Spanish Republican exiles

File:Spanish War Children001.jpg, a symbol used by the left.]]

The first displacements of refugees and exiles took place during the first months of the war—especially in the period from August to December 1936—marked by episodes of systematic violence against the civilian population, both because of ideologically motivated repression by the rebel forces and by the supporters of the social revolution, as well as the advance of military operations.{{sfn|Rodrigo|Alegre Lorenz|2022|pp=200–201}} These displacements were mainly to France and were characterized by their still provisional nature. Thus the groups were made up of people from the border regions of Aragon, Catalonia, and the Basque Country, either because of their proximity to the rebel faction, in the case of the first two, or because they were supporters of the government who were fleeing the advance of the Irún front, in the latter case, or they were simply "neutral" people who felt threatened by the climate of hostility and violence.{{sfn|Bennassar|2004|p=353}}

As the conflict developed, the provisional nature became more permanent in the case of those displaced persons who were close to the Republican faction, to the point that, although there were still people fleeing en masse, actions were being taken by the Republican government to put some order into the evacuations, especially those involving minors.{{sfn|Herrerín|Balado|García|2023}} The Central Office for Evacuation and Refugee Assistance was set up in October 1936, on the eve of the siege of Madrid, in anticipation of mass evacuations to the Mediterranean coast, while France's General Confederation of Labour created the Comité d'accueil aux enfants d'Espagne in Paris in November.{{sfn|Keren|2018|p=17}}

File:Women at the Siege of the Alcázar in Toledo - Google Art Project.jpg in Toledo during the Civil War.]]

The first evacuations of children took place from Madrid and Valencia, when 100 minors were sent to the USSR in February 1937, and from the Basque Country, where 450 people were evacuated to the French island of Oléron, at the {{ill|La Maison Heureuse|fr|Maison Heureuse}} vacation colony.{{cite web |title=Los niños y niñas de la guerra |url=https://www.sabinoarana.eus/fr/historias-vascas/efemerides/los-ninos-y-ninas-de-la-guerra-20230321 |website=Sabino Arana Foundation |access-date=6 August 2024 |language=Spanish |date=21 March 2023}} Later, around 300 of them were taken to Paris while the rest were granted asylum in Oostduinkerke, Belgium. A total of 456 minors arrived in Mexico in June 1937. From that moment on, they would be known by the collective name {{ill|Children of Morelia|es|Niños de Morelia}}.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Also known as Los Niños de la Guerra or the Children of War.}} The arrangements for their transfer were made possible thanks to the {{ill|Committee for the Assistance to Spanish Children|es|Comité de Ayuda a los Niños del Pueblo Español}}.{{cite web |title=The Children of Morelia: how Mexico gave shelter to the most innocent victims of the Spanish Civil War |url=https://www.eluniversal.com.mx/english/children-morelia-how-mexico-gave-shelter-most-innocent-victims-spanish-civil-war/ |website=El Universal |access-date=6 August 2024 |date=6 June 2020}}{{cite web |title=Children's Exile: Children of the War |url=https://www.cultura.gob.es/en/cultura/areas/archivos/mc/centros/cida/4-difusion-cooperacion/4-1-guias-de-lectura/guia-exilio-espanol-1939-archivos-estatales/ninos-guerra.html |website=National Archives of Spain |access-date=7 August 2024}}{{sfn|Alted Vigil|2005|pp=267–269}}

According to Bartolomé Bennassar (2004), around 10,000 Basque citizens fled by road to France.{{sfn|Bennassar|2004|p=353}} Many refugees left Catalonia by sea, headed to Marseille and Genoa, and on foot through the Pyrenees, trying to avoid being seen by militiamen and border guards. Overall, it is estimated that between 30,000 and 35,000 refugees from Catalonia arrived in France and Italy between July 1936 and late 1938.{{sfn|Rubió Coromina|2015|p=388}}

