Sirko's campaigns

Zaporozhian Cossacks since late 15th century carried out raids against the Crimean Khanate in response Crimean-Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe. Cossacks begun to form city fortresses known as Sich, named after their respective regions where they were established. One such Sich was established in Tomakivka, which was burnt in 1593 during a Tatar attack.{{Sfn|Seaton|1996|page=39}} The most notable Sich was the Zaporozhian Sich, which repelled Tatar attacks and even Ottoman campaigns, adapting the name for Cossacks in Ukraine.

Cossacks frequently carried out sea raids on the Ottoman Empire after 1550s.{{Sfn|King|2005|page=132}} Zaporozhians only ceased their sea raids in 1648, due to Khmelnytsky's revolt and emergence of Cossack Hetmanate. Don Cossacks took over Zaporozhian sea raiding career.{{Sfn|Roşu|2021|page=264}} In addition, Crimean Khanate was an ally of the new Cossack state. However, this begun to change in December 1653, at the end of Siege of Zhvanets, when Tatars were taking locals as captives in Podolia region, forcing Cossack leader Ivan Sirko to clash with Tatar troops.{{Cite web |first=S. |last=Seheda |title=The grave of cossack kish chieftain Ivan Sirko: history, legends, studies |language=uk |url=http://jnas.nbuv.gov.ua/article/UJRN-0001009112|year=2015|page=786}}{{Sfn|Коляда|2012|page=23}}

In 1654, Bohdan Khmelnytsky conducted Pereiaslav Rada, discussing a possibility of swearing an oath to Russian Tsardom in exchange for military protection. Despite protests from of some Cossack colonels, among which was Ivan Sirko, Khmelnytsky signed an agreement that placed Hetmanate under Russian protection. This led to conflict between Hetman Khmelnytsky and disgruntled Cossack colonels, including Sirko. As a result, Sirko departed to the Zaporozhian Sich where he begun his career.{{Sfn|Коляда|2012|page=23}}

The geopolitical environment of Zaporozhian Sich was different from other parts of Ukraine. It was surrounded by the Crimean Khanate and Ottoman Empire. Sich needed to ensure it had secure passages and mobile movement. Zaporozhians had an active navy and a permanent fighting force of 12,000–20,000 Cossacks during 1657–1687.{{Sfn|Paly|2017|page=375}}

In 1654, with arrival of Ivan Sirko to the Sich, the raiding activity of Cossacks against Crimean and Ottoman lands saw a sharp rise. Zaporozhians saw Ottomans as a massive threat, which sought to destroy them.{{Sfn|Paly|2017|page=376}}

Ivan Sirko was lucky and came out victorious in numerous battles. Sirko waged a relentless war with Tatars and Turks, as their activity in Ukrainian lands remained largely unchecked during the period of Zaporozhian inactivity in northern Black Sea region.{{Sfn|Paly|2017|page=376}}{{Sfn|Крип'якевич|1992|page=235}}

Sirko's raids and campaigns targeted all sorts of areas. From Crimean Perekop to Ottoman Ochakov and Tighina.{{Sfn|Крип'якевич|1992|page=235}} In some cases, Sirko went on campaigns with very small forces. One such instance took place during his campaign on Perekop during December 1663, where his 180-strong unit defeated 1,000-strong Crimean Tatar army of {{interlanguage link|Karach Bey|ru|Карач-бей}}. Karach Bey fell in this battle, so did his associates and nearly all Tatar troops.{{Sfn|Крип'якевич|1992|page=235}}{{Sfn|Kostomarov|1997|pages=13-14}} With such military skills, Sirko was respected by Cossacks and played an important role during their campaigns.{{Sfn|Крип'якевич|1992|page=235}} Sich Cossacks elected Sirko as their Kosh Otaman 8 times throughout his career. Sirko was also the first Kosh Otaman to carry out joint campaigns Kalmyks, among whom Sirko also had a great respect.{{Sfn|Paly|2017|page=376}}

