Solid-state drive#Standard card form factors

An SSD stores data in semiconductor cells, with its properties varying according to the number of bits stored in each cell (between 1 and 4). Single-level cells (SLC) store one bit of data per cell and provide higher performance and endurance. In contrast, multi-level cells (MLC), triple-level cells (TLC), and quad-level cells (QLC) store more data per cell but have lower performance and endurance. SSDs using 3D XPoint technology, such as Intel's Optane, store data by changing electrical resistance instead of storing electrical charges in cells, which can provide faster speeds and longer data persistence compared to conventional flash memory.{{cite web |date=January 2009 |title=Solid State Storage 101: An introduction to Solid State Storage |url=https://www.snia.org/sites/default/files/SSSI/SSSI%20Wht%20Paper%20Final%20101.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610154630/https://www.snia.org/sites/default/files/SSSI/SSSI%20Wht%20Paper%20Final%20101.pdf |archive-date=June 10, 2019 |access-date=9 August 2010 |publisher=SNIA}} SSDs based on NAND flash slowly leak charge when not powered, while heavily-used consumer drives may start losing data typically after one to two year in storage.{{cite web |author=Kristian Vättö |title=The Truth About SSD Data Retention |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9248/the-truth-about-ssd-data-retention |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318101142/http://www.anandtech.com/show/9248/the-truth-about-ssd-data-retention |archive-date=2017-03-18 |access-date=2017-11-05}} SSDs have a limited lifetime number of writes, and also slow down as they reach their full storage capacity.

SSDs also have internal parallelism that allows them to manage multiple operations simultaneously, which enhances their performance.{{Cite conference |author=Feng Chen, Rubao Lee and Xiaodong Zhang |year=2011 |title="Essential roles of exploiting internal parallelism of flash memory based solid state drives in high-speed data processing" |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5749735 |conference=2011 IEEE 17th International Symposium on High Performance Computer Architecture |pages=266–277}}

Unlike HDDs and similar electromechanical magnetic storage, SSDs do not have moving mechanical parts, which provides advantages such as resistance to physical shock, quieter operation, and faster access times. Their lower latency results in higher input/output rates (IOPS) than HDDs.{{cite web |last=Kasavajhala |first=Vamsee |date=May 2011 |title=SSD vs HDD Price and Performance Study, a Dell technical white paper |url=http://www.dell.com/downloads/global/products/pvaul/en/ssd_vs_hdd_price_and_performance_study.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512140220/http://www.dell.com/downloads/global/products/pvaul/en/ssd_vs_hdd_price_and_performance_study.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2012 |access-date=15 June 2012 |publisher=Dell PowerVault Technical Marketing}}

Some SSDs are combined with traditional hard drives in hybrid configurations, such as Intel's Hystor and Apple's Fusion Drive. These drives use both flash memory and spinning magnetic disks in order to improve the performance of frequently-accessed data.{{Cite conference |author=Feng Chen, David A. Koufaty and Xiaodong Zhang |year=2011 |title="Hystor {{!}} Proceedings of the international conference on Supercomputing" |conference=International Conference on Supercomputing (ICS '11) |pages=22–23 |doi=10.1145/1995896.1995902}}{{cite web |title=WD shows off its first hybrid drive, the WD Black SSHD |url=http://reviews.cnet.com/hard-drives/wd-black-sshd-1tb/4505-3186_7-35567266.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329151417/http://reviews.cnet.com/hard-drives/wd-black-sshd-1tb/4505-3186_7-35567266.html |archive-date=29 March 2013 |access-date=26 March 2013 |publisher=CNET}}

Traditional interfaces (e.g. SATA and SAS) and standard HDD form factors allow such SSDs to be used as drop-in replacements for HDDs in computers and other devices. Newer form factors such as mSATA, M.2, U.2, NF1/M.3/NGSFF,{{cite web |title=NF1 SSD | Samsung Semiconductor |url=https://www.samsung.com/semiconductor/ssd/nf1-ssd/ |website=Samsung.com}}{{cite web |date=28 April 2023 |title=All-Flash NVMe Servers | Supermicro |url=https://www.supermicro.com/en/products/nvme |website=SuperMicro.com}} XFM Express (Crossover Flash Memory, form factor XT2){{cite web |last=Liu |first=Zhiye |date=6 August 2019 |title=Toshiba Unveils XFMEXPRESS Form Factor for NVMe SSDs |url=https://www.tomshardware.com/news/toshiba-xfmexpress-nvme-ssd,40104.html |website=Tom's Hardware}} and EDSFF{{cite web |title=EDSFF Based Intel Data Center SSDs (Formerly "Ruler" Form Factor) |url=https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/products/docs/memory-storage/solid-state-drives/edsff-brief.html |website=Intel}}{{cite web |date=8 August 2019 |title=Intel's first 'ruler' SSD holds 32TB |url=https://www.engadget.com/2018/08/10/intels-first-ruler-ssd-holds-32tb/ |website=Engadget}} and higher speed interfaces such as NVM Express (NVMe) over PCI Express (PCIe) can further increase performance over HDD performance.

{{See also|Hard disk drive performance characteristics}}

File:480 GB OCZ-AGIL ITY3.png

Traditional HDD benchmarks tend to focus on the performance characteristics such as rotational latency and seek time. As SSDs do not need to spin or seek to locate data, they are vastly superior to HDDs in such tests. However, SSDs have challenges with mixed reads and writes, and their performance may degrade over time. Therefore, SSD testing typically looks at when the full drive is first used, as the new and empty drive may have much better write performance than it would show after only weeks of use.{{cite web |title=Benchmarking Enterprise SSDs |url=http://www.stec-inc.com/downloads/whitepapers/Benchmarking_Enterprise_SSDs.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507070249/http://www.stec-inc.com/downloads/whitepapers/Benchmarking_Enterprise_SSDs.pdf |archive-date=2012-05-07 |access-date=2012-05-06}}

The reliability of both HDDs and SSDs varies greatly among models.{{cite magazine |last=Paul |first=Ian |date=14 January 2014 |title=Three-year, 27,000 drive study reveals the most reliable hard drive makers |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/2089464/three-year-27-000-drive-study-reveals-the-most-reliable-hard-drive-makers.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140515192749/http://www.pcworld.com/article/2089464/three-year-27-000-drive-study-reveals-the-most-reliable-hard-drive-makers.html |archive-date=15 May 2014 |access-date=17 May 2014 |magazine=PC World}} Some field failure rates indicate that SSDs are significantly more reliable than HDDs.{{cite web |date=July 2011 |title=Validating the Reliability of Intel Solid-State Drives |url=http://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/it-management/intel-it/intel-it-validating-reliability-of-intel-solid-state-drives-brief.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118020220/http://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/it-management/intel-it/intel-it-validating-reliability-of-intel-solid-state-drives-brief.html |archive-date=18 January 2012 |access-date=10 February 2012 |publisher=Intel}}{{cite web |url= http://www.behardware.com/articles/881-7/components-returns-rates-7.html |publisher= BeHardware |title= Components returns rates (7) |first= Marc |last= Prieur |date= 16 November 2012 |access-date= 25 August 2013 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130809033951/http://www.behardware.com/articles/881-7/components-returns-rates-7.html |archive-date= 9 August 2013 |df= dmy-all}} However, SSDs are sensitive to sudden power interruption, sometimes resulting in aborted writes or even cases of the complete loss of the drive.{{cite web |last=Harris |first=Robin |date=2013-03-01 |title=How SSD power faults scramble your data |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/how-ssd-power-faults-scramble-your-data/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130304065813/http://www.zdnet.com/how-ssd-power-faults-scramble-your-data-7000011979/ |archive-date=2013-03-04 |work=ZDNet |publisher=CBS Interactive}}

Most of the advantages of solid-state drives over traditional hard drives are due to their ability to access data completely electronically instead of electromechanically, resulting in superior transfer speeds and mechanical ruggedness.{{cite web |title=SSD vs HDD – Why Solid State Drive |url=http://ocz.com/consumer/ssd-guide/ssd-vs-hdd |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510230255/http://ocz.com/consumer/ssd-guide/ssd-vs-hdd |archive-date=10 May 2013 |access-date=17 June 2013 |work=SSD Guide |publisher=OCZ Technology}} On the other hand, hard disk drives offer significantly higher capacity for their price.{{cite web |title=Price Comparison SSDs |url=http://www.dell.com/downloads/global/products/pvaul/en/ssd_vs_hdd_price_and_performance_study.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512140220/http://www.dell.com/downloads/global/products/pvaul/en/ssd_vs_hdd_price_and_performance_study.pdf |archive-date=2012-05-12 |access-date=2012-05-06}}

In traditional HDDs, a rewritten file will generally occupy the same location on the disk surface as the original file, whereas in SSDs the new copy will often be written to different NAND cells for the purpose of wear leveling. The wear-leveling algorithms are complex and difficult to test exhaustively. As a result, one major cause of data loss in SSDs is firmware bugs.{{cite web |last=Mearian |first=Lucas |date=3 August 2009 |title=Intel confirms data corruption bug in new SSDs, halts shipments |url=http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9136200/Intel_confirms_data_corruption_bug_in_new_SSDs_halts_shipments |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125130115/http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9136200/Intel_confirms_data_corruption_bug_in_new_SSDs_halts_shipments |archive-date=25 January 2013 |access-date=17 June 2013 |publisher=ComputerWorld}}{{cite web |date=5 September 2009 |title=More hard drive firmware bugs cause data loss |url=http://www.defcon-5.com/noc/docs.cfm?docid=348 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518115823/http://www.defcon-5.com/noc/docs.cfm?docid=348 |archive-date=18 May 2014 |access-date=17 June 2013 |publisher=Defcon-5.com}}

{{Main|Memory card}}

File:CompactFlash IDE Adaptor.jpeg

While both memory cards and most SSDs use flash memory, they have very different characteristics, including power consumption, performance, size, and reliability.{{cite web |title=The Differences Between an SSD and a Memory Card |url=http://kb.sandisk.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/3053/~/the-differences-between-an-ssd-and-a-memory-card |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150116132751/http://kb.sandisk.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/3053/~/the-differences-between-an-ssd-and-a-memory-card |archive-date=2015-01-16 |access-date=2020-10-08 |website=SanDisk.com}} Originally, solid state drives were shaped and mounted in the computer like hard drives. In contrast, memory cards (such as Secure Digital (SD), CompactFlash (CF), and many others) were originally designed for digital cameras and later found their way into cell phones, gaming devices, GPS units, etc. Most memory cards are physically smaller than SSDs, and designed to be inserted and removed repeatedly.

File:Hard Disk Sentinel.jpg

SSDs have different failure modes from traditional magnetic hard drives. Because solid-state drives contain no moving parts, they are generally not subject to mechanical failures. However, other types of failures can occur. For example, incomplete or failed writes due to sudden power loss may be more problematic than with HDDs, and the failure of a single chip may result in the loss of all data stored on it. Nonetheless, studies indicate that SSDs are generally reliable, often exceed their manufacturer-stated lifespan[http://0b4af6cdc2f0c5998459-c0245c5c937c5dedcca3f1764ecc9b2f.r43.cf2.rackcdn.com/23105-fast16-papers-schroeder.pdf Flash Reliability in Production: The Expected and the Unexpected] – Schroeder, Lagisetty & Merchant, 2016.{{cite web |last=Gasior |first=Geoff |date=12 March 2015 |title=The SSD Endurance Experiment: They're All Dead |url=https://techreport.com/review/27909/the-ssd-endurance-experiment-theyre-all-dead |website=The Tech Report}} and having lower failure rates than HDDs. However, studies also note that SSDs experience higher rates of uncorrectable errors, which can lead to data loss, compared to HDDs.{{cite web |last=Klein |first=Andy |date=January 19, 2019 |title=Backblaze Hard Drive Stats for 2018 |url=https://www.backblaze.com/blog/hard-drive-stats-for-2018/ |access-date=February 13, 2019 |publisher=Backblaze}}

The endurance of an SSD is typically listed on its datasheet in one of two forms:

• either n DW/D (n drive writes per day)
• or m TBW (maximum terabytes written), abbreviated TBW.{{cite web |title=Tech Brief – Matching SSD Endurance to Common Enterprise Applications |url=https://documents.westerndigital.com/content/dam/doc-library/en_us/assets/public/western-digital/collateral/tech-brief/tech-brief-matching-ssd-endurance-to-common-enterprise-applications.pdf |access-date=2020-06-13 |website=Documents.WesternDigital.com}}

For example, a Samsung 970 EVO NVMe M.2 SSD (2018) with 1 TB of capacity has an endurance rating of 600 TBW.{{cite web |title=Product: Samsung 970 EVO NVMe M.2 SSD 1TB |url=https://www.samsung.com/uk/memory-storage/970-evo-nvme-m2-ssd/MZ-V7E1T0BW/ |access-date=2020-06-13 |website=Samsung.com}}

Recovering data from SSDs presents challenges due to the non-linear and complex nature of data storage in solid-state drives. The internal operations of SSDs vary by manufacturer, with commands (e.g. TRIM and the ATA Secure Erase) and programs like (e.g. hdparm) being able to erase and modify the bits of a deleted file.

