Saffron trade

Almost all saffron grows in a belt bounded by the Mediterranean in the west and mountainous Kashmir in the east. All other continents except Antarctica produce smaller amounts. In 1991, Some {{Convert|300|t|kg|0|abbr=on}} of whole threads and powder are gleaned yearly,{{Sfn|Katzer|2010}} of which {{Convert|50|t|kg|0|abbr=on}} is top-grade "coupe" saffron.{{Sfn|Negbi|1999|p=2}}

File:Spice shop, Mashad, Iran.jpg

Iran is by far the world's most important producer with production of four hundred thirty tons in 2019,{{Cite web|title=Saffron: leading producers worldwide 2019|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1135621/leading-saffron-producers-worldwide/|access-date=2021-01-14 |website=Statista|language=en}} much of the Iranian crop was bound for export. Iran is not a member of the WTO due to the history of state affairs and political relations after the Islamic Revolution. Iran has remained a non-participant in the WTO since then, mainly because of US opposition.{{cite book|url=http://www1.american.edu/TED/saffron.htm |author=R. Rasti |publisher=published by American University Washington, D.C. |access-date=2015-12-07 |title=TED Case Study Template |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310122834/http://www1.american.edu/TED/saffron.htm |archive-date=2016-03-10 |url-status=dead}}(Retrieved also 2015-12-09) EU sanctions and restrictions are in place for trading with Iran today.Governmental Office of the Crown of the United Kingdom – [https://www.gov.uk/guidance/sanctions-on-iran Business and enterprise – guidance Embargoes and sanctions on Iran] First published : 11 September 2012 Last updated: 2 September 2015 published by The Crown [Retrieved 2015-12-09] The main production areas for Croci stigma lie in the Khorasan Province. Despite sanctions against Iran, and a loss of direct sales to the US, exports rebounded at the end of 2019, as markets for the valued product were expanded. Most of the Iranian saffron is exported to Turkey and Spain, where it is graded and resold into the global market. In 2020/21 production declined significantly due the work-intensive process of harvesting saffron, which was hindered by the COVID-19 pandemic. Farmers were forced to use the plant source as animal feed. Due to the economic sanctions, some production sites have also resorted to smuggling saffron out of the country in order to obtain higher profits from direct sales.[https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/iran-us-sanctions-saffron-industry-death-spiral "Iranian press review: Saffron industry in death spiral amid US sanctions"] Middle East Eye. Retrieved 7 June 2021.Artemis Razmipour (January 20, 2021) [https://www.laprensalatina.com/us-sanctions-force-iranian-saffron-industry-to-turn-to-smuggling/ "US sanctions force Iranian saffron industry to turn to smuggling"] laprensalatina.com. Retrieved 7 June 2021.[https://www.arabnews.com/node/1412251/middle-east "Iranian saffron sales grow despite sanctions"] Arab News. Retrieved 7 June 2021. Afghanistan comes second, which produced over 67 tons in 2023.{{cite news |url=https://tolonews.com/business-188451 |title=Afghanistan Exports 67 Tons of Saffron, Worth $49M: Ministry |publisher=TOLOnews |date=4 April 2024 |access-date=2024-04-23}}

Indian Administered Kashmir is the third largest producer with annual production of twenty-two tons in 2019.{{Cite web|title=Saffron: leading producers worldwide 2019|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1135621/leading-saffron-producers-worldwide/|access-date=2021-01-14 |website=Statista |language=en}} Most of the region's saffron is grown in the more climatically suitable Pampore area of the Kashmir valley. Greece is fourth largest producer followed by Morocco and Spain. In restive Indian administered part of Kashmir it has waned.{{Sfn|Malik|2007}} Despite numerous cultivation efforts in such countries as Austria, England, Germany, and Switzerland, only select locales continue the harvest in northern and central Europe. Among these is the small Swiss village of Mund, in the Valais canton, whose annual saffron output amounts to several kilograms.{{Sfn|Katzer|2010}} Microscale cultivation occurs in Tasmania,{{Sfn|Courtney|2002}} China, Egypt, France, Israel, Mexico, New Zealand, Turkey (especially Safranbolu), California, and Central Africa.{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=272}}{{better source|date=May 2025}}