The military operations carried out on the Northern front, which saw Francoist units advance from Biscay towards Santander in the spring of 1937, brought about a new wave of thousands of exiles, a significant number of whom were children, this time exclusively republicans, to Bordeaux, La Rochelle, and Lorient. Following the indiscriminate bombing of Guernica, the United Kingdom reluctantly agreed to take in Republican children. Thus, on 21 May 1937, nearly 4,000 Basque children left Santurtzi on board the steamship {{ill|Steamship Habana|lt=Habana|es|Vapor Habana}} (which had capacity for 400 passengers), bound for the English port of Southampton.{{cite web |title=Refugee children |url=https://southamptonstories.co.uk/story/refugee-children/ |website=Southampton City Council |access-date=6 August 2024}}{{cite web |title=Passengers on the 'Habana' |url=https://www.basquechildren.org/reference/passengers |website=Basque Children of '37 Association UK |access-date=7 August 2024}}{{sfn|University of Leeds |2001|p=11|ref=leeds2001}} Months later, Arthur Hinsley, cardinal and archbishop-prelate of Westminster, demonstrated the pro-Franco attitude of the English Catholic hierarchy when he publicly supported the deportation of Basque refugee children back to Spain.{{sfn|University of Leeds |2001|p=31|ref=leeds2001}}{{sfn|Willis|p=5}} In 1938, after the battle of Bielsa pocket and the withdrawal of the {{ill|43rd Division (Spanish Republican Army)|lt=43rd Division|es|43.ª División (Ejército Popular de la República)}} of the People's Army, there was a new displacement of people in Aragon, who took refuge directly on the other side of the border.{{sfn|Bennassar|2004|pp=362–363}} In late 1938, it is estimated that 40,000 emigrants remained on French soil, although they were considered to be in a situation of temporary displacement.{{sfn|Bennassar|2004|pp=362–363}}{{sfn|Peschanski|2000|p=40}}

The biggest wave took place after the fall of Barcelona (February 1939).{{sfn|Herrerín|Balado|García|2023}} At that time, more than half a million people fled to France. Especially in the early stages, a large number of them were interned in camps set up by the French government under Daladier.{{cite web |last1=Monzón |first1=Agustín |title=Españoles tras la alambrada: los campos de concentración del exilio en Francia |url=https://www.elindependiente.com/tendencias/historia/2019/02/17/espanoles-alambrada-campos-concentracion-exilio-francia/ |website=El Independiente |access-date=7 August 2024 |language=Spanish |date=17 February 2019}} Conditions in such camps were appalling, such as in the case of the Gurs internment camp.{{cite web |title=Camp de Rivesaltes (Pyrénées-Orientales) |url=https://www.apra.asso.fr/Camps/Fr/Camp-Rivesaltes.html |website=Association Philatélique de Rouen et Agglomération (APRA) |access-date=7 August 2024 |language=French}}{{cite web |title=Gurs |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/gurs |website=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |access-date=7 August 2024}} In those first few months, about half of those who had initially taken refuge in France returned to Spain (now entirely under the control of the Francoists).

A few weeks before the end of the war, the Valière report, carried out at the request of the French government, estimated that by 9 March 1939 there were about 440,000 refugees in France, of whom 170,000 were women, children, and elderly persons, 220,000 soldiers and militiamen, 40,000 invalids, and 10,000 wounded.{{sfn|Dreyfus-Armand|2011|p=6}}

{{Main|La Retirada}}

Emigration to France sped up significantly during the course of the Battle of the Ebro and the following months. The exodus of citizens from Catalonia was massive after the fall of Barcelona on 26 January 1939. The government of Édouard Daladier decided to open the France–Spain border on 27 January. Refugees fled across the Pyrenees via La Jonquera, Portbou, Le Perthus, Cerbère, and Bourg-Madame. According to an official report dated March 1939, the number of Spanish refugees in France was estimated at 440,000. Moreover, historians have estimated the number of exiles after the fall of Catalonia at 465,000, of whom 170,000 were civilians.{{sfn|Peschanski|2000|p=40}}{{sfn|Dreyfus-Armand|2011|pp=5–6}}

The southwestern French departments, close to Spain, were the ones that received the largest number of refugees, with heavy Spanish immigration in the cities of Bordeaux and Toulouse, where there were Spaniards already living. Other departments in the Atlantic coast region, especially Loire-Atlantique, also received refugees, as well as the Massif Central region, Bouches-du-Rhône, and Paris.

The exiles were received differently from one place to another. Some were welcomed and shown solidarity, while others were viewed with distrust and even hostility with hints of xenophobia.{{sfn|Berdah|2008|p=305}}

{{Main|Internment camps in France}}

File:KZ Mauthausen.jpg under a banner written in Spanish that reads: Los españoles antifascistas saludan a las fuerzas liberadoras.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|English: Antifascist Spaniards greet the liberating forces.}} Almost 9,000 Republican Spaniards ended up in Nazi concentration camps.]]