The JEDEC Solid State Technology Association (JEDEC) has established standards for SSD reliability metrics, which include:{{cite book |last1=Null |first1=Linda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GKgxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT499 |title=The Essentials of Computer Organization and Architecture |last2=Lobur |first2=Julia |date=14 February 2014 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |isbn=978-1-284-15077-3 |pages=499–500}}

• Unrecoverable Bit Error Ratio (UBER)
• Terabytes Written (TBW) – the total number of terabytes that can be written to a drive within its warranty period
• Drive Writes Per Day (DWPD) – the number of times the full capacity of the drive can be written to per day within its warranty period

In a distributed computing environment, SSDs can be used as a distributed cache layer that temporarily absorbs the large volume of user requests to slower HDD-based backend storage systems. This layer provides much higher bandwidth and lower latency than the storage system would, and can be managed in a number of forms, such as a distributed key-value database and a distributed file system. On supercomputers, this layer is typically referred to as burst buffer.

Flash-based solid-state drives can be used to create network appliances from general-purpose personal computer hardware. A write protected flash drive containing the operating system and application software can substitute for larger, less reliable disk drives or CD-ROMs. Appliances built this way can provide an inexpensive alternative to expensive router and firewall hardware.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}

SSDs based on an SD card with a live SD operating system are easily write-locked. Combined with a cloud computing environment or other writable medium, an OS booted from a write-locked SD card is reliable, persistent and impervious to permanent corruption.

In 2011, Intel introduced a caching mechanism for their Z68 chipset (and mobile derivatives) called Smart Response Technology, which allows a SATA SSD to be used as a cache (configurable as write-through or write-back) for a conventional, magnetic hard disk drive.{{cite web |title=Intel Z68 Chipset & Smart Response Technology (SSD Caching) Review |url=http://www.anandtech.com/show/4329/intel-z68-chipset-smart-response-technology-ssd-caching-review/2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505222631/http://www.anandtech.com/show/4329/intel-z68-chipset-smart-response-technology-ssd-caching-review/2 |archive-date=2012-05-05 |access-date=2012-05-06 |publisher=AnandTech}} A similar technology is available on HighPoint's RocketHybrid PCIe card.{{cite web |date=2011-05-10 |title=SSD Caching (Without Z68): HighPoint's RocketHybrid 1220 |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/rockethybrid-1220-ssd-caching,2936.html |access-date=2012-05-06 |publisher=Tom's Hardware}}

Solid-state hybrid drives (SSHDs) are based on the same principle, but integrate some amount of flash memory on board of a conventional drive instead of using a separate SSD. The flash layer in these drives can be accessed independently from the magnetic storage by the host using ATA-8 commands, allowing the operating system to manage it. For example, Microsoft's ReadyDrive technology explicitly stores portions of the hibernation file in the cache of these drives when the system hibernates, making the subsequent resume faster.{{cite book |last1=Russinovich |first1=Mark E. |title=Windows internals |last2=Solomon |first2=David A. |last3=Ionescu |first3=Alex |publisher=Microsoft Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7356-2530-3 |edition=5th |pages=772–774}}

Dual-drive hybrid systems are combining the usage of separate SSD and HDD devices installed in the same computer, with overall performance optimization managed by the computer user, or by the computer's operating system software. Examples of this type of system are bcache and dm-cache on Linux,{{cite web |author=Petros Koutoupis |date=2013-11-25 |title=Advanced Hard Drive Caching Techniques |url=http://www.linuxjournal.com/content/advanced-hard-drive-caching-techniques |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202152028/http://www.linuxjournal.com/content/advanced-hard-drive-caching-techniques |archive-date=2013-12-02 |access-date=2013-12-02 |publisher=linuxjournal.com}} and Apple's Fusion Drive.

The primary components of an SSD are the controller and the memory used to store data. Traditionally, early SSDs used volatile DRAM for storage, but since 2009, most SSDs utilize non-volatile NAND flash memory, which retains data even when powered off.{{cite web |url=http://www.ramsan.com/whatisassd.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080204121417/http://www.ramsan.com/whatisassd.htm |archive-date=4 February 2008 |title=What is a Solid State Disk? |work=Ramsan.com |publisher=Texas Memory Systems}} Flash memory SSDs store data in metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit chips, using non-volatile floating-gate memory cells.{{cite web |last1=Hutchinson |first1=Lee |date=4 June 2012 |title=Solid-state revolution: in-depth on how SSDs really work |url=https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2012/06/inside-the-ssd-revolution-how-solid-state-disks-really-work/2/ |access-date=27 September 2019 |website=Ars Technica}}

{{Main|Flash memory controller}}

Every SSD includes a controller, which manages the data flow between the NAND memory and the host computer. The controller is an embedded processor that runs firmware to optimize performance, managing data, and ensuring data integrity.{{cite web |last=Bechtolsheim |first=Andy |year=2008 |title=The Solid State Storage Revolution |url=http://www.snia.org/events/storage-developer2008/presentations/keynotes/AndreasBechtolsheim_The_Role_of_Flash_SDC2008.pdf |access-date=2010-11-07 |publisher=SNIA.org}}{{Dead link|date=May 2019}}{{cite web |last=Rent |first=Thomas M. |date=2010-04-09 |title=SSD Controller Detail |url=http://www.storagereview.com/ssd_controller |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101015022006/http://www.storagereview.com/ssd_controller |archive-date=2010-10-15 |access-date=2010-04-09 |website=StorageReview.com}}

Some of the primary functions performed by the controller are:

• Bad block mapping
• Read and write caching
• Encryption
• Crypto-shredding
• Error detection and correction using error-correcting code (ECC), such as BCH code{{cite web |title=Sandforce SF-2500/2600 Product Brief |url=http://www.sandforce.com/index.php?id=133&parentId=2&top=1 |access-date=25 February 2012}}
• Garbage collection
• Read scrubbing and management of read disturb
• Wear leveling

The overall performance of an SSD can scale with the number of parallel NAND chips and the efficiency of the controller. For example, controllers that enable parallel processing of NAND flash chips can improve bandwidth and reduce latency.{{cite web |url=https://www.anandtech.com/print/2738 |title= The SSD Anthology: Understanding SSDs and New Drives from OCZ |date= 2009-03-18 |publisher= AnandTech.com |url-status= live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090328132802/http://www.anandtech.com/printarticle.aspx?i=3531 |archive-date= 2009-03-28}}

Micron and Intel pioneered faster SSDs by implementing techniques such as data striping and interleaving to enhance read/write speeds.{{cite web |title=Flash SSD with 250 MB/s writing speed |url=http://www.micron.com/products/real_ssd/ssd/partlist.aspx?write=250%20MB/s |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090626210342/http://www.micron.com/products/real_ssd/ssd/partlist.aspx?write=250%20MB%2Fs |archive-date=2009-06-26 |access-date=2009-10-21 |publisher=Micron.com}} More recently, SandForce introduced controllers that incorporate data compression to reduce the amount of data written to the flash memory, potentially increasing both performance and endurance.{{cite news |last=Shimpi |first=Anand Lal |date=31 December 2009 |title=OCZ's Vertex 2 Pro Preview: The Fastest MLC SSD We've Ever Tested |url=http://www.anandtech.com/show/2899/3 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512105926/http://www.anandtech.com/show/2899/3 |archive-date=12 May 2013 |access-date=16 June 2013 |publisher=AnandTech}}

{{Main|Wear leveling|Write amplification}}

Wear leveling is a technique used in SSDs to ensure that write and erase operations are distributed evenly across all blocks of the flash memory. Without this, specific blocks could wear out prematurely due to repeated use, reducing the overall lifespan of the SSD. The process moves data that is infrequently changed (cold data) from heavily used blocks, so that data that changes more frequently (hot data) can be written to those blocks. This helps distribute wear more evenly across the entire SSD. However, this process introduces additional writes, known as write amplification, which must be managed to balance performance and durability.{{cite web |author=Arnd Bergmann |date=2011-02-18 |title=Optimizing Linux with cheap flash drives |url=https://lwn.net/Articles/428584/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007144837/http://lwn.net/Articles/428584/ |archive-date=2013-10-07 |access-date=2013-10-03 |publisher=LWN.net}}{{cite web |author=Jonathan Corbet |date=2007-05-15 |title=LogFS |url=https://lwn.net/Articles/428799/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215514/https://lwn.net/Articles/428799/ |archive-date=2013-10-04 |access-date=2013-10-03 |publisher=LWN.net}}

Most SSDs use non-volatile NAND flash memory for data storage, primarily due to its cost-effectiveness and ability to retain data without a constant power supply. NAND flash-based SSDs store data in semiconductor cells, with the specific architecture influencing performance, endurance, and cost.{{cite web |year=2011 |title=The Top 20 Things to Know About SSD |url=http://www.seagate.com/files/www-content/product-content/pulsar-fam/_cross-product/en-us/docs/ssd-faq-tp612-2-1103us.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527034616/http://www.seagate.com/files/www-content/product-content/pulsar-fam/_cross-product/en-us/docs/ssd-faq-tp612-2-1103us.pdf |archive-date=2016-05-27 |access-date=2015-09-26 |website=seagate.com}}

There are various types of NAND flash memory, categorized by the number of bits stored in each cell:

• Single-Level Cell (SLC): Stores 1 bit per cell. SLC provides the highest performance, reliability, and endurance but is more expensive.
• Multi-Level Cell (MLC): Stores 2 bits per cell. MLC offers a balance between cost, performance, and endurance.
• Triple-Level Cell (TLC): Stores 3 bits per cell. TLC is less expensive but slower and less durable than SLC and MLC.
• Quad-Level Cell (QLC): Stores 4 bits per cell. QLC is the most affordable option but has the lowest performance and endurance.{{cite web |last=Mearian |first=Lucas |date=2008-08-27 |title=Solid-state disk lackluster for laptops, PCs |url=http://www.computerworld.com/article/2532300/data-center/solid-state-disk-lackluster-for-laptops--pcs.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161023124354/http://www.computerworld.com/article/2532300/data-center/solid-state-disk-lackluster-for-laptops--pcs.html |archive-date=2016-10-23 |access-date=2017-05-06 |work=Computerworld.com}}