Kashmir saffron is renowned globally as a spice. It is used in cosmetics and for medicinal purposes. It has been associated with traditional Kashmiri cuisine and represents the rich cultural heritage of the region. The unique characteristics of Kashmir saffron are its longer and thicker stigmas, natural deep-red colour, high aroma, bitter flavour, chemical-free processing, and high quantity of crocin (colouring strength), safranal (flavour) and picrocrocin (bitterness).{{Cite news |last=Kandavel |first=Sangeetha |date=2020-05-01 |title=Kashmir saffron gets GI tag |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/kashmir-saffron-gets-gi-tag/article31484569.ece |access-date=2021-01-14 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=2020-07-26 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200726061705/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/kashmir-saffron-gets-gi-tag/article31484569.ece |url-status=live}} The saffron grown in Kashmir is mainly three types — ‘Lachha Saffron’, with stigmas just separated from the flowers and dried without further processing; ‘Mongra Saffron’, in which stigmas are detached from the flower, dried in the sun and processed traditionally; and ‘Guchhi Saffron’, which is the same as Lachha, except that the latter’s dried stigmas are packed loosely in air-tight containers while the former has stigmas joined together in a bundle tied with a cloth thread.

A protective geographical status, via the European Union, exists for growing, in the regions of, La Mancha, Spain, L'Aquila, Abruzzo, Italy, and around abouts Kozani, Western Macedonia, Greece.{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204644504576650522717252178 |author=J. S. Marcus |title=The Purple Gold of La Mancha |newspaper=Wall Street Journal |date=27 October 2011|access-date=2015-12-07}} Kashmir has the All J&K Saffron Growers & Dealers Association which is run in order to promote fair trade and the rights of saffron farmers, and to promote trade of the spice.[http://www.jksgda.org/articles.php?lng=en&pg=16 Homepage] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208232821/http://www.jksgda.org/articles.php?lng=en&pg=16 |date=2015-12-08 }} published by SGDA Saffron City Pampore [Retrieved 2015-12-08]{{cite book |url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-11-24/news/56421105_1_saffron-premium-spice |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141127120345/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-11-24/news/56421105_1_saffron-premium-spice |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 27, 2014 |author=M. Thakkar |title=The Economic Times article |publisher=The Indian Times|access-date=2015-12-08}}

{{Multiple image|align=left|footer_align=center|direction=vertical|width=150|image1=Crocus sativus sahuran.jpg|image2=Crocus sativus1.jpg|footer=C. sativus.}}

The high cost of saffron is due to the difficulty of manually extracting large numbers of minute stigmas, which are the only part of the crocus with the desired aroma and flavour. A large quantity of flowers need to be processed in order to yield marketable amounts of saffron. Obtaining {{Convert|1|lb|kg|abbr=on}} of dry saffron requires the harvesting of some 50,000 flowers, the equivalent of an association football pitch's area of cultivation, or roughly {{Convert|7140|m2|ha|3|abbr=on}}.{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=273}} By another estimate some 75,000 flowers are needed to produce one pound of dry saffron.{{Sfn|Rau|1969|p=35}} This too depends on the typical stigma size of each saffron cultivar. Another complication arises in the flowers' simultaneous and transient blooming. Since so many crocus flowers are needed to yield even derisory quantities of dry saffron, the harvest can be a frenetic affair entailing about forty hours of intense labour. In Kashmir, the thousands of growers must work continuously in relays over the span of one or two weeks throughout both day and night.{{Sfn|Lak|1998}}

Once extracted, the stigmas must be dried quickly, lest decomposition or mould ruin the batch's marketability. The traditional method of drying involves spreading the fresh stigmas over screens of fine mesh, which are then baked over hot coals or wood or in oven-heated rooms where temperatures reach {{Convert|30|–|35|°C|°F|0|abbr=on}} for 10–12 hours. Afterwards the dried spice is preferably sealed in airtight glass containers.{{refn|Pure saffron stigmas will often be mixed with stamens to add "dead"—read: "worthless"—weight. To put it mildly, stamens have little culinary appeal but will still add the signature yellow color of saffron. Powdered saffron should be red-orange rather than yellowish in colour.|group=N}}{{Sfn|Negbi|1999|p=8}}