{{Main|Crimean blockade (1655)}}

In 1655, Bohdan Khmelnytsky instructed Ivan Sirko to blockade Kerch Strait and Taman Peninsula, effectively blockading Crimea and limiting Tatar military movement. This was intended to halt a planned Crimean Tatar invasion of southern Ukrainian lands.{{Sfn|Paly|2017|page=376}} It was also in the interest of Russian Tsardom to support Cossacks in their raiding activity, in order to counter Tatar raids while they had their main forces in the west during the war with Poland–Lithuania, with inability to mount a significant garrison force in the south.{{Cite web |author=С.Н. Шаповалов |title=Захват донскими и запорожскими казаками крепости Тамань в контексте русско-польской войны 1654-1667 гг |url=https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/zahvat-donskimi-i-zaporozhskimi-kazakami-kreposti-taman-v-kontekste-russko-polskoy-voyny-1654-1667-gg |date=2016 |language=ru}}

Cossacks used boats to reach Eastern Crimea. They encountered and fought Tatars, even elite Ottoman Sipahi cavalry. Overall, the campaign succeeded. During the campaign, Zaporozhian and Don Cossacks terrorized the whole of Crimea for two months after capturing Taman Peninsula.{{Sfn|Şirokorad|2009|page=61}}

Initially, Sirko was an opponent of Russia. In 1659, he reconsidered his position, officially siding with Russian Tsardom.{{Sfn|Yavornytskyi|2004|page=341}} Ivan Vyhovsky became Cossack Hetman, pursuing a pro-Polish policy and decisively defeating Russian army at Konotop with his Tatar allies. However, Cossack colonels Ivan Bohun and Sirko chose a pro-Russian position, with the former launching an uprising to overthrow pro-Polish Hetman who wanted to break Russian-Ukrainian union.{{Sfn|Mytsyk; Plokhiy; Storozhenko|1990|page=174}}

Sirko used his skills in fighting Tatars in order to aid Bohun in his uprising, disrupting activities of Vyhovsky's allies. On 28 August, news came about Sirko making daring raids on Tatar Nogai uluses and Ottoman Akkerman fortress. Sirko killed many Tatars and Turks there, captured two Tatar murzas and freed many Lithuanian captives taken by Tatars.{{Sfn|Yavornytskyi|2004|page=341}} Vyhovsky was alerted by this news and sent out Cossacks led by colonel Tymosh, in order to prevent Sirko from coming to Kyiv. However, Sirko predicted Tymosh intentions and inflicted a crushing defeat on pro-Polish Cossacks.{{Sfn|Yavornytskyi|2004|pages=341-342}} After this, Sirko looted Vyhovsky's treasury and captured Chyhyryn. In addition, he cleared the Ukrainian territories of remaining Tatar units that could still pose a threat.{{Sfn|Yavornytskyi|2004|page=342}}

{{Main|Ochakiv-Aslan campaign}}

In 1660, Khan Mehmed IV Giray made a deal with King Casimir about sending 80,000-strong Tatar army in a joint campaign against the Cossack Hetmanate and Tsardom of Russia. These troops arrived to Ochakov, which was under Ottoman control. Sultan Mehmed IV feared Cossack raids, so he ordered an army to occupy Arslan-Kermen city, to block access through the Dnieper.{{Sfn|Апанович|1961|page=150}}

Sirko organised a joint campaign with Don Cossacks, leading 5,000 of his "Hunter" Cossacks, which were specialized in these operations.{{Sfn|Апанович|1961|pages=152-153}} Sirko headed in the direction of Ochakov, other Cossacks headed for Aslan-Kermen. After this, Cossacks attacked at once and took the Turkish-Tatar forces by surprise.{{Sfn|Апанович|1961|page=152}} Cossacks returned from the campaign with loot and many captives.{{Sfn|Апанович|1961|page=152}}{{Sfn|Sobchenko|2020|page=72}} Khan's army remained in Ochakiv and Budjak without making any serious campaigns for five months, which begun to infuriate him with his Polish allies.{{Sfn|Апанович|1961|page=152}}