Over time, SSD controllers have improved the efficiency of NAND flash, incorporating techniques such as interleaved memory, advanced error correction, and wear leveling to optimize performance and extend the lifespan of the drive.{{cite magazine |last=Lai |first=Eric |date=2008-11-07 |title=SSD laptop drives 'slower than hard disks' |url=http://www.pcadvisor.co.uk/news/laptop/106678/ssd-laptop-drives-slower-than-hard-disks/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629040539/http://www.pcadvisor.co.uk/news/laptop/106678/ssd-laptop-drives-slower-than-hard-disks |archive-date=2011-06-29 |access-date=2011-06-19 |magazine=Computerworld}}{{cite web |author=Drossel, Gary |date=2009-09-14 |title=Methodologies for Calculating SSD Useable Life |url=http://www.snia.org/sites/default/orig/sdc_archives/2009_presentations/wednesday/GaryDrossel_Methodologies_SSD_Usable_Life.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208220033/http://www.snia.org/sites/default/orig/sdc_archives/2009_presentations/wednesday/GaryDrossel_Methodologies_SSD_Usable_Life.pdf |archive-date=2015-12-08 |access-date=2010-06-20 |publisher=Storage Developer Conference, 2009}}{{cite web |title=Are MLC SSDs Ever Safe in Enterprise Apps? |url=http://www.storagesearch.com/ssd-slc-mlc-notes.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919005146/http://www.storagesearch.com/ssd-slc-mlc-notes.html |archive-date=2008-09-19 |website=Storagesearch.com |publisher=ACSL}}{{cite web |author=Lucchesi, Ray |date=September 2008 |title=SSD flash drives enter the enterprise |url=http://silvertonconsulting.com/nwsa/SSDf_drives.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210184800/http://silvertonconsulting.com/nwsa/SSDf_drives.pdf |archive-date=2015-12-10 |access-date=2010-06-18 |publisher=Silverton Consulting}}{{cite web |author=Bagley, Jim |date=2009-07-01 |title=Over-provisioning: a winning strategy or a retreat? |url=http://www.plianttechnology.com/pdf/SSG-NOW_SSD_Flash_Bulletin_July_2009.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104144120/http://plianttechnology.com/pdf/SSG-NOW_SSD_Flash_Bulletin_July_2009.pdf |archive-date=2010-01-04 |access-date=2010-06-19 |publisher=StorageStrategies Now |page=2}} Lower-end SSDs often use QLC or TLC memory, while higher-end drives for enterprise or performance-critical applications may use MLC or SLC.{{cite web |title=Are MLC SSDs Ever Safe in Enterprise Apps? |url=http://www.storagesearch.com/ssd-slc-mlc-notes.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919005146/http://www.storagesearch.com/ssd-slc-mlc-notes.html |archive-date=2008-09-19 |website=Storagesearch.com |publisher=ACSL}}

In addition to the flat (planar) NAND structure, many SSDs now use 3D NAND (or V-NAND), where memory cells are stacked vertically, increasing storage density while improving performance and reducing costs.{{cite web |date=13 August 2013 |title=Samsung Introduces World's First 3D V-NAND Based SSD for Enterprise Applications |url=https://www.samsung.com/semiconductor/newsroom/news-events/samsung-introduces-worlds-first-3d-v-nand-based-ssd-for-enterprise-applications/ |access-date=10 March 2020 |website=Samsung}}

Some SSDs use volatile DRAM instead of NAND flash, offering very high-speed data access but requiring a constant power supply to retain data. DRAM-based SSDs are typically used in specialized applications where performance is prioritized over cost or non-volatility. Many SSDs, such as NVDIMM devices, are equipped with backup power sources such as internal batteries or external AC/DC adapters. These power sources ensure data is transferred to a backup system (usually NAND flash or another storage medium) in the event of power loss, preventing data corruption or loss.{{cite web |last=Cash |first=Kelly |title=Flash SSDs – Inferior Technology or Closet Superstar? |url=http://www.bitmicro.com/press_resources_flash_ssd.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719234835/http://www.bitmicro.com/press_resources_flash_ssd.php |archive-date=2011-07-19 |access-date=2010-08-14 |publisher=BiTMICRO}}{{cite web |last=Kerekes |first=Zsolt |title=RAM SSDs |url=http://www.storagesearch.com/ssd-ram.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100822084227/http://www.storagesearch.com/ssd-ram.html |archive-date=22 August 2010 |access-date=14 August 2010 |website=storagesearch.com |publisher=ACSL}} Similarly, ULLtraDIMM devices use components designed for DIMM modules, but only use flash memory, similar to a DRAM SSD.{{cite web |date=2014-03-12 |title=Hybrid DIMMs And The Quest For Speed |url=http://www.networkcomputing.com/storage/hybrid-dimms-and-the-quest-for-speed/a/d-id/1234704? |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220111102/http://www.networkcomputing.com/storage/hybrid-dimms-and-the-quest-for-speed/a/d-id/1234704 |archive-date=20 December 2014 |access-date=20 December 2014 |work=Network Computing}}

DRAM-based SSDs are often used for tasks where data must be accessed at high speeds with low latency, such as in high-performance computing or certain server environments.{{cite web |last1=Lloyd |first1=Chris |date=28 January 2010 |title=Next-gen storage that makes SSD look slow Using RAM drives for ultimate performance |url=http://www.techradar.com/news/computing-components/storage/next-gen-storage-that-makes-ssd-look-slow-666148/2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204120608/http://www.techradar.com/news/computing-components/storage/next-gen-storage-that-makes-ssd-look-slow-666148/2 |archive-date=4 December 2014 |access-date=27 November 2014 |website=techradar.com}}

3D XPoint is a type of non-volatile memory technology developed by Intel and Micron, announced in 2015.{{cite web |title=Intel, Micron reveal Xpoint, a new memory architecture that could outclass DDR4 and NAND – ExtremeTech |url=http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/211087-intel-micron-reveal-xpoint-a-new-memory-architecture-that-claims-to-outclass-both-ddr4-and-nand |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150820045210/http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/211087-intel-micron-reveal-xpoint-a-new-memory-architecture-that-claims-to-outclass-both-ddr4-and-nand |archive-date=2015-08-20 |work=ExtremeTech|date=July 28, 2015 }} It operates by changing the electrical resistance of materials in its cells, offering much faster access times than NAND flash. 3D XPoint-based SSDs, such as Intel's Optane drives, provide lower latency and higher endurance than NAND-based drives, although they are more expensive per gigabyte.{{cite web |last=Smith |first=Ryan |date=18 August 2015 |title=Intel Announces Optane Storage Brand For 3D XPoint Products |url=http://www.anandtech.com/show/9541/intel-announces-optane-storage-brand-for-3d-xpoint-products |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150819204835/http://www.anandtech.com/show/9541/intel-announces-optane-storage-brand-for-3d-xpoint-products |archive-date=19 August 2015 |quote=products will be available in 2016, in both standard SSD (PCIe) form factors for everything from Ultrabooks to servers, and in a DIMM form factor for Xeon systems for even greater bandwidth and lower latencies. As expected, Intel will be providing storage controllers optimized for the 3D XPoint memory}}{{cite web |title=Intel, Micron debut 3D XPoint storage technology that's 1,000 times faster than current SSDs |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/intel-and-micron-debut-3d-xpoint-storage-technology-thats-1000-times-faster-than-existing-drives/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150729133007/http://www.cnet.com/news/intel-and-micron-debut-3d-xpoint-storage-technology-thats-1000-times-faster-than-existing-drives/ |archive-date=2015-07-29 |work=CNET |publisher=CBS Interactive}}

Drives known as hybrid drives or solid-state hybrid drives (SSHDs) use a hybrid of spinning disks and flash memory.{{cite web |author=The SSD Guy |url=http://thessdguy.com/seagate-upgrades-sshd-phases-out-7200rpm-hdds/ |title=Seagate Upgrades Hybrids, Phases Out 7,200RPM HDDs |publisher=The SSD Guy |date=2013-03-30 |access-date=2014-01-20 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216204943/http://thessdguy.com/seagate-upgrades-sshd-phases-out-7200rpm-hdds/ |archive-date=2013-12-16}}{{cite web|url=http://www.storagesearch.com/hybriddisks-art.html|title=Hybrid Storage Drives|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606153429/http://www.storagesearch.com/hybriddisks-art.html|archive-date=2013-06-06}} Some SSDs use magnetoresistive random-access memory (MRAM) for storing data.Douglas Perry. [http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/ssd-mram-memory-dram-solid-state-drive,news-38610.html "Buffalo Shows SSDs with MRAM Cache"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216183338/http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/ssd-mram-memory-dram-solid-state-drive,news-38610.html |date=2013-12-16}}. 2012.Rick Burgess. [http://www.techspot.com/news/50790-everspin-first-to-ship-st-mram-claims-500x-faster-than-ssds.html "Everspin first to ship ST-MRAM, claims 500x faster than SSDs"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403132053/http://www.techspot.com/news/50790-everspin-first-to-ship-st-mram-claims-500x-faster-than-ssds.html |date=2013-04-03}}. 2012.

Many flash-based SSDs include a small amount of volatile DRAM as a cache, similar to the buffers in hard disk drives. This cache can temporarily hold data while it is being written to the flash memory, and it also stores metadata such as the mapping of logical blocks to physical locations on the SSD.

Some SSD controllers, like those from SandForce, achieve high performance without using an external DRAM cache. These designs rely on other mechanisms, such as on-chip SRAM, to manage data and minimize power consumption.{{cite web |last=Demerjian |first=Charlie |date=2010-05-03 |title=SandForce SSDs break TPC-C records |url=http://www.semiaccurate.com/2010/05/03/sandforce-ssds-break-tpc-c-records/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127210155/http://semiaccurate.com/2010/05/03/sandforce-ssds-break-tpc-c-records/ |archive-date=2010-11-27 |access-date=2010-11-07 |publisher=SemiAccurate.com}}

Additionally, some SSDs use an SLC cache mechanism to temporarily store data in single-level cell (SLC) mode, even on multi-level cell (MLC) or triple-level cell (TLC) SSDs. This improves write performance by allowing data to be written to faster SLC storage before being moved to slower, higher-capacity MLC or TLC storage.{{cite web |date=2011-04-09 |title=Intel SSD, now off the sh..err, shamed list |url=http://blog.2ndquadrant.com/en/2011/04/intel-ssd-now-off-the-sherr-sh.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203173241/http://blog.2ndquadrant.com/en/2011/04/intel-ssd-now-off-the-sherr-sh.html |archive-date=February 3, 2012}}

On NVMe SSDs, Host Memory Buffer (HMB) technology allows the SSD to use a portion of the system's DRAM instead of relying on a built-in DRAM cache, reducing costs while maintaining a high level of performance.

In certain high-end consumer and enterprise SSDs, larger amounts of DRAM are included to cache both file table mappings and written data, reducing write amplification and enhances overall performance.{{cite web |date=2013-04-18 |title=Crucial's M500 SSD reviewed |work=The Tech Report |url=http://techreport.com/review/24666/crucial-m500-ssd-reviewed |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420020626/http://techreport.com/review/24666/crucial-m500-ssd-reviewed |archive-date=2013-04-20}}

Higher-performing SSDs may include a capacitor or battery, which helps preserve data integrity in the event of an unexpected power loss. The capacitor or battery provides enough power to allow the data in the cache to be written to the non-volatile memory, ensuring no data is lost.{{cite web |last1=Kerekes |first1=Zsolt |title=Surviving SSD sudden power loss |url=http://www.storagesearch.com/ssd-power-going-down.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141122161514/http://www.storagesearch.com/ssd-power-going-down.html |archive-date=22 November 2014 |access-date=28 November 2014 |website=storagesearch.com}}

In some SSDs that use multi-level cell (MLC) flash memory, a potential issue known as "lower page corruption" can occur if power is lost while programming an upper page. This can result in previously written data becoming corrupted. To address this, some high-end SSDs incorporate supercapacitors to ensure all data can be safely written during a sudden power loss.{{cite web |url=http://www.flashmemorysummit.com/English/Collaterals/Proceedings/2010/20100817_F1B_Werner.pdf |title=A Look Under the Hood at Some Unique SSD Features |date=2010-08-17 |first=Jeremy |last=Werner |publisher=SandForce.com |access-date=2012-08-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111206225203/http://www.sandforce.com/userfiles/file/downloads/FMS2010_F1B-Look_Under_Hood_Jeremy_Werner.pdf |archive-date=2011-12-06}}

Some consumer SSDs have built-in capacitors to save critical data such as the Flash Translation Layer (FTL) mapping table. Examples include the Crucial M500 and Intel 320 series.{{cite web |date=2013-04-18 |title=Crucial's M500 SSD reviewed |work=The Tech Report |url=http://techreport.com/review/24666/crucial-m500-ssd-reviewed |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420020626/http://techreport.com/review/24666/crucial-m500-ssd-reviewed |archive-date=2013-04-20}} Enterprise-class SSDs, such as the Intel DC S3700 series, often come with more robust power-loss protection mechanisms like supercapacitors or batteries.{{cite web |author=Anand Lal Shimpi |date=2012-11-09 |title=The Intel SSD DC S3700 (200GB) Review |url=http://www.anandtech.com/show/6433/intel-ssd-dc-s3700-200gb-review |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140923060706/http://anandtech.com/show/6433/intel-ssd-dc-s3700-200gb-review |archive-date=2014-09-23 |access-date=2014-09-24 |publisher=AnandTech}}

