite web |title=X-15 Hypersonic Research Program - NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/reference/x-15/ |access-date=2024-12-29 |language=en-US}}
If the launch vehicle suffers a catastrophic malfunction, a conventional capsule spacecraft is propelled to safety by a launch escape system. The Space Shuttle was far too big and heavy for this approach to be viable, resulting in a number of abort modes that may or may not have been survivable. The Challenger disaster demonstrated a lack of survivability on ascent.{{fact|date=January 2025}}
= Space environment =
Once on-orbit, a spaceplane must be supplied with power by solar panels and batteries or fuel cells, maneuvered in space, kept in thermal equilibrium, oriented, and communicated with. On-orbit thermal and radiological environments impose additional stresses. This is in addition to accomplishing the task the spaceplane was launched to complete, such as satellite deployment or science experiments.{{fact|date=January 2025}}
The Space Shuttle used dedicated engines to accomplish orbital maneuvers. These engines used toxic hypergolic propellants that required special handling precautions. Various gases, including helium for pressurization and nitrogen for life support, were stored under high pressure in composite overwrapped pressure vessels.{{fact|date=January 2025}}
=Atmospheric reentry=
{{main|Atmospheric entry}}
File:Buran rear view (Le Bourget 1989).JPEG spaceplane rear showing rocket engine nozzles, attitude control thrusters, aerodynamic surfaces, and heat shielding]]
Orbital spacecraft reentering the Earth's atmosphere must shed significant velocity, resulting in extreme heating. For example, the Space Shuttle thermal protection system (TPS) protects the orbiter's interior structure from surface temperatures that reach as high as {{convert|3000|F|C|order=flip}}, well above the melting point of steel.{{cite web |url=http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/nasafact/tps.htm |title=Orbiter Thermal Protection System |publisher=NASA/Kennedy Space Center |date=1989 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060909094330/http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/nasafact/tps.htm |archive-date=9 September 2006}} Suborbital spaceplanes fly lower energy trajectories that do not put as much stress on the spacecraft thermal protection system.
The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster was the direct result of a TPS failure.
= Aerodynamic flight and horizontal landing =
Aerodynamic control surfaces must be actuated. Landing gear must be included at the cost of additional mass.
= Air-breathing orbital spaceplane concept =
An air-breathing orbital spaceplane would have to fly what is known as a 'depressed trajectory,' which places the vehicle in the high-altitude hypersonic flight regime of the atmosphere for an extended period of time. This environment induces high dynamic pressure, high temperature, and high heat flow loads particularly upon the leading edge surfaces of the spaceplane, requiring exterior surfaces to be constructed from advanced materials and/or use active cooling. Skylon was a proposed spaceplane that would have used air-breathing engines.
Orbital spaceplanes
= Space Shuttle =
{{Excerpt|Space Shuttle}}
= Buran =
{{Excerpt|Buran programme}}
= X-37 =
{{Excerpt|Boeing X-37}}
= Reusable experimental spacecraft =
{{Excerpt|Chinese reusable experimental spacecraft}}
Suborbital rocket planes
{{Main|Rocket-powered aircraft}}
Two piloted suborbital rocket-powered aircraft have reached space: the North American X-15 and SpaceShipOne; a third, SpaceShipTwo, has crossed the US-defined boundary of space but has not reached the higher internationally recognised boundary. None of these crafts were capable of entering orbit, and all were first lifted to high altitude by a carrier aircraft.
On 7 December 2009, Scaled Composites and Virgin Galactic unveiled SpaceShipTwo, along with its atmospheric mothership "Eve". On 13 December 2018, SpaceShipTwo VSS Unity successfully crossed the US-defined boundary of space (although it has not reached space using the internationally recognised definition of this boundary, which lies at a higher altitude than the US boundary). SpaceShipThree is the new spacecraft of Virgin Galactic, launched on 30 March 2021. It is also known as VSS Imagine.{{cite web |url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/12/13/18138279/virgin-galactic-vss-unity-spaceshiptwo-space-tourism |first=Lauren |last=Grush |title=Virgin Galactic's spaceplane finally makes it to space for the first time |date=13 December 2018 |access-date=13 December 2018 |website=theverge.com}} On 11 July 2021 VSS Unity completed its first fully crewed mission including Sir Richard Branson.
The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-105 was an atmospheric prototype of an intended orbital spaceplane, with the suborbital BOR-4 subscale heat shield test vehicle successfully reentering the atmosphere before program cancellation.