These camps evolved over time. French authorities were overwhelmed by the mascaret humain{{refn|group=lower-alpha|English: Human tide}}—in the words of Interior Minister Albert Sarraut{{sfn|Parello|2010|pp=11–18}}—of La Retirada and thus regrouped the refugees in "control" or "sorting" camps at the border.{{sfn|Peschanski|2000|p=48}}{{cite web |last1=López Mato |first1=Omar |title="Resistir es vencer": así fueron los días finales de la Guerra Civil Española |url=https://www.infobae.com/america/historia-america/2019/02/15/resistir-es-vencer-asi-fueron-los-dias-finales-de-la-guerra-civil-espanola/ |website=Infobae |access-date=8 August 2024 |language=Spanish |date=14 February 2019}} Later, they placed them in concentration camps (the official term at the time, later renamed "internment" camps) located at the foothills of the Pyrenees and, especially, on the Mediterranean beaches closest to the border.{{sfn|Peschanski|2000|p=48}}{{cite web |title=La Retirada ou l'exil républicain espagnol d'après guerre |url=http://www.histoire-immigration.fr/des-dossiers-thematiques-sur-l-histoire-de-l-immigration/la-retirada-ou-l-exil-republicain-espagnol-d-apres-guerre |website=Cité nationale de l'histoire de l'immigration |access-date=9 August 2024|language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121124072213/http://www.histoire-immigration.fr/des-dossiers-thematiques-sur-l-histoire-de-l-immigration/la-retirada-ou-l-exil-republicain-espagnol-d-apres-guerre |archive-date=24 November 2012}} Around 270,000 men, most of them former combatants of the Republican Army, would be interned there. These consisted of a sandy area enclosed by barbed-wire fences, without even a roof to take shelter under, and surrounded by Senegalese soldiers armed with machine guns and rifles. At the beginning, they were located in the Pyrénées-Orientales department, as in the case of the {{ill|Saint-Cyprien interment camp|es|Campo de Saint-Cyprien}}, the Argelers concentration camp, or the {{ill|Le Barcarès interment camp|es|Campo de Le Barcarès}} on the beaches. These specialized internment camps—which mainly held Basques, former members of the International Brigades (the Gurs camp), Catalonians (Agde, Camp de Rivesaltes), elderly people (Bram), and the Durruti Division (Camp Vernet)—were created in February 1939{{sfn|Pouységur|1994|p=28}} in the neighboring departments of Roussillon province, to make up for the growth of the coastal structures and the deteriorated health conditions.{{sfn|Peschanski|2000|pp=48–49}}{{sfn|Fau|1994|p=35}}

When mentioning the numbers of Spanish exiles, records often overlook those who disembarked in North Africa, who totaled around 10,000. Historian Anne Charaudeau (1992) explains in detail how these exiles were treated after their arrival.{{sfn|Charaudeau|1992|pp=23–28}} At first held in the various camps because of the potential danger they represented, they quickly became an essential labor force in wartime. In French Algeria, exiles who were recaptured were employed in the quarries for the construction of the Trans-Saharan Railway starting in 1939.{{cite web |last1=Ródenas Calatayud |first1=Carmen |title=El exilio republicano en el norte de África. 8. El ferrocarril Transahariano |url=https://archivodemocracia.ua.es/es/exilio-republicano-africa/8.-el-ferrocarril-transahariano.html |website=University of Alicante |access-date=8 August 2024 |language=Spanish}} According to historian Peter Gaida (2014), the living conditions of forced laborers in the railway works after 1940 were as follows:{{sfn|Gaida|2014}}

{{Block quote|Dans les camps du «Transsaharien», les travailleurs forcés sont exposés à un régime brutal, et de nombreux travailleurs succombent à la faim, aux maladies et à la torture, pour être libérés en mai 1943, après le débarquement des Alliés en Afrique du Nord.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|English: In the camps of the Trans-Saharan [Railway], forced laborers are exposed to a brutal regime, and many succumb to hunger, disease, and torture, only to be liberated in May 1943 after the Allies landed in North Africa.}}}}