Per gram, prices range upward to $65, according to a year 2015 evaluation, £5.20 (La Mancha), according to an evaluation made during year 2014, and €20, according to a year 2011 evaluation. Bulk quantities of lower-grade saffron can reach upwards of {{USD}}500 per pound; retail costs for small amounts may exceed ten times that rate. In Western countries the average retail price is approximately US$1,000 per pound.{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=272}} Prices vary widely elsewhere, but on average tend to be lower. The high price is somewhat offset by the small quantities needed in kitchens: a few grams at most in medicinal use and a few strands, at most, in culinary applications; there are between 70,000 and 200,000 strands in a pound.

A price set during 2014 for Saffron grown within England was £15 for 0.2. grams, this being sold at Fortnum & Mason, and a gram priced at a value with a maximum of £75.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}

Saffron is somewhat renowned for sometimes costing more per weight than gold.{{cite book |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2015/06/03/middleeast/iran-saffron-red-gold/|author=K. Monks|title=article|date=3 June 2015 |publisher=published by CNN September 3, 2015|access-date=2015-12-07|archive-date=2015-12-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210210358/http://edition.cnn.com/2015/06/03/middleeast/iran-saffron-red-gold/|url-status=live}}{{cite book |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/11214920/Saffron-the-spice-beyond-price.html|author=P. Levy |title=article |publisher=The Telegraph November 7, 2014|access-date=2015-12-07}}

Experienced saffron buyers often have rules of thumb when deliberating on their purchases. They may look for threads exhibiting a vivid crimson colouring, slight moistness, and elasticity. They reject threads displaying the telltale dull brick-red colouring—indicative of old stock—and broken-off debris collected at the container's bottom, indicative of age-related brittle dryness. Such aged samples are most likely encountered around the main June harvest season, when retailers attempt to clear out the previous season's old inventory and make room for the new season's crop. Buyers recommend that only the current season's threads be used. Reputable saffron wholesalers and retailers will indicate the year of harvest or the two years that bracket the harvest date; a late 2002 harvest would thus be shown as "2002/2003".{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=274}}

For the entire of 2013, the Guruvayur temple of India, known as particularly affluent, had an agreement with Jammu & Kashmir Agro Industries Development Corporation for the routine purchasing of an amount equal to 10 kg a month.

Saffron use is projected to increase worldwide after 2019, from USD 944 million to USD 1.6 billion in 2027, particularly as a cosmetic and pharmaceutical ingredient in hair care products and dietary supplements. Its common use as an alternative to artificial colorings in ethnic cooking and textiles have further boosted projected sales for the spice. Constraints in supply due to sanctions against Iran, and high production costs will likely lead to increased prices as global demand for saffron will almost double in the next decade.[https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/saffron-market "Saffron Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report By Application (Food, Medical, Cosmetics), By Region (North America, Europe, Central & South America, APAC, MEA), And Segment Forecasts, 2020 - 2027"]. Grand View Research. Retrieved 8 June 2021.

• Use of saffron

{{Reflist}}

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Books

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• {{Citation |last1=Kafi |first1=M. |last2=Koocheki |first2=A. |last3=Rashed|first3=M. H. |last4=Nassiri|first4=M. |year=2006 |title=Saffron (Crocus sativus) Production and Processing |edition=1st |publisher=Science Publishers |isbn=978-1-57808-427-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kO8prjfiiCEC|ref={{Sfnref|Kafi et al.|2006}}}}
• Keay, John (2005): The Spice Route: A History. John Murray, U.K. {{ISBN|0 7195 6805 6}}
• {{Citation|last=Major |first=J.|year=1892|title=A History of Greater Britain as well England as Scotland|work=Publications of the Scottish History Society|volume=10|publisher=University Press}}
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• {{Citation|editor-last=Negbi |editor-first=M. |year=1999|title=Saffron: Crocus sativusL.|publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-90-5702-394-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l-QJaUp31T4C}}
• {{Citation|last=Raghavan |first=S.|year=2006|title=Handbook of Spices, Seasonings, and Flavorings |edition=2 |chapter=Saffron |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8493-2842-8}}
• {{Citation|last=Rau |first=S. R.|year=1969|title=The Cooking of India|series=Foods of the World|publisher=Time-Life Books |isbn=978-0-8094-0069-0}}
• {{Citation|last=Willard |first=P.|year=2002|title=Secrets of Saffron: The Vagabond Life of the World's Most Seductive Spice |publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=978-0-8070-5009-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WsUaFT7l3QsC}}