HYFLEX was a miniaturized suborbital demonstrator launched in 1996, flying to 110 km altitude, achieving hypersonic flight, and successfully reentering the atmosphere.{{cite web |url=http://www.astronautix.com/craft/hyflex.htm |title=Hyflex |website=Astronautix.com |access-date=15 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110119034904/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/hyflex.htm |archive-date=19 January 2011}}{{cite web |url=http://www.rocket.jaxa.jp/fstrc/0c02.html |title=HYFLEX |publisher=Space Transportation System Research and Development Center, JAXA |access-date=15 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125004437/http://www.rocket.jaxa.jp/fstrc/0c02.html |archive-date=25 November 2011}}
History of unflown concepts
File:Gemini paraglider.JPG tested the use of a Rogallo wing rather than a parachute. August 1964.]]
Various types of spaceplanes have been suggested since the early twentieth century. Notable early designs include a spaceplane equipped with wings made of combustible alloys that it would burn during its ascent, and the Silbervogel bomber concept. World War II Germany and the postwar US considered winged versions of the V-2 rocket, and in the 1950s and '60s winged rocket designs inspired science fiction artists, filmmakers, and the general public.{{Cite web |title=NOVA Online {{!}} Stationed in the Stars {{!}} Inspired by Science Fiction |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/station/inspired.html |access-date=2023-12-31 |website=www.pbs.org}}{{Cite web |last=Heppenheimer |first=T. A. |author-link=NASA |date=1999 |title=CHAPTER 1: SPACE STATIONS AND WINGED ROCKETS |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4221/ch1.htm |access-date=2023-12-31 |website=history.nasa.gov}}
= United States (1950s–2010s) =
The U.S. Air Force invested some effort in a paper study of a variety of spaceplane projects under their Aerospaceplane efforts of the late 1950s, but later reduced the scope of the project. The result, the Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar, was to have been the first orbital spaceplane, but was canceled in the early 1960s{{Cite web |last=Kass |first=Harrison |date=2021-06-21 |title=Boeing's X-20 Dyna-Soar Was The Air Force's 'Spaceplane' That Never Flew |url=https://thedebrief.org/boeings-x-20-dyna-soar-was-the-air-forces-spaceplane-that-never-flew/ |access-date=2023-12-31 |website=The Debrief |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |title=USAF X-20 “Dyna-Soar” Program Draftees {{!}} Spaceline |url=https://www.spaceline.org/united-states-manned-space-flight/us-astronaut-selection-drafts-and-qualifications/usaf-x-20-dyna-soar-program-draftees/ |access-date=2023-12-31 |language=en-US}} in lieu of NASA's Project Gemini and the U.S. Air Force's crewed spaceflight program.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
In 1961, NASA originally planned to have the Gemini spacecraft land on a runway{{sfn|Hacker|Grimwood|1977|pp=xvi–xvii}} with a Rogallo wing airfoil, rather than an ocean landing under parachutes.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} The test vehicle became known as the Paraglider Research Vehicle. Development work on both parachutes and the paraglider began in 1963.{{sfn|Hacker|Grimwood|1977|pp=145–148}} By December 1963, the parachute was ready to undergo full-scale deployment testing, while the paraglider had run into technical difficulties.{{sfn|Hacker|Grimwood|1977|pp=145–148}} Though attempts to revive the paraglider concept persisted within NASA and North American Aviation, in 1964 development was definitively discontinued due to the expense of overcoming the technical hurdles.{{sfn|Hacker|Grimwood|1977|pp=171–173}}
File:Space Shuttle concepts.jpg STS concepts, circa 1970s]]
The Space Shuttle underwent many variations during its conceptual design phase. Some early concepts are illustrated.
File:X-30 futuristic nasa.jpg taking off]]
The Rockwell X-30 National Aero-Space Plane (NASP), begun in the 1980s, was an attempt to build a scramjet vehicle capable of operating like an aircraft and achieving orbit like the shuttle. Introduced to the public in 1986, the concept was intended to reach Mach 25, enabling flights between Dulles Airport to Tokyo in two hours, while also being capable of low Earth orbit.{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/irp/mystery/nasp.htm |title=X-30 National Aerospace Plane (NASP) |work=Federation of American Scientists |access-date=30 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421135746/http://www.fas.org/irp/mystery/nasp.htm |archive-date=21 April 2010}} Six critical technologies were identified, three relating to the propulsion system, which would consist of a hydrogen-fueled scramjet.