The host interface of an SSD refers to the physical connector and the signaling methods used to communicate between the SSD and the host system. This interface is managed by the SSD's controller and is often similar to those found in traditional hard disk drives (HDDs). Common interfaces include:

• Serial ATA: One of the most widely used interfaces in consumer SSDs. SATA 3.0 supports transfer speeds up to 6.0 Gbit/s.{{cite press release |title=SATA-IO Releases SATA Revision 3.0 Specification |date=May 27, 2009 |publisher=Serial ATA International Organization |url=http://www.sata-io.org/documents/SATA-Revision-3.0-Press-Release-FINAL-052609.pdf |access-date=3 July 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090611174913/http://www.sata-io.org/documents/SATA-Revision-3.0-Press-Release-FINAL-052609.pdf |archive-date=11 June 2009}}
• Serial attached SCSI: Primarily used in enterprise environments, SAS interfaces are faster and more robust than SATA. SAS 3.0 offers speeds of up to 12.0 Gbit/s.{{cite web |date=2015-10-14 |title=Serial Attached SCSI Master Roadmap |url=http://www.scsita.org/library/2015/10/serial-attached-scsi-technology-roadmap.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307223515/http://www.scsita.org/library/2015/10/serial-attached-scsi-technology-roadmap.html |archive-date=2016-03-07 |access-date=2016-02-26 |publisher=SCSI Trade Association}}
• PCI Express (PCIe): A high-speed interface used in high-performance SSDs. PCIe 3.0 x4 supports transfer speeds of up to 31.5 Gbit/s.{{cite web |title=PCI Express 3.0 Frequently Asked Questions |url=http://www.pcisig.com/news_room/faqs/pcie3.0_faq/#EQ2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201172536/http://www.pcisig.com/news_room/faqs/pcie3.0_faq/#EQ2 |archive-date=2014-02-01 |access-date=2014-05-01 |work=pcisig.com |publisher=PCI-SIG}}
• M.2: A newer interface designed for SSDs that is more compact than SATA or PCIe, often found in laptops and high-end desktops. M.2 supports both SATA (up to 6.0 Gbit/s) and PCIe (up to 31.5 Gbit/s) interfaces.
• U.2: Another interface used for enterprise-grade SSDs, providing PCIe 3.0 x4 speeds but with a more robust connector suitable for server environments.
• Fibre Channel: Typically used in enterprise systems, Fibre Channel interfaces offer high data transfer speeds, with modern versions supporting up to 128 Gbit/s.
• USB: Many external SSDs use the Universal Serial Bus interface, with modern versions like USB 3.1 Gen 2 supporting speeds of up to 10 Gbit/s.{{cite web |title=SuperSpeed USB 10 Gbps – Ready for Development |url=http://www.heraldonline.com/2013/07/31/5071745/superspeed-usb-10-gbps-ready-for.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011015741/http://www.heraldonline.com/2013/07/31/5071745/superspeed-usb-10-gbps-ready-for.html |archive-date=11 October 2014 |access-date=2013-07-31 |publisher=Rock Hill Herald}}
• Thunderbolt: Some high-end external SSDs use the Thunderbolt interface.
• Parallel ATA (PATA): An older interface used in early SSDs, with speeds up to 1064 Mbit/s. PATA has largely been replaced by SATA due to higher data transfer rates and greater reliability.{{cite web |title=PATA SSD |url=http://www.transcendusa.com/Products/ModDetail.asp?LangNo=0&ModNo=308 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717084330/http://www.transcendusa.com/Products/ModDetail.asp?LangNo=0&ModNo=308 |archive-date=2011-07-17 |publisher=Transcend}}{{cite web |title=Netbook SSDs |url=http://supertalent.com/products/ssd_category_detail.php?type=Netbook |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123225510/http://www.supertalent.com/products/ssd_category_detail.php?type=Netbook |archive-date=2010-11-23 |publisher=Super Talent}}
• Parallel SCSI: An interface primarily used in servers, with speeds ranging from 40 Mbit/s to 2560 Mbit/s. It has mostly been replaced by Serial Attached SCSI. The last SCSI-based SSD was introduced in 2004.{{cite web |last=Kerekes |first=Zsolt |date=July 2010 |title=The (parallel) SCSI SSD market |url=http://www.storagesearch.com/scsi-ssd.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527035734/http://www.storagesearch.com/scsi-ssd.html |archive-date=2011-05-27 |access-date=2011-06-20 |website=StorageSearch.com |publisher=ACSL}}

SSDs may support various logical interfaces, which define the command sets used by operating systems to communicate with the SSD. Two common logical interfaces include:

• Advanced Host Controller Interface (AHCI): Initially designed for HDDs, AHCI is commonly used with SATA SSDs but is less efficient for modern SSDs due to its overhead.
• NVM Express (NVMe): A modern interface designed specifically for SSDs, NVMe takes full advantage of the parallelism in SSDs, providing significantly lower latency and higher throughput than AHCI.{{cite web |date=January 2009 |title=Solid State Storage 101: An introduction to Solid State Storage |url=https://www.snia.org/sites/default/files/SSSI/SSSI%20Wht%20Paper%20Final%20101.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610154630/https://www.snia.org/sites/default/files/SSSI/SSSI%20Wht%20Paper%20Final%20101.pdf |archive-date=June 10, 2019 |access-date=9 August 2010 |publisher=SNIA}}

File:M.2 2242 SSD connected into USB 3.0 adapter.jpg (2242) solid-state-drive (SSD) connected into USB 3.0 adapter and connected to computer]]

File:Mushkin Ventura USB-SSD.jpg

The size and shape of any device are largely driven by the size and shape of the components used to make that device. Traditional HDDs and optical drives are designed around the rotating platter(s) or optical disc along with the spindle motor inside. Since an SSD is made up of various interconnected integrated circuits (ICs) and an interface connector, its shape is no longer limited to the shape of rotating media drives. Some solid-state storage solutions come in a larger chassis that may even be a rack-mount form factor with numerous SSDs inside. They would all connect to a common bus inside the chassis and connect outside the box with a single connector.

For general computer use, the 2.5-inch form factor (typically found in laptops and used for most SATA SSDs) is the most popular, in three thicknesses{{Cite web |title=2.5 inch Hard Drive - Geekworm Wiki |url=https://wiki.geekworm.com/2.5_inch_Hard_Drive |access-date=2024-09-08 |website=wiki.geekworm.com}} (7.0mm, 9.5mm, 14.8 or 15.0mm; with 12.0mm also available for some models). For desktop computers with 3.5-inch hard disk drive slots, a simple adapter plate can be used to make such a drive fit. Other types of form factors are more common in enterprise applications. An SSD can also be completely integrated in the other circuitry of the device, as in the Apple MacBook Air (starting with the fall 2010 model).{{cite web|last1=Kristian|first1=Vättö|title=Apple Is Now Using SanDisk SSDs in the Retina MacBook Pro As Well|url=http://www.anandtech.com/show/6727/apple-is-using-sandisk-ssds-in-retina-macbook-pro-as-well|website=anandtech.com|access-date=27 November 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129150848/http://www.anandtech.com/show/6727/apple-is-using-sandisk-ssds-in-retina-macbook-pro-as-well|archive-date=29 November 2014}} {{As of|2014}}, mSATA and M.2 form factors also gained popularity, primarily in laptops.

File:Samsung SSD 840 120GB MZ-7TD120--4 LID REMOVED.JPG

File:128GB 2230 NVME SSD.jpg

The benefit of using a current HDD form factor would be to take advantage of the extensive infrastructure already in place to mount and connect the drives to the host system.{{cite web |url=http://dcsblog.burtongroup.com/data_center_strategies/2010/01/ssd-dump-the-hard-disk-form-factor.html |title=SSD: Dump the hard disk form factor |publisher=Burton Group |author=Ruth, Gene |date=2010-01-27 |access-date=2010-06-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100209025557/http://dcsblog.burtongroup.com/data_center_strategies/2010/01/ssd-dump-the-hard-disk-form-factor.html |archive-date=2010-02-09}} These traditional form factors are known by the size of the rotating media (i.e., 5.25-inch, 3.5-inch, 2.5-inch or 1.8-inch) and not the dimensions of the drive casing.

{{Main|mSATA|M.2}}

For applications where space is at a premium, like for ultrabooks or tablet computers, a few compact form factors were standardized for flash-based SSDs.

There is the mSATA form factor, which uses the PCI Express Mini Card physical layout. It remains electrically compatible with the PCI Express Mini Card interface specification while requiring an additional connection to the SATA host controller through the same connector.

M.2 form factor, formerly known as the Next Generation Form Factor (NGFF), is a natural transition from the mSATA and physical layout it used, to a more usable and more advanced form factor. While mSATA took advantage of an existing form factor and connector, M.2 has been designed to maximize usage of the card space, while minimizing the footprint. The M.2 standard allows both SATA and PCI Express SSDs to be fitted onto M.2 modules.{{cite web |url = https://www.sata-io.org/sata-m2-card |title = SATA M.2 Card |publisher = The Serial ATA International Organization |access-date = 2013-09-14 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131003103042/https://www.sata-io.org/sata-m2-card |archive-date = 2013-10-03}}

Some high performance, high capacity drives uses standard PCI Express add-in card form factor to house additional memory chips, permit the use of higher power levels, and allow the use of a large heat sink. There are also adapter boards that converts other form factors, especially M.2 drives with PCIe interface, into regular add-in cards.

File:Disk on module.jpg

File:512GB DOM SATA SSD.jpg

A disk-on-a-module (DOM) is a flash drive with either 40/44-pin Parallel ATA (PATA) or SATA interface, intended to be plugged directly into the motherboard and used as a computer hard disk drive (HDD). DOM devices emulate a traditional hard disk drive, resulting in no need for special drivers or other specific operating system support. DOMs are usually used in embedded systems, which are often deployed in harsh environments where mechanical HDDs would simply fail, or in thin clients because of small size, low power consumption, and silent operation.

{{As of|2016|post=,}} storage capacities range from 4 MB to 128 GB with different variations in physical layouts, including vertical or horizontal orientation.{{Citation needed|date=September 2020}}

Many of the DRAM-based solutions use a box that is often designed to fit in a rack-mount system. The number of DRAM components required to get sufficient capacity to store the data along with the backup power supplies requires a larger space than traditional HDD form factors.{{cite web|last1=Hachman|first1=Mark|title=SSD prices face uncertain future in 2014|url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/2087480/ssd-prices-face-uncertain-future-in-2014.html|website=pcworld.com|access-date=24 November 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202134138/http://www.pcworld.com/article/2087480/ssd-prices-face-uncertain-future-in-2014.html|archive-date=2 December 2014|date=2014-01-17}}

File:Viking Modular SATA-Cube & AMP SATA-Bridge.jpg|Viking Technology SATA Cube and AMP SATA Bridge multi-layer SSDs

File:Viking Modular SATADIMM w Cable.jpg|Viking Technology SATADIMM based SSD

File:Viking Modular MO-297 SATA SSD.jpg|MO-297 SATA drive-on-a-module (DOM) SSD form factor