{{Main|Crimean campaign (1667)}}

In 1667, large portion of Crimean Tatar army was busy helping Doroshenko in his war with Poland–Lithuania. For the Sich Cossacks, this was a perfect opportunity to plunder Crimea. Sirko promised that they will get back what was "stolen from our own people" and will take revenge for the damage caused by Tatar raids.{{Sfn|Kostomarov|1997|page=104}}

Cossacks utterly devastated Crimea, with Arbautuk and Kaffa suffering the most. Cossacks reportedly left "nothing but cats and dogs" in Crimea.{{Sfn|Doroshenko|1939|page=303}} This campaign also helped John III Sobieski during Battle of Podhajce, since Tatars abandoned Doroshenko and headed to Crimea after receiving the news of Cossacks plundering it.{{Cite book |author=Podhorodecki, Leszek |title=Tatarzy |publisher=Bellon |date=2010 |page=196 |isbn=9788311118010}}{{Cite book |author=Marek A. Koprowski |title=Kresy |publisher=SBM |date=2013 |page=37 |isbn=978-83-7845-351-2}} Tsar Alexis sent a commendation letter to Sirko for his victory over Tatars, given to him by captain Vasyl Sukhorukov.{{Sfn|Yavornytskyi|2004|page=348}}

{{Main|Crimean campaigns (1668)}}

In 1668, Sirko carried out three successful campaigns on Crimea.{{Sfn|Коляда|2012|page=41}} Ivan Sirko left the Sich for a while and appeared in Sloboda Ukraine. The Cossacks elected him as colonel of the Zmiev Regiment. In October-November of the same year, together with the Kosh ataman Ivan Zhdan-Rog, he led a Cossack army on a campaign against the Crimean Khanate the Cossacks defeated the Tatar horde near Kafa (Theodosia), freeing 2,000 prisoners, and threatened the khan's capital, Bakhchisarai.{{Cite web |title=Походи Івана Сірка » Сайт про козаків |url=https://kozaku.in.ua/pohodu_kozakiv/13-pohodi-vana-srka.html |access-date=2025-05-21 |website=Сайт про козаків |language=uk}}

{{Main|Siege of Ochakov (1670)}}

On 20 June 1670, Sirko besieged and subsequently sacked Ochakov. Sirko was dissatisfied with Ottoman control in this region, and wanted to undermine it.{{Cite book|author=Б. І. Сушинський |title=Козацькі вожді України. Історія України в образах її вождів та полководців XV-XIX |volume=1 |year=2004 |location=Одеса |publisher=ВМВ |isbn=966-8286-22-7|page=390|language=uk}} Sirko also wanted to prove his loyalty to the Russian Tsar this way.{{Sfn|Sobchenko|2020|page=72}}

Sirko wanted to demonstrate with this campaign to Istanbul and Bakhchysarai that they're not welcome on "ancient Ukrainian lands". Sirko later informed Russian authorities of his success.{{Sfn|Yavornytskyi|2004|page=352}} Sirko then used the opportunity to request assistance from the Russian Tsardom.{{Sfn|Коляда|2004|page=46}}

{{Main|Sirko's Eastern campaign}}

Sirko intensified his activities during 1672–1674.{{Sfn|Şirokorad|2009|page=61}} In May 1673, Sirko conducted a series of raids on Ottoman fortresses, Budjak and Crimean Tatar lands. Sirko's Cossacks devastated Ochakiv, Islam-Kermen, Tighina, Izmail and Sokol outskirts.{{Sfn|Коляда|2012|pages=53-54}} When Sirko launched an attack on Crimea, it was going through a pandemic, therefore Tatars were incapable of putting up a serious resistance.{{Sfn|Doroshenko|1939|page=315}} Sirko reached as far as Bakhchysarai and forces Khan Selim I Giray to flee into the Crimean mountains.{{Sfn|Коляда|2012|page=54}}