The NASP program became the Hypersonic Systems Technology Program (HySTP) in late 1994. HySTP was designed to transfer the accomplishments made in hypersonic flight into a technology development program. On 27 January 1995 the Air Force terminated participation in (HySTP).
In 1994, a USAF captain proposed an F-16 sized single-stage-to-orbit peroxide/kerosene spaceplane called "Black Horse".{{cite web |url=http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/blahorse.htm |title=Black Horse |website=Astronautix.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080722112056/http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/blahorse.htm |archive-date=22 July 2008}} It was to take off almost empty and undergo aerial refueling before rocketing to orbit.{{cite magazine |url=http://www.risacher.org/bh/analog.html |title=Black Horse: One Stop to Orbit |magazine=Analog Science Fiction and Fact |first1=Robert M. |last1=Zubrin |first2=Mitchell Burnside |last2=Clapp |volume=115 |issue=7 |date=June 1995}}
The Lockheed Martin X-33 was a 1/3 scale prototype made as part of an attempt by NASA to build a SSTO hydrogen-fuelled spaceplane VentureStar that failed when the hydrogen tank design could not be constructed as intended.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
On 5 March 2006, Aviation Week & Space Technology published a story purporting to be the "outing" of a highly classified U.S. military two-stage-to-orbit spaceplane system with the code name Blackstar."[http://www.aviationweek.com/avnow/news/channel_awst_story.jsp?id=news/030606p1.xml Two-Stage-to-Orbit 'Blackstar' System Shelved at Groom Lake?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061023221054/http://www.aviationweek.com/avnow/news/channel_awst_story.jsp?id=news/030606p1.xml |date=23 October 2006 }}." Scott, W., Aviation Week & Space Technology. 5 March 2006.
In 2011, Boeing proposed the X-37C, a 165 to 180 percent scale X-37B built to carry up to six passengers to low Earth orbit. The spaceplane was also intended to carry cargo, with both upmass and downmass capacity.{{cite news |url=http://www.space.com/13230-secretive-37b-space-plane-future-astronauts.html |title=Secretive US X-37B Space Plane Could Evolve to Carry Astronauts |work=Space.com |first=David |last=Leonard |date=7 October 2011 |access-date=13 October 2011}}
= Soviet Union (1960s–1991) =
{{Further|Buran program#Background}}
{{Excerpt|Buran program#Background}}
The Soviet Union first considered a preliminary design of rocket-launch small spaceplane Lapotok in early 1960s. The Spiral airspace system with small orbital spaceplane and rocket as second stage was developed in the 1960s–1980s.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-105 was a crewed test vehicle to explore low-speed handling and landing.{{cite book |title=Soviet X-planes |publisher=Midland Publishers |location=Leicester |first1=Yefim |last1=Gordon |first2=Bill |last2=Gunston |date=2000 |isbn=1-85780-099-0}}
= Russia =
{{main|Buran program|Kliper}}
In the early 2000s the orbital 'cosmoplane' ({{langx|ru|космоплан}}) was proposed by Russia's Institute of Applied Mechanics as a passenger transport. According to researchers, it could take about 20 minutes to fly from Moscow to Paris, using hydrogen and oxygen-fueled engines.{{cite web |url=http://russia-ic.com/news/show/1925/ |title=Russia Develops New Aircraft – Cosmoplane |work=Russia-InfoCentre |date=27 February 2006 |access-date=13 June 2015}}{{cite web |url=http://www.rususa.com/news/news.asp-nid-2632 |title=Космоплан – самолет будущего |website=RusUsa.com |date=3 November 2003 |access-date=4 November 2011 |archive-date=22 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120422191531/http://www.rususa.com/news/news.asp-nid-2632 |url-status=dead }}
= United Kingdom =
The Multi-Unit Space Transport And Recovery Device (MUSTARD) was a concept explored by the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) around 1968 for launching payloads weighing as much as {{convert|5000|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}} into orbit. It was never constructed.{{cite web |url=http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/M/MUSTARD.html |title=MUSTARD (Multi-Unit Space Transport and Recovery Device) |first=David |last=Darling |date=2010 |access-date=29 September 2010}}