File:Custom Connector SATA SSD Module.jpg|A custom-connector SATA SSD

Form factors which were more common to memory modules are now being used by SSDs to take advantage of their flexibility in laying out the components. Some of these include PCIe, mini PCIe, mini-DIMM, MO-297, and many more.{{cite web |url=http://www.samsung.com/us/business/semiconductor/products/pdfs/SSDsMovingIntoMainstreamBeard.pdf |title=SSD Moving into the Mainstream as PCs Go 100% Solid State |publisher=Samsung Semiconductor, Inc |author=Beard, Brian |year=2009 |access-date=2010-06-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716003002/http://www.samsung.com/us/business/semiconductor/products/pdfs/SSDsMovingIntoMainstreamBeard.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-16}} The SATADIMM from Viking Technology uses an empty DDR3 DIMM slot on the motherboard to provide power to the SSD with a separate SATA connector to provide the data connection back to the computer. The result is an easy-to-install SSD with a capacity equal to drives that typically take a full 2.5-inch drive bay.{{cite web |url=http://www.vikingtechnology.com/products/ssd/satae/satadimm.html# |title=Enterprise SATADIMM |publisher=Viking Technology |access-date=2010-11-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104210611/http://www.vikingtechnology.com/products/ssd/satae/satadimm.html |archive-date=2011-11-04}} At least one manufacturer, Innodisk, has produced a drive that sits directly on the SATA connector (SATADOM) on the motherboard without any need for a power cable.{{cite web |url=http://www.innodisk.com/flashstorage-list.jsp?interface_no=actica_dom |title=SATADOM |publisher=Innodisk |access-date=2011-07-07 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707143801/http://www.innodisk.com/flashstorage-list.jsp?interface_no=actica_dom |archive-date=2011-07-07}} Some SSDs are based on the PCIe form factor and connect both the data interface and power through the PCIe connector to the host. These drives can use either direct PCIe flash controllers{{cite web|last=Pop|first=Sebastian|title=PCI Express SSD from Fusion-io ioXtreme Is Aimed at the Consumer Market|date=17 November 2009|url=http://news.softpedia.com/news/PCI-Express-SSD-From-Fusion-io-ioXtreme-Is-Aimed-at-the-Consumer-Market-127171.shtml|publisher=Softpedia|access-date=9 August 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716102004/http://news.softpedia.com/news/PCI-Express-SSD-From-Fusion-io-ioXtreme-Is-Aimed-at-the-Consumer-Market-127171.shtml|archive-date=16 July 2011}} or a PCIe-to-SATA bridge device which then connects to SATA flash controllers.{{cite web|last=Pariseau|first=Beth|title=LSI delivers Flash-based PCIe card with 6 Gbit/s SAS interface|url=http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/news/article/0,289142,sid5_gci1454240_mem1,00.html|access-date=9 August 2010|date=16 March 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101106012145/http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/news/article/0,289142,sid5_gci1454240_mem1,00.html|archive-date=6 November 2010}}

There are also SSDs that are in the form of PCIe cards, these are sometimes called HHHL (Half Height Half Length), or AIC (Add in Card) SSDs.{{cite web | url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/13218/ssd-form-factors-proliferate-at-flash-memory-summit-2018 | title=SSD Form Factors Proliferate at Flash Memory Summit 2018 }}{{cite web | url=https://www.tweaktown.com/reviews/5921/asus-rog-raidr-express-240gb-pcie-ssd-review/index.html | title=ASUS ROG RAIDR Express 240GB PCIe SSD Review | date=6 December 2013 }}{{cite web | url=https://www.snia.org/forums/cmsi/knowledge/formfactors | title=SSD Form Factors | SNIA }}{{Clear}}

In the early 2000s, a few companies introduced SSDs in Ball Grid Array (BGA) form factors, such as M-Systems' (now SanDisk) DiskOnChip{{cite web |last=Kerekes |first=Zsolt |title=SSDs |url=http://www.storagesearch.com/ssd-13.html |publisher=ACSL |website=StorageSearch.com |access-date=27 June 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527040208/http://www.storagesearch.com/ssd-13.html |archive-date=27 May 2011}} and Silicon Storage Technology's NANDrive{{cite web |url=http://www.memec.ch/products/newsletter/sst/sst-issue-9december-2006-sst85ld0128-nandrive-disk-on-chip.html |title=New From SST: SST85LD0128 NANDrive - Single Package Flash Based 128MB Solid State Hard Disk Drive with ATA / IDE Interface |publisher=Memec Newsletter |date=Dec 2006 |access-date=27 June 2011}}{{dead link|date=May 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}{{cite web|title=SST announces small ATA solid-state storage devices|url=http://www.wwpi.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1503:sst-announces-small-ata-solid-state-storage-devices&Itemid=2700970|publisher=Computer Technology Review|access-date=27 June 2011|date=26 Oct 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001093408/http://www.wwpi.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1503:sst-announces-small-ata-solid-state-storage-devices&Itemid=2700970|archive-date=1 October 2011}} (now produced by Greenliant Systems), and Memoright's M1000{{cite web |url=http://www.memoright.com/webe/html/product/03.aspx?Page=1&p=1&num=190 |title=M1000 Specifications |publisher=Memoright |access-date=2011-07-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125090719/http://www.memoright.com/webe/html/product/03.aspx?Page=1&p=1&num=190 |archive-date=2011-11-25}} for use in embedded systems. The main benefits of BGA SSDs are their low power consumption, small chip package size to fit into compact subsystems, and that they can be soldered directly onto a system motherboard to reduce adverse effects from vibration and shock.{{cite magazine |last=Chung |first=Yuping |title=Compact, shock- and error-tolerant SSDs offer auto infotainment storage options |url=http://www.eetimes.com/design/automotive-design/4011451/Compact-shock-and-error-tolerant-SSDs-offer-auto-infotainment-storage-options |magazine=EE Times |date=19 Nov 2008 |access-date=27 June 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517083943/http://www.eetimes.com/design/automotive-design/4011451/Compact-shock-and-error-tolerant-SSDs-offer-auto-infotainment-storage-options |archive-date=17 May 2012}}

Such embedded drives often adhere to the eMMC and eUFS standards.

File:Historical cost of computer memory and storage.svg and storage ]]

The first devices resembling solid-state drives (SSDs) used semiconductor technology, with an early example being the 1978 StorageTek STC 4305. This device was a plug-compatible replacement for the IBM 2305 hard drive, initially using charge-coupled devices for storage and later switching to dynamic random-access memory (DRAM). The STC 4305 was significantly faster than its mechanical counterparts and cost around $400,000 for a 45 MB capacity.{{cite web |title=StorageTek – circa 2004 |url=http://www.storagesearch.com/storagetek.html |access-date=December 11, 2017 |website=storagesearch.com}} Though early SSD-like devices existed, they were not widely used due to their high cost and small storage capacity.

In the late 1980s, companies like Zitel began selling DRAM-based SSD products under the name "RAMDisk." These devices were primarily used in specialized systems like those made by UNIVAC and Perkin-Elmer.

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Flash memory, a key component in modern SSDs, was invented in 1980 by Fujio Masuoka at Toshiba.{{cite web |date=April 11, 2012 |title=1987: Toshiba Launches NAND Flash |url=https://www.eweek.com/storage/1987-toshiba-launches-nand-flash |access-date=20 June 2019 |website=eWeek}}{{cite web |title=1971: Reusable semiconductor ROM introduced |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/storageengine/reusable-semiconductor-rom-introduced/ |access-date=19 June 2019 |website=Computer History Museum}} Flash-based SSDs were patented in 1989 by the founders of SanDisk,{{US patent|5297148}} which released its first product in 1991: a 20 MB SSD for IBM laptops.{{cite web |date=1991 |title=History of the SanDisk brand. 1991 News |url=https://www.sandisk.com/about/company/history#1995---1991-section |access-date=December 12, 2017 |website=sandisk.com |publisher=SanDisk Corp}} While the storage capacity was limited and the price high (around $1,000), this marked the beginning of a transition to flash memory as an alternative to traditional hard drives.{{cite web |title=1991: Solid State Drive module demonstrated |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/storageengine/solid-state-drive-module-demonstrated/ |access-date=May 31, 2019 |website=Computer History Museum}}

In the 1990s, new manufacturers of flash memory drives emerged, including STEC, Inc.,{{cite web |last1=Mellor |first1=Chris |title=There's a lot of sizzle with this STEC |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/06/17/sizzle_with_this_stec/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111170953/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/06/17/sizzle_with_this_stec/ |archive-date=11 November 2013 |access-date=24 November 2014 |website=theregister.co.uk}} M-Systems,{{cite book |last1=Odagiri |first1=Hiroyuki |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qfd9bgyozH0C |title=Intellectual Property Rights, Development, and Catch Up: An International Comparative Study |last2=Goto |first2=Akira |last3=Sunami |first3=Atsushi |last4=Nelson |first4=Richard R. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-957475-9 |pages=224–227}}{{cite web |last=Drossel |first=Gary |date=February 2007 |title=Solid-state drives meet military storage security requirements |url=http://www.mil-embedded.com/pdfs/SiliconSysts.Feb07.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714093115/http://www.mil-embedded.com/pdfs/SiliconSysts.Feb07.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-14 |access-date=2010-06-13 |publisher=Military Embedded Systems}} and BiTMICRO.One gigabyte (1 GB) is equal to one billion bytes (1000³ B).{{cite web |year=1999 |title=BiTMICRO 1999 News Releases |url=http://www.bitmicro.com/press_news_releases_1999.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100501152203/http://www.bitmicro.com/press_news_releases_1999.php |archive-date=2010-05-01 |access-date=2010-06-13 |publisher=BiTMICRO}}

As the technology advanced, SSDs saw dramatic improvements in capacity, speed, and affordability.{{cite web |date=2007-09-25 |title=Fusion-io announces ioDrive, placing the power of a SAN in the palm of your hand |url=http://www.fusionio.com/load/media-docsPress/fbdzz/Pressrelease_SANinhand.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100509034736/http://www.fusionio.com/load/media-docsPress/fbdzz/Pressrelease_SANinhand.pdf |archive-date=2010-05-09 |access-date=2010-06-13 |publisher=Fusion-io}}{{cite web |date=2009-03-04 |title=OCZ's New Blazing Fast 1TB Z SSD Drive |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/OCZ-Z-Drive-RAID,7181.html |access-date=2009-10-21 |publisher=Tom's Hardware}}One terabyte (1 TB) is equal to one trillion bytes (1000⁴ B).{{cite news |last=Jansen |first=Ng |date=2009-12-02 |title=Micron Announces World's First Native 6Gbps SATA Solid State Drive |url=http://www.dailytech.com/UPDATED+Micron+Announces+Worlds+First+Native+6Gbps+SATA+Solid+State+Drive/article17007.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091205184340/http://www.dailytech.com/UPDATED+Micron+Announces+Worlds+First+Native+6Gbps+SATA+Solid+State+Drive/article17007.htm |archive-date=2009-12-05 |access-date=2009-12-02 |work=Daily Tech}} By 2016, commercially available SSDs had more capacity than the largest available HDDs.{{cite web |last=Anthony |first=Sebastian |date=11 August 2016 |title=Seagate's new 60TB SSD is world's largest |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2016/08/seagate-unveils-60tb-ssd-the-worlds-largest-hard-drive/ |website=Ars Technica}}{{cite web |date=9 March 2016 |title=Seagate boasts of the fastest SSD flash drive at 10 GB/s |url=https://www.slashgear.com/seagate-boasts-of-the-fastest-ssd-flash-drive-at-10-gbs-09430785/ |website=SlashGear}}{{cite web |last=Tallis |first=Billy |title=Seagate Introduces 10 GB/s PCIe SSD And 60TB SAS SSD |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/10555/seagate-introduces-10gbs-pcie-ssd-and-60tb-sas-ssd |website=AnandTech.com}}{{cite web |title=Samsung's massive 15TB SSD can be yours – for about $10K – Computerworld |url=https://www.computerworld.com/article/3101165/data-storage/samsungs-massive-15tb-ssd-can-be-yours-for-about-10k.amp.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201025172849/https://www.computerworld.com/article/3101165/data-storage/samsungs-massive-15tb-ssd-can-be-yours-for-about-10k.amp.html |archive-date=2020-10-25 |access-date=2019-01-02 |website=ComputerWorld.com}}{{cite web |title=Samsung 15.36TB MZ-ILS15T0 PM1633a 15TB Enterprise Class SAS 2.5" SSD |url=https://www.scan.co.uk/products/15tb-samsung-pm1633a-enterprise-class-sas-30-12gb-s-ssd-25-3d-v-nand-mlc-145mm-195k-iops |website=Scan.co.uk}} By 2018, flash-based SSDs had reached capacities of up to 100 TB in enterprise products, with consumer SSDs offering up to 16 TB. These advancements were accompanied by significant increases in read and write speeds, with some high-end consumer models reaching speeds of up to 14.5 GB/s.