Sirko's raiding activity in 1673 created favourable conditions for John III Sobieski before Battle of Khotyn, where Polish-Lithuanian forces scored a major victory against Ottoman army.{{Sfn|Doroshenko|1939|page=315}}

{{Main|Crimean campaign (1675)}}

In September 1675, Sirko's Cossacks with his allies managed to sneak into Crimea. As a result, they took Tatars by surprise and begun to devastate entirety of Crimea. The campaign was so successful that Cossacks even reached and captured Bakhchysarai.

Khan Selim I Giray fled to the mountains, but managed to reorganise his army and intended to block Cossack-led forces at Perekop. However, Khan's army was outmaneuvered by Sirko and his army suffered a crushing defeat.{{Sfn|Şirokorad|2009|page=62}}

{{Main|Chyhyryn campaign (1678)}}

Despite the Ottoman failure in 1677, they renewed their offensive on the Chyhyryn fortress in 1678. The Ottomans this time managed to gain the upper hand and push out Cossack-Russian garrison. Samoylovych desperately asked Ivan Sirko to halt a seemingly unstoppable Ottoman-Crimean army.{{Sfn|Smoliy|1994|page=368}}

Sirko operated on Ottoman territory, burning 50 Ottoman ships carrying supplies, sabotaging communication and transport. As a result, Sirko's actions allowed Cossack-Russian army near Chyhyryn to overcome the Ottoman-led forces.{{Sfn|Smoliy|1994|page=368}} Sirko's raids eventually forced the Ottoman-Crimean army to abandon Chyhyryn.{{Sfn|Paly|2017|page=368}}

In 1679, Ivan Sirko set off to "scare entirety of Crimea" where he forced Khan Murad Giray to flee into the Crimean mountains. The campaign was highly successful, liberating many captives and devastating Tatar settlements.{{Cite book |author=Leszek Podhorodecki |title=Sicz Zaporoska |publisher=Książka i Wiedza |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Sicz_Zaporoska/XQJFAAAAIAAJ?hl=en |date=1978 |page=193 |language=pl}}

Same year, after a series of defeats suffered by the Ottoman-Crimean forces against Zaporozhian Cossacks, Sirko and his Cossacks sent a reply to Crimean Khan:

{{Blockquote

|text=Do not bother to attack us again. This time, you are not coming to us, we are coming to you. We captured Trabzon and Sinop, we turned the Asian coast upside down; we cauterized the flanks of Belgrade, we wiped out Varna, Izmail and many Danube fortresses from the map. As the heirs of the old Zaporizhians, we follow their footsteps. We do not want to argue with you, if we see your provocations again, we will not hesitate to come again.{{Sfn|Şirokorad|2009|page=63}}|}}

{{Main|Battle of Sich (1674)}}

In 1674, Sultan Mehmed IV and Khan Selim I Giray planned a campaign into the Sich to destroy it, in order to end the frequent Cossack raids of Ivan Sirko into their lands.{{Sfn|Penn|1919|page=39}} 15,000 Ottoman Janissaries and 40,000 Crimean Tatars were sent for this campaign.{{Cite web|url=https://kpi.ua/en/711-15|title=Cossacks wrote the letter ... ["Was there such a letter, really?"]|website=kpi.ua/en|access-date=2024-11-13}}{{Sfn|Sobchenko|2020|page=166}}

The Ottoman-Crimean forces attempted to sneak in at night, but they were detected and suffered heavy losses in process. Sirko responded to this attack by attacking Crimea in 1675.{{Sfn|Kostomarov|1995|pages=351-352}}

