Southwestern China

Southwestern China is a rugged and mountainous region, transitioning between the Tibetan Plateau to the west and the Chinese coastal hills (东南丘陵) and plains to the east. Key geographic features in the region include the Hengduan Mountains in the west, the Sichuan Basin in the northeast, and the karstic Yungui Plateau in the east. The majority of the region is drained by the Yangtze River, which forms the Three Gorges in the northeast of the region.{{Cite web |title=A Study of Southwest China |url=https://www.researchgate.net/?_tp=eyJjb250ZXh0Ijp7ImZpcnN0UGFnZSI6Il9kaXJlY3QiLCJwYWdlIjoiX2RpcmVjdCJ9fQ}}

The narrowest concept of Southwestern China consists of Sichuan, Chongqing, Yunnan, and Guizhou, while wider definitions often include Guangxi and western portions of Hunan.{{cite book |title=China's Southwest |date=2007 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-1741041859 |edition=3rd}} The official government definition of Southwestern China includes the core provinces of Sichuan, Chongqing, Yunnan, and Guizhou, in addition to the Tibet Autonomous Region.

File:Ming foreign relations 1580.jpg China in 1580. Ming Southwestern China was anchored by the cities of Chengdu, Kunming, and Guiyang (bottom left).]]

Portions of Southwestern China, including the land that is modern day Yunnan, Guizhou, and Sichuan, were incorporated into China in 230{{nbsp}}BCE by Qin dynasty emperor Shi Huangdi.{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Swaran |url= |title=The new great game : China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform |date=2016 |publisher=Stanford University Press |others=Thomas Fingar |isbn=978-0-8047-9764-1 |location=Stanford, California |pages=167 |chapter=China Engages Its Southwest Frontier |oclc=939553543}} Independent states would continue to exert influence within the region, with notable examples being the Nanzhao Kingdom in the 8th and 9th centuries{{nbsp}}CE and the Dali Kingdom in 10th and 11th centuries{{nbsp}}CE. The region was largely pacified and incorporated into the Ming domain. In the 13th century{{nbsp}}CE, the Yuan dynasty expanded its frontiers to include the Tibet plateau, which now defines China's current southwest frontier.

In the 18th century CE, control of the Tibet Plateau area was important in the Great Game confrontations between the imperial powers of Russia, Britain, and China.

After the warlord governments of China's Republican era replaced the Qing dynasty, government policy towards the southwest largely became one of inaction.{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Swaran |url= |title=The new great game : China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform |date=2016 |publisher=Stanford University Press |others=Thomas Fingar |isbn=978-0-8047-9764-1 |location=Stanford, California |pages=151 |chapter=China Engages Its Southwest Frontiers |oclc=939553543 |author-link=}}

The Second Sino-Japanese War prompted the Nationalist government to focus increasingly on state-building tasks in the southwest. The city of Chongqing served as the capital of Chinese resistance to imperial Japanese expansion.

After their defeat in the Chinese Civil War, parts of the Nationalist army retreated south and crossed the border into Burma as the People's Liberation Army entered Yunnan.{{Cite book |last=Han |first=Enze |title=The Ripple Effect: China's Complex Presence in Southeast Asia |date=2024 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-769659-0 |location=New York, NY}}{{Rp|page=65}} The United States supported these Nationalist forces because the United States hoped they would harass the People's Republic of China from the southwest, thereby diverting Chinese resources from the Korean War.{{Rp|page=65}} The Burmese government protested and international pressure increased.{{Rp|page=65}} Beginning in 1953, several rounds of withdrawals of the Nationalist forces and their families were carried out.{{Rp|page=65}} In 1960, joint military action by China and Burma expelled the remaining Nationalist forces from Burma, although some went on to settle in the Burma-Thailand borderlands.{{Rp|pages=65-66}}

Western strategies to contain China in the 20th century{{nbsp}}CE included intervention in the Tibet plateau until almost the mid-1970s. Tibet became an increased area of concern in China's southwest after the Sino-Soviet split when Soviet soldiers on the border of Mongolia and China threatened to close the Gansu corridor, which would have left Tibet as the only reliable Chinese route to Xinjiang.

During the reform and opening up era, China began to look more seriously towards integrating its southwest regions.{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Swaran |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/939553543 |title=The new great game : China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform |date=2016 |publisher=Stanford University Press |others=Thomas Fingar |isbn=978-0-8047-9764-1 |location=Stanford, California |pages=152 |chapter=China Engages Its Southwest Frontiers |oclc=939553543}} China's increased focus on trade-led development and its transition to a socialist market economy helped trigger a reorientation to the southwest as its lagging development became increasingly seen as an impediment to growth.{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Swaran |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/939553543 |title=The new great game : China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform |date=2016 |publisher=Stanford University Press |others=Thomas Fingar |isbn=978-0-8047-9764-1 |location=Stanford, California |pages=152–153 |chapter=China Engages Its Southwestern Frontiers |oclc=939553543}} China's southwest development initiatives reflect an awareness that economic engagement is the most cost-effective way to decrease political unrest and remedy underdevelopment along this frontier.{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Swaran |url= |title=The new great game : China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform |date=2016 |publisher=Stanford University Press |others=Thomas Fingar |isbn=978-0-8047-9764-1 |location=Stanford, California |pages=166 |chapter=China Engages Its Southwest Frontier |oclc=939553543}}

The diverse areas of Southwestern China carry strong regional identities and have been historically considered more rural than the more developed eastern regions of China. Rapid development since the late 1970s has helped transform many parts of the region with modern advancements. In the early 21st century, Southwestern China contained 50% of the country's ethnic minority population which, in turn, formed 37% of the region's population. Han Chinese migration has been largely concentrated in the urban centres, while the rural areas are still predominantly made up of minority populations, including the Zhuang, Miao, Yi, and others.

Inhabitants of Southwestern China primarily speak a dialect of Mandarin Chinese known as Southwestern Mandarin. This variant uses the same written language as Mandarin but is only approximately 50% mutually intelligible with Standard Chinese. As of 2012, there were approximately 260 million speakers of Southwestern Mandarin.{{cite book |author=Chinese Academy of Social Sciences |script-title=zh:中国语言地图集(第2版):汉语方言卷 |title=Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí (dì 2 bǎn): Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn |trans-title=Language Atlas of China (2nd edition): Chinese dialect volume |publisher=The Commercial Press |location=Beijing |year=2012 |page=3 |language=zh}}

In the first half of the 20th century, industrial development in China's southwest was state-led.{{Cite book |last=Hirata |first=Koji |title=Making Mao's Steelworks: Industrial Manchuria and the Transnational Origins of Chinese Socialism |date=2024 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-38227-4 |series=Cambridge Studies in the History of the People's Republic of China series |location=New York, NY}}{{Rp|page=13}}

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Category:Regions of China

Category:South China

Category:Western China