Ideological clashes arising from the Spanish Civil War were reproduced in the camps among the prisoners and exploited by the French authorities. For instance, authorities took advantage of tensions between anarchists and communists to control the latter, as in the case of Camp Vernet, which would become a disciplinary camp for political prisoners under the Vichy regime.{{sfn|Peschanski|2000|pp=519–520}}{{sfn|Peschanski|2000|p=696}}

{{See also|Internment camps in France#During World War II and the Vichy regime}}

Historians who studied the camps in the southwest of France noted a hardening of the internment policy under the Vichy regime and a "logic of exclusion."{{sfn|Pouységur|1994|pp=26–27}}

File:Crowds of French patriots line the Champs Elysees.jpg's 2nd Armored Division on the Champs-Élysées in Paris (26 August 1944). The vanguard of the soldiers who liberated Paris was made up by La Nueve, a company of the Division Leclerc composed mostly of Republican Spaniards.]]

Republicans were incorporated into the war effort via the {{ill|Company of Foreign Workers|es|Compañía de Trabajadores Extranjeros}} (CTE), which the Vichy regime later turned into the {{ill|Group of Foreign Workers|fr|Groupement de travailleurs étrangers}} (GTE) (1940). Between 1942 and 1943, a total of 26,000 Spanish workers from the GTE and others were sent, as part of the Service du travail obligatoire (STO), to the projects of the Organisation Todt on the Atlantic front.{{sfn|Milza|Peschanski|1994|p=96}}{{cite web |title=C.T.E. y G.T.E. |url=https://amicaldeneuengammesp.org/historia/c-t-e-y-g-t-e/ |website=Amical de Neuengamme |access-date=9 August 2024 |language=Spanish}}

According to historian Lilian Pouységur (1994), the matter of the camps acted as un catalyseur de l'identité républicaine espagnole.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|English: A catalyst of the Spanish Republican identity}} It had a heavy impact on the Republican imaginary, leaving the memory of a country that was not very open to the fight against fascist forces.{{sfn|Pouységur|1994|p=28}}

Between 1939 and 1940, many Republicans asked to enlist in the Companies of Foreign Workers and in the battalions of foreigners in the French Army, despite the distrust the French officers had towards the communists bound by the German-Soviet Pact. In late 1942, many joined the Resistance, the Maquis, and the Free French Forces, and even contributed in deciphering the German Enigma cryptographic code (the team of {{ill|Antonio Camazón|es}}).{{cite news |last1=Limón |first1=Raúl |title=El 'hacker' republicano que ayudó a desentrañar la máquina nazi Enigma |url=https://elpais.com/tecnologia/2019/11/13/actualidad/1573646294_572244.html |website=El País |access-date=9 August 2024 |language=Spanish |date=14 November 2019|url-access= subscription}}{{cite web |last1=Viana |first1=Isabel |title=El olvidado matemático de Valladolid cuyo trabajo fue decisivo para derrotar a Hitler |url=https://www.abc.es/historia/abci-olvidado-matematico-valladolid-cuyo-trabajo-decisivo-para-derrotar-hitler-201911180042_noticia.html |website=ABC |access-date=9 August 2024 |language=Spanish |date=18 November 2019}}{{cite web |last1=Pascual Estapé |first1=Juan Antonio |title=El espía español tan importante como Alan Turing que todo el mundo ha olvidado: fue clave para derrotar a Hitler |url=https://computerhoy.com/life/faustino-antonio-camazon-espia-espanol-maquina-enigma-alan-turing-1282644 |website=ComputerHoy.com |access-date=9 August 2024 |language=Spanish |date=29 July 2023}} The Republican exiles hoped that, after the fall of Nazism, the liberation of France would help in taking back their country.{{sfn|Milza|Peschanski|1994|p=619}}{{sfn|Dreyfus-Armand|2020|p=185}} During the liberation of Paris, the first detachment of Leclerc's army to enter the city was a Spanish platoon.{{cite web |last1=Conde |first1=Arturo |title=The forgotten Spanish soldiers behind France's liberation from Nazi Germany |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/forgotten-spanish-soldiers-behind-france-s-liberation-nazi-germany-n1045731 |website=NBC News |date=25 August 2019}}{{cite web |last1=Spindler |first1=John E. |title=The Allied Liberation of Paris |url=https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/the-allied-liberation-of-paris/ |website=Warfare History Network |access-date=9 August 2024}}{{cite web |last1=Fernandez Recatala |first1=Denis |title=Ces Espagnols qui ont libéré Paris |url=https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2004/08/FERNANDEZ_RECATALA/11465 |website=Le Monde diplomatique |access-date=9 August 2024 |language=French |date=August 2004}}