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Journal articles

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• {{Citation|last=Abdullaev|first=F. I.|year=2002|title=Cancer Chemopreventive and Tumoricidal Properties of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.)|periodical=Experimental Biology and Medicine|volume=227|issue=1|pmid=11788779|url=http://www.ebmonline.org/cgi/content/full/227/1/20|access-date=11 September 2011|pages=20–5|doi=10.1177/153537020222700104|s2cid=40798771|archive-date=3 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203181241/http://www.ebmonline.org/cgi/content/full/227/1/20|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}
• {{Citation|last1=Assimopoulou |first1=A. N.|last2=Papageorgiou|first2=V. P.|last3=Sinakos|first3=Z.|year=2005|title=Radical Scavenging Activity of Crocus sativus L. Extract and Its Bioactive Constituents|periodical=Phytotherapy Research |volume=19 |issue=11 |pmid=16317646 |doi=10.1002/ptr.1749 |pages=997–1000|s2cid=23907085}}
• {{Citation|last1=Boskabady |first1=M. H.|last2=Ghasemzadeh Rahbardar |first2=M. |last3=Nemati |first3=H. |last4=Esmaeilzadeh |first4=M. |year=2010 |title=Inhibitory Effect of Crocus sativus (Saffron) on Histamine (H1) Receptors of Guinea Pig Tracheal Chains |periodical=Die Pharmazie |volume=65 |issue=4 |pmid=20432629 |pages=300–5}}
• {{Citation|last1=Chang |first1=P. Y.|last2=Kuo|first2=W.|last3=Liang|first3=C. T.|last4=Wang|first4=C. K.|year=1964|title=The Pharmacological Action of 藏红花 (zà hóng huā—Crocus sativus L.): Effect on the Uterus and Estrous Cycle|periodical=Yao Hsueh Hsueh Pao|volume=11}}
• {{Citation|last1=Chryssanthi |first1=D. G.|last2=Dedes|first2=P. G.|last3=Karamanos|first3=N. K. |last4=Cordopatis |first4=P. |last5=Lamari |first5=F. N. |year=2011 |title=Crocetin Inhibits Invasiveness of MDA-MB-231 Breast Cancer Cells via Downregulation of Matrix Metalloproteinases |periodical=Planta Medica |volume=77 |issue=2 |doi=10.1055/s-0030-1250178 |pmid=20803418 |ref={{Sfnref|Chryssanthi et al.|2011}}|pages=146–51}}
• {{Citation|last=Deo|first=B.|year=2003|title=Growing Saffron—The World's Most Expensive Spice|periodical=Crop and Food Research |issue=20|publisher=New Zealand Institute for Crop and Food Research|url=http://www.crop.cri.nz/home/products-services/publications/broadsheets/020Saffron.pdf|access-date=10 January 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051227004245/http://www.crop.cri.nz/home/products-services/publications/broadsheets/020Saffron.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2005}}
• {{Citation|last=Dharmananda|first=S.|year=2005|title=Saffron: An Anti-Depressant Herb|periodical=Institute for Traditional Medicine |url=http://www.itmonline.org/arts/saffron.htm|access-date=10 January 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060926130959/http://www.itmonline.org/arts/saffron.htm|archive-date=26 September 2006}}
• {{Citation|last1=Gout |first1=B.|last2=Bourges|first2=C.|last3=Paineau-Dubreuil|first3=S.|year=2010|title=Satiereal, a Crocus sativus L. Extract, Reduces Snacking and Increases Satiety in a Randomised Placebo-Controlled Study of Mildly Overweight, Healthy Women|periodical=Nutrition Research|volume=30|issue=5|pmid=20579522 |doi=10.1016/j.nutres.2010.04.008|pages=305–13}}
• {{Citation|last1=Hasegawa |first1=J. H.|last2=Kurumboor|first2=S. K.|last3=Nair|first3=S. C.|year=1995|title=Saffron Chemoprevention in Biology and Medicine: A Review|periodical=Cancer Biotherapy |volume=10 |issue=4 |pmid=8590890 |pages=257–64 |doi=10.1089/cbr.1995.10.257}}
• {{Citation|last1=Hosseinzadeh|first1=H.|last2=Karimi|first2=G.|last3=Niapoor|first3=M.|year=2004|title=Antidepressant Effect of Crocus sativus L. Stigma Extracts and Their Constituents, Crocin and Safranal, In Mice|periodical=Acta Horticulturae |publisher=International Society for Horticultural Science|issue=650|pages=435–445|url=http://www.actahort.org/books/650/650_54.htm |access-date=23 November 2009|doi=10.17660/actahortic.2004.650.54|archive-date=7 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007011125/http://www.actahort.org/books/650/650_54.htm|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}
• {{Citation|last1=Nair |first1=S. C.|last2=Pannikar|first2=B.|last3=Panikkar|first3=K. R.|year=1991|title=Antitumour Activity of Saffron (Crocus sativus)|periodical=Cancer Letters|volume=57|issue=2|pmid=2025883|doi=10.1016/0304-3835(91)90203-T|pages=109–14}}
• {{Citation|last1=Rubio-Moraga |first1=A.|last2=Castillo-López|first2=R.|last3=Gómez-Gómez |first3=L. |last4=Ahrazem |first4=O. |year=2009 |title=Saffron Is a Monomorphic Species as Revealed by RAPD, ISSR, and Microsatellite Analyses |periodical=BMC Research Notes |volume=2 |page=189 |pmc=2758891 |doi=10.1186/1756-0500-2-189 |pmid=19772674 |doi-access=free }}