{{Main|Stand on the Sich (1679)}}

In August, 1679, the 25,000-strong Ottoman-Crimean army intended to attack Sich again, in response to his raids on Ottoman fortresses.{{Sfn|Апанович|1961|page=293}} Sirko's sabotage actions during the Chyhyryn campaign in 1678 also contributed to this.{{Sfn|Коляда|2012|page=68}}

Sirko organised a defense, with Russian army coming to his assistance. As a result, Ottoman-Crimean army was deterred and retreated.{{Cite book|author=Валерій Смолій |title=Полководці Війська Запорозького |volume=1 |year=1998 |publisher="КМ Academia" |isbn=966-518-011-8|pages=345-346|language=uk}}

In late 1660s and early 1670s, Evliya Çelebi explored Crimea, noting significant depopulation of many Crimean settlements, which he attributed to Cossack raiding.{{Sfn|Davies |2007|page=192}} Sirko became infamous among Tatars.{{Sfn|Paly|2017|page=376}} Polish chronicler Wespazjan Kochowski reported that "...Tatars quite seriously considered him [Sirko] a shaitan [Devil]..."{{Cite book |author=Vlasov, V. S. | title = History of Ukraine | publisher = Litera |date = 2016 | page = 174 |isbn = 978-966-945-271-9|language=ru}}

Sirko during his career exhausted the Crimean treasury, which they inherited from Batu Khan, looted from Russian lands. During the career of Semyon Paliy, who was compared to Sirko, Crimean Tatars were forced to hand over remnants of their treasure inherited from Genghis Khan, in order to ransom their Khans.{{Sfn|Paly|2017|page=384}}

Sirko's campaigns on numerous occasions helped Poland–Lithuania and Tsardom of Russia in their wars with the Ottoman Empire. The losses inflicted on the Ottoman army made them turn away their view from Ukrainian lands, with Ottomans abandoning any large-scale campaigns there for the coming decades.{{Sfn|Smoliy|1994|page=369}}

Sirko's conflict with the Ottoman Empire created a basis for the most popular painting in Ukrainian-Russian history, Ilya Repin's Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks.{{Cite book |author=Władysław Andrzej Serczyk |title=Historia Ukrainy |year=2009 |publisher=Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich - Wydawn.|isbn=8304049384|language=pl|page=125}} In 1675, Ottoman Sultan reportedly sent a letter where he asked Zaporozhian Cossacks to submit to the Ottoman rule. In response, Sirko's Cossacks sent a reply full of profanities and insults.{{Sfn|Şirokorad|2009|pages=62-63}}

Ivan Sirko became famous all over Europe for his exploits.{{Sfn|Mytsyk; Plokhiy; Storozhenko|1990|page=176}} Ataman Sirko was compared to Sviatoslav I and Hannibal.{{Sfn|Mytsyk; Plokhiy; Storozhenko|1990|page=177}} Other comparisons included to being like a guardian dog, placed by God to protect Christians. Certain poets compared Sirko to heroic Maltese knights, wondering: "why a simple Cossack, not a king or prince, experienced such glory."{{Sfn|Mytsyk; Plokhiy; Storozhenko|1990|pages=177-178}} John III Sobieski described Sirko as "glorious warrior and a great artist in military affairs".{{Sfn|Yavornytskyi|2004|pages=338-339}}

Author of History of Ruthenians gave the following impression of Sirko:History of Ruthenians. Part 2 (Chapter 5).

{{Blockquote

|text=Sirko was an amazing man of rare qualities in the discussion of courage, enterprise and all military successes, and, with a sufficient number of troops, he could easily become Tamerlane or Genghis Khan, that is, a great conqueror.}}

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Category:Cossacks

Category:Zaporozhian Cossacks

Category:Conflicts in Europe

Category:Wars involving the Ottoman Empire

Category:Military operations involving the Crimean Khanate

Category:Military history of Zaporizhzhia

Category:Military history of Ukraine