In the 1980s, British Aerospace began development of HOTOL, an SSTO spaceplane powered by a revolutionary SABRE air-breathing rocket engine, but the project was canceled due to technical and financial uncertainties.{{cite web |url=http://www.reactionengines.co.uk/bkgrnd.html |title=HOTOL History |publisher=Reaction Engines Limited |date=2010 |access-date=29 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100808065903/http://www.reactionengines.co.uk/bkgrnd.html |archive-date=8 August 2010}} The inventor of SABRE set up Reaction Engines to develop SABRE and proposed a twin-engined SSTO spaceplane called Skylon.{{cite web |url=http://www.reactionengines.co.uk/faq.html#q6 |title=Skylon FAQ |publisher=Reaction Engines Limited |date=2010 |access-date=29 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100828235618/http://www.reactionengines.co.uk/faq.html |archive-date=28 August 2010}} One NASA analysis showed possible issues with the hot rocket exhaust plumes causing heating of the tail structure at high Mach numbers.Unmeel Mehta, Michael Aftosmis, Jeffrey Bowles, and Shishir Pandya; [https://www.nas.nasa.gov/assets/nas/pdf/papers/Mehta_Unmeel_Skylon2015.pdf Skylon Aerodynamics and SABRE Plumes], NASA, 20th AIAA International Space Planes and Hypersonic Systems and Technologies Conference 6–9 July 2015, 2015, although the CEO of Skylon Enterprises Ltd has claimed that reviews by NASA were "quite positive".{{Cite web|url=https://www.space.com/11414-skylon-space-plane-british-engine-test.html|title = Big Test Looms for British Space Plane Concept|website = Space.com|date = 18 April 2011}}
Bristol Spaceplanes has undertaken design and prototyping of three potential spaceplanes since its founding by David Ashford in 1991. The European Space Agency has endorsed these designs on several occasions.{{cite web |url=http://bristolspaceplanes.com/company/ |title=Bristol Spaceplanes Company Information |publisher=Bristol Spaceplanes |date=2014 |access-date=26 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704123213/http://bristolspaceplanes.com/company/ |archive-date=4 July 2014}}
= European Space Agency (1985–present) =
France worked on the Hermes crewed spaceplane launched by Ariane rocket in the late 20th century, and proposed in January 1985 to go through with Hermes development under the auspices of the ESA.{{cite journal |title=Hermes: Learning from our mistakes |journal=Space Policy |first=Martin |last=Bayer |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=171–180 |date=August 1995 |doi=10.1016/0265-9646(95)00016-6|bibcode=1995SpPol..11..171B}}
In the 1980s, West Germany funded design work on the MBB Sänger II with the Hypersonic Technology Program. Development continued on MBB/Deutsche Aerospace Sänger II/HORUS until the late 1980s when it was canceled. Germany went on to participate in the Ariane rocket, Columbus space station and Hermes spaceplane of ESA, Spacelab of ESA-NASA and Deutschland missions (non-U.S. funded Space Shuttle flights with Spacelab). The Sänger II had predicted cost savings of up to 30 percent over expendable rockets.{{cite web |url=http://www.astronautix.com/s/saengerii.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801095741/http://www.astronautix.com/s/saengerii.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 August 2016 |title=Saenger II |website=Astronautix.com |access-date=26 September 2014}}{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/spp/guide/germany/piloted/index.html |title=Germany and Piloted Space Missions |publisher=Federation of American Scientists |series=Space Policy Project |access-date=26 September 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402124617/http://fas.org/spp/guide/germany/piloted/index.html |archive-date=2 April 2015}}
Hopper was one of several proposals for a European reusable launch vehicle (RLV) planned to cheaply ferry satellites into orbit by 2015.{{cite news |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn4975-europes-space-shuttle-passes-early-test/ |title=Europe's space shuttle passes early test |work=New Scientist |first=Maggie |last=McKee |date=10 May 2004}} One of those was 'Phoenix', a German project which is a one-seventh scale model of the Hopper concept vehicle.{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3699848.stm |title=Launching the next generation of rockets |work=BBC News |date=1 October 2004}} The suborbital Hopper was a Future European Space Transportation Investigations Programme system study design{{cite journal |url=http://www.esa.int/esapub/bulletin/bullet97/dujarric.pdf |title=Possible Future European Launchers, A Process of Convergence |journal=ESA Bulletin |publisher=European Space Agency |first=C. |last=Dujarric |issue=97 |pages=11–19 |date=March 1999}} A test project, the Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle (IXV), has demonstrated lifting reentry technologies and will be extended under the PRIDE programme.{{cite news |url=http://www.space.com/5978-europe-aims-entry-spacecraft.html |title=Europe Aims For Re-entry Spacecraft |work=Space.com |first=Jeremy |last=Hsu |date=15 October 2008}}