In 2021, NVMe 2.0 with Zoned Namespaces (ZNS) was announced. ZNS allows data to be mapped directly to its physical location in memory, providing direct access on an SSD without a flash translation layer.{{cite web |date=30 June 2021 |title=NVMe Gets Refactored |url=https://www.eetimes.com/nvme-gets-refactored/}} In 2024, Samsung announced what it called the world's first SSD with a hybrid PCIe interface, the Samsung 990 EVO. The hybrid interface runs in either the x4 PCIe 4.0 or x2 PCIe 5.0 modes, a first for an M.2 SSD.{{Cite web |author1=Shane Downing |date=2024-01-23 |title=Samsung's Hybrid 990 EVO SSD announced — world's first hybrid PCIe 4.0 x4 and 5.0 x2 SSD |url=https://www.tomshardware.com/pc-components/ssds/samsungs-hybrid-990-evo-ssd-announced-worlds-first-hybrid-pcie-40-x4-and-50-x2-ssd |access-date=2024-01-26 |website=Tom's Hardware |language=en}}

SSD prices have also fallen dramatically, with the cost per gigabyte decreasing from around $50,000 in 1991 to less than $0.05 by 2020.

Enterprise flash drives (EFDs) are designed for high-performance applications requiring fast input/output operations per second (IOPS), reliability, and energy efficiency. EFDs often have higher specifications than consumer SSDs, making them suitable for mission-critical applications. The term was first used by EMC in 2008 to describe SSDs built for enterprise environments.{{cite web |last=Mellor |first=Chris |title=EMC has changed enterprise disk storage for ever:First into the enterprise flash breech |work=Techworld |url=http://features.techworld.com/storage/3928/emc-has-changed-enterprise-disk-storage-for-ever/ |access-date=2010-06-12 }}{{cite web |author=Burke, Barry A. |date=2009-02-18 |title=1.040: efd – what's in a name? |url=http://thestorageanarchist.typepad.com/weblog/2009/02/1040-efd-whats-in-a-name.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612095232/http://thestorageanarchist.typepad.com/weblog/2009/02/1040-efd-whats-in-a-name.html |archive-date=2010-06-12 |access-date=2010-06-12 |publisher=The Storage Anarchist}}

One example of an EFD is the Intel DC S3700 series, launched in 2012. These drives were notable for their consistent performance, maintaining IOPS variation within a narrow range, which is crucial for enterprise environments.{{cite web |author=Anand Lal Shimpi |date=2012-11-09 |title=The Intel SSD DC S3700 (200GB) Review? |url=http://www.anandtech.com/show/6433/intel-ssd-dc-s3700-200gb-review/2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025162821/http://www.anandtech.com/show/6433/intel-ssd-dc-s3700-200gb-review/2 |archive-date=2014-10-25 |publisher=AnandTech}}

Another significant product is the Toshiba PX02SS series, launched in 2016. Designed for write-intensive applications like online transaction processing, these drives achieved impressive read and write speeds and high endurance ratings.{{cite web |title=PX02SSB080 / PX02SSF040 / PX02SSF020 / PX02SSF010 |url=http://toshiba.semicon-storage.com/us/product/storage-products/enterprise-ssd/px02ssb-px02ssfxxx.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215161748/http://toshiba.semicon-storage.com/us/product/storage-products/enterprise-ssd/px02ssb-px02ssfxxx.html |archive-date=2016-02-15 |publisher=Toshiba Corporation}}

In 2017, Intel introduced SSDs based on 3D XPoint technology under the Optane brand. Unlike NAND flash, 3D XPoint uses a different method to store data, offering higher IOPS performance, although sequential read and write speeds remain slower compared to traditional SSDs.{{cite web |date=24 October 2019 |title=Micron's X100 SSD is its first 3D XPoint product | TechRadar |url=https://www.techradar.com/news/microns-x100-ssd-is-its-first-3d-xpoint-product |website=TechRadar.com}}

File:MacBook Air Mid 2012.png and Ultrabooks are the earliest popular implementations of SSD. Alongside inarguable faster speed resulting in absolutely-better systems' performance, SSD are also thinner and smaller than HDD, allowing modern laptops to be lighter and sleeker without memory-related compromise of productivity.]]

As SSD technology continues to improve, they are increasingly used in ultra-mobile PCs and lightweight laptop systems. The first flash-memory SSD based PC to become available was the Sony Vaio UX90, announced for pre-order on 27 June 2006 and began shipping in Japan on 3 July 2006 with a 16 GB flash memory hard drive.{{cite web |title=文庫本サイズのVAIO「type U」 フラッシュメモリー搭載モデル発売 |url=https://www.sony.jp/CorporateCruise/Press/200606/06-0627/ |access-date=2019-01-11 |website=ソニー製品情報・ソニーストア – ソニー |language=ja |ref={{sfnref | ソニー製品情報・ソニーストア – ソニー}}}} Another of the first mainstream releases of SSD was the XO Laptop, built as part of the One Laptop Per Child project. Mass production of these computers, built for children in developing countries, began in December 2007. By 2009, Dell,{{cite web |last=Aughton |first=Simon |date=2007-04-25 |title=Dell Gets Flash With SSD Option for Laptops |url=http://www.itpro.co.uk/111350/dell-gets-flash-with-ssd-option-for-laptops |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917171521/http://www.itpro.co.uk/111350/dell-gets-flash-with-ssd-option-for-laptops |archive-date=2008-09-17 |publisher=IT PRO}}{{cite web |last1=Miller |first1=Paul |date=18 January 2009 |title=Dell adds 256GB SSD option to XPS M1330 and M1730 laptops |url=https://www.engadget.com/2009/01/17/dell-adds-256gb-ssd-option-to-xps-m1330-and-m1730-laptops/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924043836/http://www.engadget.com/2009/01/17/dell-adds-256gb-ssd-option-to-xps-m1330-and-m1730-laptops/ |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=25 November 2014 |website=engadget.com}}{{cite web |last1=Crothers |first1=Brooke |title=Dell first: 256GB solid-state drive on laptops |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/dell-first-256gb-solid-state-drive-on-laptops/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150902020917/http://www.cnet.com/news/dell-first-256gb-solid-state-drive-on-laptops/ |archive-date=2 September 2015 |access-date=25 November 2014 |website=CNet.com}} Toshiba,{{cite web |date=2009-04-14 |title=Toshiba Ships First Laptop With a 512 GB SSD |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Toshiba-Portege-R600-ssd-notebook |publisher=Tom's Hardware}}{{dead link|date=May 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}{{cite web |date=2009-04-14 |title=Toshiba announces world's first 512GB SSD laptop |url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-17938_105-10241140-1.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110329062228/http://news.cnet.com/8301-17938_105-10241140-1.html |archive-date=2011-03-29 |publisher=CNET News}} Asus,{{cite news |last=Chen |first=Shu-Ching Jean |date=2007-06-07 |title=$199 Laptop Is No Child's Play |url=https://www.forbes.com/markets/2007/06/07/intel-asustek-laptop-markets-equity-cx_jc_0606markets3.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070615012643/http://www.forbes.com/markets/2007/06/07/intel-asustek-laptop-markets-equity-cx_jc_0606markets3.html |archive-date=2007-06-15 |access-date=2007-06-28 |work=Forbes}} Apple,{{cite web |title=MacBook Air Specifications |url=https://www.apple.com/macbookair/specs.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091001014416/http://www.apple.com/macbookair/specs.html |archive-date=2009-10-01 |access-date=2009-10-21 |publisher=Apple Inc.}}{{verify source|date=June 2012}} and Lenovo{{cite web |author=Joshua Topolsky |date=2008-08-15 |title=Lenovo slips out the new ThinkPad X301: new CPUs, 128GB SSD, still thin as hell |url=https://www.engadget.com/2008/08/15/lenovo-slips-out-the-new-thinkpad-x301-new-cpus-128gb-ssd-sti/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212140612/http://www.engadget.com/2008/08/15/lenovo-slips-out-the-new-thinkpad-x301-new-cpus-128gb-ssd-sti/ |archive-date=2013-12-12 |access-date=2013-12-09 |publisher=engadget.com}} had begun producing laptops with SSDs.

By 2010, Apple's MacBook Air line began using solid state drives as the default.{{cite web |date=2010-10-20 |title=MacBook Air |url=https://www.apple.com/macbookair/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111222210351/http://www.apple.com/macbookair/ |archive-date=2011-12-22 |publisher=Apple, Inc.}}{{verify source|date=June 2012}} In 2011, Intel's Ultrabook became the first widely available consumer computers using SSDs aside from the MacBook Air.{{cite web |last=Simms |first=Craig |title=MacBook Air vs. the ultrabook alternatives |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/macbook-air-vs-the-ultrabook-alternatives/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924004013/http://www.cnet.com/news/macbook-air-vs-the-ultrabook-alternatives/ |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=25 November 2014 |website=CNet.com}} At present, SDD devices are widely used and distributed by a number of companies, with a small number of companies manufacturing the NAND flash devices within them.{{cite web |title=NAND Flash manufacturers' market share 2018 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/275886/market-share-held-by-leading-nand-flash-memory-manufacturers-worldwide/ |website=Statista}}

{{update|section|date=April 2018}}

SSD shipments were approximately 11 million units in 2009,[http://www.storagereview.com/ssd_sales_up_14_in_2009 SSD Sales up 14% in 2009] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615102352/http://www.storagereview.com/ssd_sales_up_14_in_2009|date=2013-06-15}}, January 20th, 2010, Brian Beeler, storagereview.com rising to 17.3 million units in 2011[http://www.isuppli.com/Memory-and-Storage/MarketWatch/pages/Solid-State-Drives-to-Score-Big-This-Year-with-Huge-Shipment-Growth.aspx Solid State Drives to Score Big This Year with Huge Shipment Growth] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130416232801/http://www.isuppli.com/Memory-and-Storage/MarketWatch/pages/Solid-State-Drives-to-Score-Big-This-Year-with-Huge-Shipment-Growth.aspx|date=2013-04-16}}, April 2, 2012, Fang Zhang, iSupply for a total market value of US$5 billion.[http://www.ecoinsite.com/2012/01/ssd-salesprice-1-dollar-per-gb-2012.html SSDs sales rise, prices drop below $1 per GB in 2012] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216182827/http://www.ecoinsite.com/2012/01/ssd-salesprice-1-dollar-per-gb-2012.html|date=2013-12-16}}, January 10, 2012, Pedro Hernandez, ecoinsite.com Shipments continued to grow to 39 million units in 2012 and were projected to reach 83 million units in 2013,[http://www.storagenewsletter.com/news/marketreport/ihs-ssd-2012 39 Million SSDs Shipped WW in 2012, Up 129% From 2011 – IHS iSuppli] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528024324/http://www.storagenewsletter.com/news/marketreport/ihs-ssd-2012|date=2013-05-28}}, January 24th, 2013, storagenewsletter.com 201.4 million units in 2016, and 227 million units in 2017.[http://www.tgdaily.com/hardware-brief/71502-ssds-weather-the-pc-storm SSDs weather the PC storm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216183622/http://www.tgdaily.com/hardware-brief/71502-ssds-weather-the-pc-storm|date=2013-12-16}}, May 8, 2013, Nermin Hajdarbegovic, TG Daily, accesat la 9 mai 2013

Revenues for the SSD market worldwide totaled approximately $585 million in 2008, rising over 100% from $259 million in 2007.[http://maltiel-consulting.com/SSD_Market_Share_Sales_breakdown_by_density.html Samsung leads in 2008 SSD market with over 30% share, says Gartner] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603060420/http://maltiel-consulting.com/SSD_Market_Share_Sales_breakdown_by_density.html|date=2013-06-03}}, 10 June 2009, Josephine Lien, Taipei; Jessie Shen, DIGITIMES

The global solid-state drive (SSD) market is projected to grow significantly between 2024 and 2030, driven by rising demand for data center expansion, cloud computing services, and consumer electronics upgrades.{{cite web |date=February 2024 |title=Solid State Drives Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report |url=https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/solid-state-drives-industry |access-date=25 April 2025 |website=Grand View Research}} In a 2024 report, Grand View Research estimated the SSD market at USD 19.1 billion in 2023 and projected it to reach USD 55.1 billion by 2030. In a separate 2024 study, Mordor Intelligence valued the market at USD 63.45 billion for 2024, forecasting growth to USD 172.82 billion by 2030.{{cite web |date=April 2024 |title=Solid State Drive (SSD) Market Size & Share Analysis - Growth Trends & Forecasts (2024 - 2029) |url=https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/solid-state-drive-market |access-date=25 April 2025 |website=Mordor Intelligence}} Additionally, Tom's Hardware, citing a 2024 analysis from Yole Group, projected that SSD revenues will rise from USD 29 billion in 2022 to USD 67 billion by 2028.{{cite web |last=Bertie |first=Martin |date=22 April 2024 |title=SSD Market to Hit $67 Billion in 2028, Driven by Enterprise and Client PCIe SSDs |url=https://www.tomshardware.com/news/ssd-market-to-hit-67-billion-in-2028 |access-date=25 April 2025 |website=Tom's Hardware}}

{{Main|List of file systems#File systems optimized for flash memory, solid state media|l1 = File systems optimized for flash memory, solid state media}}

The same file systems used on hard disk drives can typically also be used on solid state drives. File systems that support SSDs generally also support the TRIM command, which helps the SSD to recycle discarded data. The file system does not need to manage wear leveling or other flash memory characteristics, as they are handled internally by the SSD. Some log-structured file systems (e.g. F2FS, JFFS2) help to reduce write amplification on SSDs, especially in situations where only very small amounts of data are changed, such as when updating file-system metadata.