Spanish workers or Republican resistance fighters who were arrested on French territory and who did not have the status of prisoners of war were deported to various French concentration camps (in Saint-Cyprien or Argelès-sur-Mer, for example) and later to German ones.{{cite web |last1=Fonseca Rodríguez |first1=Diego |title=What was Franco's role in the deportation of 10,000 Spaniards to Nazi camps? |url=https://english.elpais.com/elpais/2019/04/26/inenglish/1556272970_468527.html |website=El País |access-date=9 August 2024 |date=6 April 2019}} For instance, Republican women arrested for acts of resistance were sent to the Ravensbrück concentration camp.{{sfn|Herrmann|2020|p=237}}{{cite web |title=Ravensbrück |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/ravensbrueck |website=The Holocaust Museum |access-date=9 August 2024}}{{cite web |last1=Saidel |first1=Rochelle G. |author1-link=Rochelle Saidel |title=Ravensbruck Women's Concentration Camp |url=https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/ravensbruck-womens-concentration-camp |website=Jewish Women's Archive |access-date=9 August 2024}} Scattered in numerous camps, they represented a significant group, especially in the Mauthausen-Gusen compound, where more than 7,200 Spaniards were registered: 4,676 were killed out of a total of 7,288. In total, 12,000 Republican Spaniards were sent to concentration or labor camps between 6 August 1940, which marked the first departure to Mauthausen, and May 1945.

File:Receive Niceto Alcalá-Zamora at the harbor in Buenos Aires, 18.01.1942.jpg in exile in Buenos Aires, 1942.]]

Facing the problem of Spanish refugees, the French government began negotiations with Latin American countries to take them in, but received only three positive responses at first: Mexico, Uruguay, and Chile.{{sfn|Sánchez-Alonso|Santiago-Caballero|2021 |p=7}}

In February 1939, Mexican President Lázaro Cárdenas agreed to receive a part of the Spanish exiles, following the example of Chile, which had previously chartered the {{SS|Winnipeg}}.{{sfn|Bennassar|2004|p=417}}{{sfn|Peschanski|2000|p=44}} Mexico was the only country that received the refugees with open arms.{{cite web |last1=Kadner |first1=Marién |title=Spanish exiles in Mexico: a story of gratitude |url=https://english.elpais.com/elpais/2017/03/28/inenglish/1490695168_146996.html |website=El País |access-date=10 August 2024 |date=28 March 2017|url-access= subscription }} In the end, the country accounted for 15 percent of all exiles, thus becoming the second largest recipient after France.{{sfn|Sánchez-Alonso|Santiago-Caballero|2021 |p=7}}

Mexico allocated state funds to establish cultural institution {{ill|La Casa de España en México|es}} (1938–1940)—which later became El Colegio de México—as well as magazine España Peregrina and {{ill|Editorial Séneca|es}} publishing house, with a focus on Spanish culture. Other countries that welcomed refugees—around 2,000—were Argentina, Venezuela, Colombia, and Cuba.{{sfn|Dreyfus-Armand|1999|p=80}}

One of the best-known episodes was the voyage of the ocean liner {{SS|Massilia}}, which {{ill|Voyage of the Spanish Republican exiles on board the SS Massilia (1939)|lt=set sail|es|Viaje del exilio republicano en el buque SS Massilia (1939)}} on 19 October 1939 from La Rochelle and arrived in Buenos Aires on 5 November.{{sfn|Ortuño Martínez|2012}} On board were 384 people of various nationalities who were fleeing the war in Europe. More than half were Spanish artists and intellectuals of various professions and trades who opposed Francoism.{{cite web |title=El vapor Massilia, el barco de los intelectuales republicanos que arribó a Buenos Aires el 5 de noviembre de 1939 |url=https://www.casamemorialasauceda.es/2019/07/08/el-vapor-massilia-el-barco-de-los-intelectuales-republicanos-que-arribo-a-buenos-aires-el-5-de-noviembre-de-1939/ |website=Casa de la Memoria La Sauceda |access-date=10 August 2024 |language=Spanish |date=8 July 2019}} These included: painter and stage designer Gregorio (Gori) Muñoz, feminist writer Elena Fortún, politician and economist Pere Coromines i Montanya, journalist Amparo Alvajar, among many others.