= Japan =
HOPE was a Japanese experimental spaceplane project designed by a partnership between NASDA and NAL (both now part of JAXA), started in the 1980s. It was positioned for most of its lifetime as one of the main Japanese contributions to the International Space Station, the other being the Japanese Experiment Module. The project was eventually cancelled in 2003, by which point test flights of a sub-scale testbed had flown successfully.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
= India =
AVATAR (Aerobic Vehicle for Hypersonic Aerospace Transportation; {{langx|sa|अवतार}}) was a concept study for an uncrewed single-stage reusable spaceplane capable of horizontal takeoff and landing, presented to India's Defence Research and Development Organisation. The mission concept was for low cost military and commercial satellite launches.{{cite news |url=http://www.scity.gujarat.gov.in/plane-avatar.htm |title=Indian Scientists unveils space plane Avatar in US |work=Gujarat Science City |date=10 July 2001 |access-date=22 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222125628/http://www.scity.gujarat.gov.in/plane-avatar.htm |archive-date=22 December 2015}}{{cite news |url=http://www.spacedaily.com/news/india-01i.html |title=India Eyes New Spaceplane Concept |work=Space Daily |date=8 August 2001 |access-date=22 October 2014}}{{cite news |title=AVATAR- Hyper Plane to be built by INDIA |work=India's Military and Civilian Technological Advancements |date=19 December 2011}}
Current development programs
= China =
{{main|Shenlong (spacecraft)|Shadow Dragon (aircraft)}}
Shenlong ({{zh|s=神龙|p=shén lóng|l=divine dragon}}) is a Chinese robotic spaceplane that may be similar to the Boeing X-37.{{cite web |url=http://www.space.com/18410-china-space-plane-project-mystery.html |title=China's Mystery Space Plane Project Stirs Up Questions |work=Space.com |first=Leonard |last=David |date=9 November 2012 |access-date=13 June 2015}} Only a few images have been released since late 2007.{{cite web |url=http://www.strategycenter.net/research/pubID.175/pub_detail.asp |title=...And Races into Space |publisher=International Assessment and Strategy Center |first=Richard Jr. |last=Fisher |date=3 January 2008}}{{cite web |url=http://www.strategycenter.net/research/pubID.174/pub_detail.asp |title=Shenlong Space Plane Advances China's Military Space Potential |publisher=International Assessment and Strategy Center |first=Richard Jr. |last=Fisher |date=17 December 2007 |access-date=12 February 2015 |archive-date=9 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109034744/http://www.strategycenter.net/research/pubID.174/pub_detail.asp |url-status=dead }}{{cite web |url=http://www.spacepolitics.com/2008/01/03/invoking-china-to-keep-the-shuttle-alive/ |title=Invoking China to keep the shuttle alive |work=Space Politics |first=Jeff |last=Foust |date=3 January 2008}}
= European Union =
A test project, the Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle (IXV), has demonstrated lifting reentry technologies and will be extended under the PRIDE programme.
The FAST20XX Future High-Altitude High Speed Transport 20XX aims to establish sound technological foundations for the introduction of advanced concepts in suborbital high-speed transportation with air-launch-to-orbit ALPHA vehicle.{{cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Engineering_Technology/FAST20XX_Future_High-Altitude_High-Speed_Transport_20XX |title=FAST20XX (Future High-Altitude High-Speed Transport 20XX) / Space Engineering & Technology / Our Activities / ESA |publisher=Esa.int |date=2 October 2012}}
The Daimler-Chrysler Aerospace RLV is a small reusable spaceplane prototype for the ESA Future Launchers Preparatory Programme/FLTP program. SpaceLiner is the most recent project.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
{{Excerpt|Space Rider}}
= India =
{{As of|2012}}, the Indian Space Research Organisation is developing a launch system named the Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV). It is India's first step towards realizing a two-stage-to-orbit reusable launch system. A space plane serves as the second stage. The plane is expected to have air-breathing scramjet engines as well as rocket engines. Tests with miniature spaceplanes and a working scramjet have been conducted by ISRO in 2016.{{cite web |url=http://www.isro.gov.in/update/23-may-2016/india%E2%80%99s-reusable-launch-vehicle-technology-demonstrator-rlv-td-successfully |title=India's Reusable Launch Vehicle-Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD), Successfully Flight Tested |publisher=Indian Space Research Organisation |date=23 May 2016 |access-date=27 December 2016 |archive-date=14 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914011950/http://www.isro.gov.in/update/23-may-2016/india%E2%80%99s-reusable-launch-vehicle-technology-demonstrator-rlv-td-successfully |url-status=dead }} In April 2023, India successfully conducted an autonomous landing mission of a scaled-down prototype of the spaceplane.