If an operating system does not support using TRIM on discrete swap partitions, it might be possible to use swap files inside an ordinary file system instead. For example, macOS does not support swap partitions; it only swaps to files within a file system, so it can use TRIM when, for example, swap files are deleted.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}}

Since 2010, standard Linux drive utilities have taken care of appropriate partition alignment by default.{{cite web |author=Karel Zak |date=2010-02-04 |title=Changes between v2.17 and v2.17.1-rc1, commit 1a2416c6ed10fcbfb48283cae7e68ee7c7f1c43d |url=https://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/utils/util-linux/v2.17/v2.17.1-rc1-ChangeLog |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525063754/https://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/utils/util-linux/v2.17/v2.17.1-rc1-ChangeLog |archive-date=2013-05-25 |access-date=2014-04-13 |website=kernel.org}}

Kernel support for the TRIM operation was introduced in version 2.6.33 of the Linux kernel mainline, released on 24 February 2010.{{cite web |date=2010-02-24 |title=Linux kernel 2.6.33 |url=http://kernelnewbies.org/Linux_2_6_33 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616025132/http://kernelnewbies.org/Linux_2_6_33 |archive-date=2012-06-16 |access-date=2013-11-05 |website=kernelnewbies.org}} The ext4, Btrfs, XFS, JFS, and F2FS file systems include support for the discard (TRIM or UNMAP) function. To make use of TRIM, a file system must be mounted using the discard parameter. Linux swap partitions are by default performing discard operations when the underlying drive supports TRIM, with the possibility to turn them off.{{cite web |url = http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man8/swapon.8.html |title = swapon(8) – Linux manual page |date = 2013-09-17 |access-date = 2013-12-12 |website = man7.org |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130714134048/http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man8/swapon.8.html |archive-date = 2013-07-14}}{{cite web |url = https://wiki.debian.org/SSDOptimization |title = SSD Optimization |date = 2013-11-22 |access-date = 2013-12-11 |website = debian.org |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130705210159/http://wiki.debian.org/SSDOptimization |archive-date = 2013-07-05}}{{cite web |url= https://git.kernel.org/cgit/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux-stable.git/tree/mm/swapfile.c?id=refs/tags/v3.12.5#n2507 |title= kernel/git/stable/linux-stable.git: mm/swapfile.c, line 2507 (Linux kernel stable tree, version 3.12.5) |access-date= 2013-12-12 |website= kernel.org}} Support for queued TRIM, a SATA 3.1 feature that results in TRIM commands not disrupting the command queues, was introduced in Linux kernel 3.12, released on November 2, 2013.{{cite web |url=https://lkml.org/lkml/2013/9/3/277 |title=LKML: Tejun Heo: [GIT PULL] libata changes for v3.12-rc1 |author=Tejun Heo |work=lkml.org |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117223804/https://lkml.org/lkml/2013/9/3/277 |archive-date=2016-01-17}}

An alternative to the kernel-level TRIM operation is to use a user-space utility called {{samp|fstrim}} that goes through all of the unused blocks in a filesystem and dispatches TRIM commands for those areas. The{{samp|fstrim}}utility is usually run by cron as a scheduled task.{{cite web |url = https://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=news_item&px=MTUxOTY |title = Ubuntu Aims To TRIM SSDs By Default |date = 2013-11-19 |access-date = 2014-06-29 |author = Michael Larabel |website = Phoronix.com |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140809122456/http://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=news_item&px=MTUxOTY |archive-date = 2014-08-09}}

File:Intel SSD 750 series, 400 GB add-in card model, top view.jpg as the logical device interface, in the form of a PCI Express 3.0 ×4 expansion card]]

During installation, Linux distributions usually do not configure the installed system to use TRIM and thus the /etc/fstab file requires manual modifications.{{cite web |url=http://techgage.com/article/enabling_and_testing_ssd_trim_support_under_linux/ |title=Enabling and Testing SSD TRIM Support Under Linux |publisher=Techgage |date=2011-05-06 |access-date=2012-05-06 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507233403/http://techgage.com/article/enabling_and_testing_ssd_trim_support_under_linux |archive-date=2012-05-07}} This is because the current Linux TRIM command implementation might not be optimal.{{cite web |url=http://lists.opensuse.org/opensuse-factory/2011-06/msg00065.html |title=openSUSE mailing list: SSD detection when creating first time fstab ? |website=Lists.OpenSuse.org |date=2011-06-02 |access-date=2012-05-06 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617033158/http://lists.opensuse.org/opensuse-factory/2011-06/msg00065.html |archive-date=2011-06-17}} It has been proven to cause a performance degradation instead of a performance increase under certain circumstances.{{cite web|url=http://en.opensuse.org/SDB:SSD_discard_%28trim%29_support|publisher=openSUSE|title=SSD discard (trim) support|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114122717/http://en.opensuse.org/SDB:SSD_discard_%28trim%29_support|archive-date=2012-11-14}}{{cite web|url=https://patrick-nagel.net/blog/archives/337|title=Patrick Nagel: Impact of ext4's discard option on my SSD|date=8 July 2011 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429174315/https://patrick-nagel.net/blog/archives/337|archive-date=2013-04-29}} {{As of|2014|01|post=,}} Linux sends an individual TRIM command to each sector, instead of a vectorized list defining a TRIM range as recommended by the TRIM specification.{{cite web |url= https://git.kernel.org/cgit/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux-stable.git/tree/block/blk-lib.c?id=refs/tags/v3.12.7#n29 |title= block/blk-lib.c, line 29 |access-date= 2014-01-09 |website= kernel.org}}

For performance reasons, it is recommended to switch the I/O scheduler from the default CFQ (Completely Fair Queuing) to NOOP or Deadline. CFQ was designed for traditional magnetic media and seek optimization, thus many of those I/O scheduling efforts are wasted when used with SSDs. As part of their designs, SSDs offer much bigger levels of parallelism for I/O operations, so it is preferable to leave scheduling decisions to their internal logic, especially for high-end SSDs.{{cite web |url = https://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=article&item=linux_iosched_2012&num=1 |title = Linux I/O Scheduler Comparison On The Linux 3.4 Desktop |date = 2012-05-11 |access-date = 2013-10-03 |publisher = Phoronix |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131004224430/http://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=article&item=linux_iosched_2012&num=1 |archive-date = 2013-10-04}}{{cite web |url = http://ubuntuforums.org/showthread.php?t=1464706 |title = SSD benchmark of I/O schedulers |year = 2010 |access-date = 2013-10-03 |website = ubuntuforums.org |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131005010807/http://ubuntuforums.org/showthread.php?t=1464706 |archive-date = 2013-10-05}}

{{Anchor|BLKMQ}}A scalable block layer for high-performance SSD storage, known as blk-multiqueue or blk-mq and developed primarily by Fusion-io engineers, was merged into the Linux kernel mainline in kernel version 3.13, released on 19 January 2014. This leverages the performance offered by SSDs and NVMe by allowing much higher I/O submission rates. With this new design of the Linux kernel block layer, internal queues are split into two levels (per-CPU and hardware-submission queues), thus removing bottlenecks and allowing much higher levels of I/O parallelization. As of version 4.0 of the Linux kernel, released on 12 April 2015, VirtIO block driver, the SCSI layer (which is used by Serial ATA drivers), device mapper framework, loop device driver, unsorted block images (UBI) driver (which implements erase block management layer for flash memory devices) and RBD driver (which exports Ceph RADOS objects as block devices) have been modified to actually use this new interface; other drivers will be ported in the following releases.{{cite web |url = http://kernelnewbies.org/Linux_3.13#head-3e5f0c2bcebc98efd197e3036dd814eadd62839c |title = Linux kernel 3.13, Section 1.1 A scalable block layer for high-performance SSD storage |date = 2014-01-19 |access-date = 2014-01-25 |website = kernelnewbies.org |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140125103204/http://kernelnewbies.org/Linux_3.13#head-3e5f0c2bcebc98efd197e3036dd814eadd62839c |archive-date = 2014-01-25}}{{cite web |url = http://kernelnewbies.org/Linux_3.18#head-33c4411268090eb7f26e857fd25010a2f60215e1 |title = Linux kernel 3.18, Section 1.8. Optional multiqueue SCSI support |date = 2014-12-07 |access-date = 2014-12-18 |website = kernelnewbies.org |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141218175606/http://kernelnewbies.org/Linux_3.18#head-33c4411268090eb7f26e857fd25010a2f60215e1 |archive-date = 2014-12-18}}{{cite web |url = https://lwn.net/Articles/552904/ |title = The multiqueue block layer |date = 2013-06-05 |access-date = 2014-01-25 |author = Jonathan Corbet |website = LWN.net |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140125123224/http://lwn.net/Articles/552904/ |archive-date = 2014-01-25}}{{cite web|url=http://kernel.dk/systor13-final18.pdf|title=Linux Block IO: Introducing Multi-queue SSD Access on Multi-core Systems|author1=Matias Bjørling|author2=Jens Axboe|year=2013|website=kernel.dk|publisher=ACM|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202191859/http://kernel.dk/systor13-final18.pdf|archive-date=2014-02-02|url-status=live|access-date=2014-01-25|author3=David Nellans|author4=Philippe Bonnet}}{{cite web |url = http://kernelnewbies.org/Linux_4.0#head-39e71e330520ccd5af4714d153e2f71243b69422 |title = Linux kernel 4.0, Section 3. Block |date = 2015-05-01 |access-date = 2015-05-02 |website = kernelnewbies.org |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150504015114/http://kernelnewbies.org/Linux_4.0#head-39e71e330520ccd5af4714d153e2f71243b69422 |archive-date = 2015-05-04}}

Versions since Mac OS X 10.6.8 (Snow Leopard) support TRIM but only when used with an Apple-purchased SSD.{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2011/02/26/mac-os-x-lion-has-trim-support-for-ssds-hidpi-resolutions-for-i/ |title=Mac OS X Lion has TRIM support for SSDs, HiDPI resolutions for improved pixel density? |date=27 February 2011 |publisher=Engadget |access-date=2011-06-12 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629115854/http://www.engadget.com/2011/02/26/mac-os-x-lion-has-trim-support-for-ssds-hidpi-resolutions-for-i/ |archive-date=2011-06-29}} TRIM is not automatically enabled for third-party drives, although it can be enabled by using third-party utilities such as Trim Enabler. The status of TRIM can be checked in the System Information application or in the system_profiler command-line tool.