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Miscellaneous

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• {{Citation|last=Courtney|first=P.|publication-date=19 May 2002|year=2002|title=Tasmania's Saffron Gold|periodical=Landline|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corp.|url=http://www.abc.net.au/landline/stories/s556192.htm|access-date=29 September 2011|archive-date=12 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012153703/http://abc.net.au/landline/stories/s556192.htm|url-status=live}}
• {{Citation|last=Katzer|first=G.|publication-date=2010|year=2010|title=Saffron (Crocus sativus L.)|work=Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages|url=http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com/engl/Croc_sat.html|access-date=3 December 2012|archive-date=7 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180307084032/http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com/engl/Croc_sat.html|url-status=live}}
• {{Citation|last=Lak|first=D.|publication-date=11 November 1998|year=1998|title=Kashmiris Pin Hopes on Saffron|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/212491.stm|access-date=11 September 2011|archive-date=7 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107091246/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/212491.stm|url-status=live}}
• {{Citation|last=Malik|first=N.|publication-date=2007|year=2007|title=Saffron Manual for Afghanistan|publisher=DACAAR Rural Development Program|url=http://www.icarda.org/Ralfweb/PDFs/SaffronManualForAfghanistan.pdf|access-date=17 September 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110909224926/http://www.icarda.org/RALFweb/PDFs/SaffronManualForAfghanistan.pdf|archive-date=9 September 2011}}
• {{Citation|last=Park|first=J. B.|publication-date=2005|year=2005|title=Saffron|work=USDA Phytochemical Database|url=http://www.pl.barc.usda.gov/usda_supplement/supplement_detail_b.cfm?chemical_id=140|access-date=10 January 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925041750/http://www.pl.barc.usda.gov/usda_supplement/supplement_detail_b.cfm?chemical_id=140|archive-date=25 September 2006}}
• {{Citation|last=Tom|first=N.|publication-date=15 November 2015|year=2015|title=About saffron trade|work=ULBIRAN|url=https://ulbiran.com/Saffron.html|access-date=19 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815024028/https://ulbiran.com/Saffron.html|archive-date=2016-08-15|url-status=dead}}

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Category:Trade by commodity

Category:Saffron