{{Cite web |title=Reusable Launch Vehicle Autonomous Landing Mission (RLV LEX) |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/Reusable_launch_vehicle_autonomous_landing_mission.html |access-date=2023-04-02 |website=www.isro.gov.in}} The RLV prototype was dropped from a Chinook helicopter at an altitude of 4.5 km and was made to autonomously glide down to a purpose-built runway at the Chitradurga Aeronautical Test Range, Karnataka.{{Cite news |date=2023-04-02 |title=Isro reusable launch vehicle's landing experiment successful; RLV closer to orbital re-entry mission |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/isro-reusable-launch-vehicles-landing-experiment-successful-rlv-closer-to-orbital-re-entry-mission/articleshow/99181950.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-04-02 |issn=0971-8257}}
= Japan =
As of 2018, Japan is developing the Winged Reusable Sounding rocket (WIRES), which if successful, may be used as a recoverable first-stage or as a crewed sub-orbital spaceplane.{{citation|doi=10.13111/2066-8201.2018.10.1.15|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323693460|title=Subscale Winged Rocket Development and Application to Future Reusable Space Transportation|journal=Incas Bulletin|volume=10|pages=161–172|year=2018|last1=Koichi|first1=Yonemoto|last2=Takahiro|first2=Fujikawa|last3=Toshiki|first3=Morito|last4=Joseph|first4=Wang|last5=Ahsan r|first5=Choudhuri|doi-access=free}}
= United States =
{{excerpt|Dream Chaser}}
= International =
The Dawn Mk-II Aurora is a suborbital spaceplane being developed by Dawn Aerospace to demonstrate multiple suborbital flights per day. Dawn is based in the Netherlands and New Zealand, and is working closely with the American CAA. On 9 December 2020, the Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand, working alongside the New Zealand Space Agency, issued a license allowing the vehicle to fly from a conventional airport.{{Cite web |date=2020-12-09 |title=Dawn Aerospace wins license for suborbital flights |url=https://spacenews.com/dawn-wins-spaceplane-license/ |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}} On 25 August 2021, the first test-flight campaign of five successful flights using surrogate jet engines was announced.{{Cite web |title=Dawn Aerospace conducts five flights of its suborbital spaceplane |url=https://techcrunch.com/2021/08/25/dawn-aerospace-conducts-five-flights-of-its-suborbital-spaceplane/ |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=TechCrunch |date=25 August 2021 |language=en-US}} As of 15 August 2022, 35 test flights have been complete, validating the vehicles aerodynamics, avionics, rapid deployment and various piloting modes.{{Cite web |title=After nearly 40 flights on surrogate jets, we are pretty close to - Stefan Powell on LinkedIn |url=https://www.linkedin.com/posts/spowell111_after-nearly-40-flights-on-surrogate-jets-activity-6965076153548111872-bmKT |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=www.linkedin.com |language=en}} A qualified 2.5 kN.s pump-fed HTP/kerosene engine is being installed for high-performance high-altitude flights. Dawn Aerospace previously demonstrated multiple low-altitude rocket-powered flights per day on their Mk-I vehicle.{{Cite web |title=Mk-I vehicle: Rocket power in flight, multiple times per hour |url=https://www.dawnaerospace.com/latest-news/mk-1-vehicle-rocket-power-in-flight |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=Dawn Aerospace |language=en-US}}
See also
Notes
{{Notelist}}
References
{{Reflist}}
Bibliography
- {{cite book |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/cover.htm |title=On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |first1=Barton C. |last1=Hacker |first2=James M. |last2=Grimwood |year=1977 |oclc=3821896 |id=NASA SP-4203 |access-date=21 May 2015 |archive-date=7 December 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031207111557/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/cover.htm |url-status=dead }}
- {{cite book |title=Reusable Space Transportation Systems |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin |first1=Heribert |last1=Kuczera |first2=Peter W. |last2=Sacher |year=2011 |isbn=978-3-540-89180-2}}
External links
{{Commons category}}
{{Space Planes}}
{{Non-rocket spacelaunch}}
{{Space tourism}}
{{Emerging technologies|transport=yes}}
{{Spaceflight}}