Writer Rafael Alberti and composer Manuel de Falla went into exile in Argentina. Physicist Blas Cabrera went to Mexico, as well as writers Tomás Segovia, Emilio Prados, Max Aub, and José Bergamín. Physician and biochemist Severo Ochoa, philologists Américo Castro and Tomás Navarro Tomás, writer Ramón J. Sender, professor and politician Fernando de los Ríos, and the family of Federico García Lorca went to the United States. Writer Manuel Altolaguirre went to Cuba. The Generation of '27 was thus scattered throughout Europe and the Americas.

Around 50,000 refugees,{{sfn|Bennassar|2004|p=421}} with a higher cultural level than the average of the other exiles, headed for Mexico.{{cite web |title=Mexican Perspectives on the Spanish Republican Refugees, 1938-1941 |url=https://worldhistory.columbia.edu/content/mexican-perspectives-spanish-republican-refugees-1938-1941 |website=Columbia University |access-date=10 August 2024}} They were mostly intellectuals, scientists and artists.{{sfn|Sánchez-Alonso|Santiago-Caballero|2021 |p=9}} This contributed to revitalize Mexico. According to historian and philosopher Juan Marichal, el exilio español fue una fortuna [para el país].{{refn|group=lower-alpha|English: Spanish exiles represented good fortune [for the country]}}{{sfn|Bennassar|2004|p=422}}{{cite web |title=El exilio español fue una fortuna / Juan Marichal |url=https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/el-exilio-espanol-fue-una-fortuna-847197/ |website=Centro Virtual Cervantes |access-date=10 August 2024 |language=Spanish}}

There were also children among the refugees, such as the 500 {{ill|Niños de Morelia|es}}, also known as the Children of War,{{sfn|Corderot|2017}} who embarked from the port of Bordeaux.{{cite web |last1=Knight |first1=Alan |title=How Mexico Fought Franco |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/feature/how-mexico-fought-franco |website=History Today |access-date=11 August 2024 |date=4 April 2024|url-access= subscription }}{{cite web |title=Mexican support for Spanish exiles |url=https://www.vscw.ca/en/node/264 |website=Virtual Museum of the Spanish Civil War |access-date=11 August 2024}}{{cite web |title=Los niños de Morelia: el grupo de casi 500 menores que llegaron a México huyendo de la Guerra Civil Española |url=https://www.infobae.com/america/mexico/2022/06/07/los-ninos-de-morelia-el-grupo-de-casi-500-menores-que-llegaron-a-mexico-huyendo-de-la-guerra-civil-espanola/ |website=Infobae |access-date=11 August 2024 |language=Spanish |date=7 June 2022}}

The period of adaptation was also different from what prevailed in France at the time. Writer José Gaos, who settled in Mexico, created the neologism transtierro{{refn|group=lower-alpha|English: Transplant}} to refer to this emigration that transformed into an advanced integration in Latin American cultures, as a reaction to the more commonly used term destierro.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|English: Exile or banishment}}{{sfn|Córdoba Guzmán |2018|pp=23–28}}{{sfn|Sánchez Vázquez|2003|pp=549–563}}

Many intellectual and political figures found refuge in the United States. Such was the case of Republican politician Victoria Kent, who rebuilt her life there with her partner, philanthropist Louise Crane. They founded the magazine Ibérica, which published news from Spain for republican exiles in the United States.{{cite web |title=Victoria Kent Siano |url=http://www.unless-women.eu/biography-details/items/kent-siano.html |website=Unlearned Lessons |access-date=11 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603161742/http://www.unless-women.eu/biography-details/items/kent-siano.html |archive-date=3 June 2016}} Their archives are kept at Yale University.{{cite web |title=Louise Crane and Victoria Kent papers |url=https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/11/resources/1615 |website=Yale University |access-date=11 August 2024}}

The entire family of poet Federico García Lorca, assassinated by Franco's regime in 1936, also found refuge in the country. His mother {{ill|Vicenta Lorca Romero|es}}, his father {{ill|Federico García Rodríguez|fr}}, his sisters {{ill|Concepción García Lorca|lt=Concepción|fr|Concepción García Lorca}} and {{ill|Isabel García Lorca|lt=Isabel|es|Isabel García Lorca}}, and his brother {{ill|Francisco García Lorca|lt=Francisco|es|Francisco García Lorca}} were welcomed into the family of New York-based professors Gloria Giner de los Ríos García and Fernando de los Ríos.{{sfn|Ruiz-Manjón Cabeza|2007|pp=268–269}}