Versions since OS X 10.10.4 (Yosemite) include sudo trimforce enable as a Terminal command that enables TRIM on non-Apple SSDs.{{cite web |url=http://www.macrumors.com/2015/07/01/os-x-trim-ssd/ |title=Yosemite 10.10.4 and El Capitan Third-Party SSD Support |website=MacRumors |date=30 June 2015 |access-date=2015-09-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926085350/http://www.macrumors.com/2015/07/01/os-x-trim-ssd/ |archive-date=2015-09-26}} There is also a technique to enable TRIM in versions earlier than Mac OS X 10.6.8, although it remains uncertain whether TRIM is actually utilized properly in those cases.{{cite web |url=http://forums.macrumors.com/showthread.php?t=1124943 |title=MacRumors Forum |website=MacRumors |date=25 March 2011 |access-date=2011-06-12 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927023901/http://forums.macrumors.com/showthread.php?t=1124943 |archive-date=2011-09-27}}{{unreliable source?|date=June 2012}}

Prior to version 7, Microsoft Windows did not take any specific measures to support solid state drives. From Windows 7, the standard NTFS file system provides support for the TRIM command.{{cite web |url=http://www.snia.org/sites/default/files2/sdc_archives/2009_presentations/thursday/NealChristiansen_ATA_TrimDeleteNotification_Windows7.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728092225/http://www.snia.org/sites/default/files2/sdc_archives/2009_presentations/thursday/NealChristiansen_ATA_TrimDeleteNotification_Windows7.pdf|url-status=dead |title=ATA Trim/Delete Notification Support in Windows 7 |archive-date=July 28, 2013}}

By default, Windows 7 and newer versions execute TRIM commands automatically if the device is detected to be a solid-state drive. However, because TRIM irreversibly resets all freed space, it may be desirable to disable support where enabling data recovery is preferred over wear leveling.{{cite web |url = http://forensic.belkasoft.com/en/ssd-2014 |title = Recovering Evidence from SSD Drives: Understanding TRIM, Garbage Collection and Exclusions |year = 2014 |access-date = January 22, 2015 |author1 = Yuri Gubanov |author2 = Oleg Afonin |website = belkasoft.com |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150122113644/http://forensic.belkasoft.com/en/ssd-2014 |archive-date = January 22, 2015}} Windows implements TRIM for more than just file-delete operations. The TRIM operation is fully integrated with partition- and volume-level commands such as format and delete, with file-system commands relating to truncate and compression, and with the System Restore (also known as Volume Snapshot) feature.

Defragmentation should be disabled on solid-state drives because the location of the file components on an SSD does not significantly impact its performance, but moving the files to make them contiguous using the Windows Defrag routine will cause unnecessary write wear on the limited number of write cycles on the SSD. The SuperFetch feature will also not materially improve performance and causes additional overhead in the system and SSD.{{cite web |last=Butler |first=Harry |date=27 Aug 2009 |title=SSD performance tweaks for Vista |url=http://www.bit-tech.net/hardware/storage/2009/08/27/ssd-performance-tweaks-for-vista/1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100727064030/http://www.bit-tech.net/hardware/storage/2009/08/27/ssd-performance-tweaks-for-vista/1 |archive-date=27 July 2010 |access-date=9 August 2010 |website=Bit-Tech.net}}

Windows Vista generally expects hard disk drives rather than SSDs.{{cite web |title=If your SSD sucks, blame Vista, says SSD vendor |author=Smith, Tony |url=http://www.reghardware.co.uk/2008/07/22/sandisk_ssd_vista_beef/ |access-date=2008-10-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014092454/http://www.reghardware.co.uk/2008/07/22/sandisk_ssd_vista_beef/ |archive-date=2008-10-14}}{{cite web |title= Samsung, Microsoft in talks to speed up SSDs on Vista |url= http://www.computerworld.com/action/article.do?command=viewArticleBasic&articleId=9111939 |access-date= 2008-09-22 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090205032925/http://www.computerworld.com/action/article.do?command=viewArticleBasic&articleId=9111939 |archive-date= 2009-02-05}} Windows Vista includes ReadyBoost to exploit characteristics of USB-connected flash devices, but for SSDs it only improves the default partition alignment to prevent read-modify-write operations that reduce the speed of SSDs. Most SSDs are typically split into 4 KiB sectors, while earlier systems may be based on 512 byte sectors with their default partition setups unaligned to the 4 KiB boundaries.{{cite web |last=Sexton |first=Koka |title=SSD Storage Demands Proper Partition Alignment |url=http://www.wwpi.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=8840:ssd-storage-demands-proper-partition-alignment&catid=99:cover-story&Itemid=2701018 |website=WWPI.com |access-date=9 August 2010 |date=29 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723165815/http://www.wwpi.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=8840:ssd-storage-demands-proper-partition-alignment&catid=99:cover-story&Itemid=2701018 |archive-date=23 July 2010}} Windows Vista does not send the TRIM command to solid-state drives, but some third-party utilities such as SSD Doctor will periodically scan the drive and TRIM the appropriate entries.{{cite web |title=Solid State Doctor – Solid State Drive Utility for SSD's |url=http://www.lc-tech.co.uk/pc/solid-state-doctor/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303045411/http://www.lc-tech.co.uk/pc/solid-state-doctor/ |archive-date=2016-03-03 |access-date=2016-02-23}} Link to information

Windows 7 and later versions have native support for SSDs.{{cite web|title= Support and Q&A for Solid-State Drives|publisher= Microsoft|url= http://blogs.msdn.com/e7/archive/2009/05/05/support-and-q-a-for-solid-state-drives-and.aspx|website= Engineering Windows 7|date= 5 May 2009|last= Sinofsky|first= Steven|author-link= Steven Sinofsky|url-status= live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120520091756/http://blogs.msdn.com/b/e7/archive/2009/05/05/support-and-q-a-for-solid-state-drives-and.aspx|archive-date= 20 May 2012}}{{cite web|title= Windows 7 gets SSD-friendly|last= Flynn|first= David|url= http://apcmag.com/windows_7_gets_ssdfriendly.htm|website= APC|publisher= Future Publishing|date= 10 November 2008|url-status= live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090201162150/http://apcmag.com/windows_7_gets_ssdfriendly.htm|archive-date= 1 February 2009}} The operating system detects the presence of an SSD and optimizes operation accordingly. For SSD devices, Windows 7 disables ReadyBoost and automatic defragmentation.{{Cite web|url=https://www.thomas-krenn.com/en/wiki/Deactivating_Windows_7_Defragmentation_for_Solid-state_Drives|title=Deactivating Windows 7 Defragmentation for Solid-state Drives – Thomas-Krenn-Wiki}} Despite the initial statement by Steven Sinofsky before the release of Windows 7, however, defragmentation is not disabled, even though its behavior on SSDs differs.{{cite web |title= The real and complete story – Does Windows defragment your SSD? |url= http://www.hanselman.com/blog/TheRealAndCompleteStoryDoesWindowsDefragmentYourSSD.aspx |website= Scott Hanselman's blog |first= Scott |last= Hanselman |date= 3 December 2014 |publisher= Microsoft |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141222171607/http://www.hanselman.com/blog/TheRealAndCompleteStoryDoesWindowsDefragmentYourSSD.aspx |archive-date= 22 December 2014}} One reason is the low performance of Volume Shadow Copy Service on fragmented SSDs. The second reason is to avoid reaching the practical maximum number of file fragments that a volume can handle.

Windows 7 also includes support for the TRIM command to reduce garbage collection for data that the operating system has already determined is no longer valid.{{cite web |last=Yam |first=Marcus |title=Windows 7 and Optimization for Solid State Drives|url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/windows-solid-state-drives-ssd,7717.html |publisher=Tom's Hardware |access-date=9 August 2010 |date=May 5, 2009}}{{cite web |url=http://www.howtogeek.com/165472/6-things-you-shouldnt-do-with-solid-state-drives/ |title=6 Things You Shouldn't Do with Solid-State Drives |website=Howtogeek.com |date=20 June 2013 |access-date=12 March 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313045015/http://www.howtogeek.com/165472/6-things-you-shouldnt-do-with-solid-state-drives/ |archive-date=13 March 2016}}

Windows 8.1 and later Windows systems also support automatic TRIM for PCI Express SSDs based on NVMe. For Windows 7, the KB2990941 update is required for this functionality and needs to be integrated into Windows Setup using DISM if Windows 7 has to be installed on the NVMe SSD. Windows 8/8.1 also supports the SCSI unmap command, an analog of SATA TRIM, for USB-attached SSDs or SATA-to-USB enclosures. It is also supported over USB Attached SCSI Protocol (UASP).

While Windows 7 supported automatic TRIM for internal SATA SSDs, Windows 8.1 and Windows 10 support manual TRIM as well as automatic TRIM for SATA, NVMe and USB-attached SSDs. Disk Defragmenter in Windows 10 and 11 may execute TRIM to optimize an SSD.{{Cite web|url=https://www.urtech.ca/2022/02/solved-does-windows-defrag-ssds-what-is-ssd-optimization/|title=SOLVED: Does Windows Defrag SSD's & What Is SSD Optimization? – Up & Running Technologies, Tech How To's|website=www.urtech.ca}}

Solaris as of version 10 Update 6 (released in October 2008), and recent{{When|date=April 2018}} versions of OpenSolaris, Solaris Express Community Edition, Illumos, Linux with ZFS on Linux, and FreeBSD all can use SSDs as a performance booster for ZFS. A low-latency SSD can be used for the ZFS Intent Log (ZIL), where it is named the SLOG. An SSD may also be used for the level 2 Adaptive Replacement Cache (L2ARC), which is used to cache data for reading.{{cite web|url=http://blogs.sun.com/brendan/entry/test|title=ZFS L2ARC and SSD drives by Brendan Gregg|date=2008-07-12|work=brendan_entry_test|publisher=Sun Microsystem blog|access-date=2009-11-12|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090830052059/http://blogs.sun.com/brendan/entry/test|archive-date=2009-08-30}}

ZFS for FreeBSD introduced support for TRIM on September 23, 2012.{{cite web |url=http://svnweb.freebsd.org/base?view=revision&revision=240868 |title=[base] Revision 240868 |website=Svnweb.freebsd.org |access-date=2014-01-20 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120162303/http://svnweb.freebsd.org/base?view=revision&revision=240868 |archive-date=2013-01-20}} The Unix File System also supports the TRIM command.{{cite book |last1=Nemeth|first1=Evi|title=UNIX and Linux System Administration Handbook, 4/e|isbn=978-8131761779|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=8131761770|access-date=25 November 2014|year=2011|publisher=Pearson }}

The following are noted standardization organizations and bodies that work to create standards for solid-state drives (and other computer storage devices). The table below also includes organizations which promote the use of solid-state drives. This is not necessarily an exhaustive list.

• Board solid-state drive
• List of solid-state drive manufacturers
• List of flash memory controller manufacturers
• Hard disk drive
• RAID
• Flash Core Module
• RAM drive

{{reflist}}

• [https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2012/06/inside-the-ssd-revolution-how-solid-state-disks-really-work/ "Solid-state revolution: in-depth on how SSDs really work"]. Lee Hutchinson. Ars Technica. June 4, 2012.
• Mai Zheng, Joseph Tucek, Feng Qin, Mark Lillibridge, "[http://www.cse.ohio-state.edu/~qin/pub-papers/SSDFault-FAST13.pdf Understanding the Robustness of SSDs under Power Fault]", FAST'13
• Cheng Li, Philip Shilane, Fred Douglis, Hyong Shim, Stephen Smaldone, Grant Wallace, "[https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/atc14/atc14-paper-li_cheng_nitro.pdf Nitro: A Capacity-Optimized SSD Cache for Primary Storage]", USENIX ATC'14

{{Commons category|Solid-state drives}}

• [http://www.jedec.org/news/pressreleases/jedec-continues-ssd-standardization-efforts JEDEC Continues SSD Standardization Efforts]
• [http://snia.org/sites/default/files/NVM13-Wheeler_Linux_and_NVM.pdf Linux & NVM: File and Storage System Challenges] (PDF)
• [https://wiki.debian.org/SSDOptimization Linux and SSD Optimization]
• [https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/fast13/fast13-final80.pdf Understanding the Robustness of SSDs under Power Fault] (USENIX 2013, by Mai Zheng, Joseph Tucek, Feng Qin and Mark Lillibridge)

{{Solid-state drive}}

{{Basic computer components}}

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