Most of these personalities pursued academic careers at institutions such as Middlebury College{{cite web |title=Middlebury Celebrates Spanish School Centennial |url=https://www.middlebury.edu/announcements/news/2017/07/middlebury-celebrates-spanish-school-centennial |website=Middlebury College |access-date=12 August 2024 |date=6 July 2017}} or Columbia University, like {{ill|Laura de los Ríos Giner|es}}.{{cite news |last1=Seseña |first1=Natacha |title=Laura de los Ríos, un duelo de labores y esperanzas |url=https://elpais.com/diario/1981/12/26/cultura/378169202_850215.html |website=El País |access-date=12 August 2024 |language=Spanish |date=25 December 1981|url-access= subscription }} According to historian Bárbara Ortuño Martínez, the fact that most of the exiles found work in the numerous university institutions scattered throughout the vast U.S. territory led in many cases to isolation and cultural marginalization among the exile community.{{sfn|Ortuño Martínez|2011}}

The numbers of Republicans who emigrated to the Soviet Union (USSR) have been the subject of discussion. Most historians agree on their estimates of several thousand people, which were exclusively cadres of the Communist Party of Spain accompanied by their families. It has been estimated that between 2,900 and 3,200 children were sent to the USSR between March 1937 and October 1938.{{sfn|Alted Vigil|2005|pp=275–276}}{{sfn|Bennassar|2004|pp=396–399}} Forgotten after the defeat of the Republic, they met various fates. Many remained in post-Soviet Russia, others managed to flee—like Valentín González, after having been interned in Vorkutlag, a Gulag labor camp—and yet others scattered or died fighting for their new homeland (such as the case of Dolores Ibárruri's son) during the Second World War. This episode in history has given rise to an abundant literature.{{cite book |last1=González Gallego |first1=Rubén David|author-link1=Rubén Gallego |title=White on Black |date=2020 |publisher=Wild Leaf, Inc. |isbn=978-965-92787-2-5|url=https://www.rubengallego.page/books/white-on-black?lang=en|translator-last1=Schwartz |translator-first1=Marian|translator-link1=Marian Schwartz}}

As Franco's troops advanced, the Republicans from Castellón and Alicante had to escape by sea on board more than forty ships, such as {{HMS|Galatea|71|6}} and the {{SS|Stanbrook}},{{cite web |last1=Torrús |first1=Alejandro |title=El Stanbrook, los últimos exiliados de la República |url=https://www.publico.es/culturas/stanbrook-ultimos-exiliados-republica.html |website=Público |access-date=12 August 2024 |language=Spanish |date=8 September 2012}} which set course for North Africa carrying women, men, and children in inhumane conditions. The SS Stanbrook was the last ship to sail from Alicante on 28 March 1939, with 2,638 refugees. But more than 20,000 were unable to board it and were transferred by the Francoist troops to concentration camps such as {{ill|Los Almendros concentration camp|lt=Los Almendros|es|Campo de concentración de Los Almendros}} and {{ill|Albatera concentration camp|lt=Albatera|es|Campo de concentración de Albatera}}, or temporary locations such as the Santa Bárbara Castle or the {{ill|Alicante Bullring|es|Plaza de toros de Alicante}}.{{cite web |last1=Maurice |first1=Laurine |title=Así fue el trágico destino de los más de 20.000 republicanos que no pudieron subir al Stanbrook en Alicante |url=https://www.elespanol.com/alicante/20240704/tragico-destino-republicanos-no-pudieron-subir-stanbrook-alicante/867663449_0.html |website=El Español |access-date=12 August 2024 |language=Spanish |date=4 July 2024}} The SS Stanbrook arrived at the port of Mers El Kébir, near Oran.{{cite web |title=EXPO - L'exil oublié des républicains espagnols en Afrique du Nord |url=https://lepetitjournal.com/valence/a-voir-a-faire/expo-lexil-oublie-des-republicains-espagnols-en-afrique-du-nord-57166 |website=Le Petit Journal |access-date=12 August 2024 |language=French |date=5 October 2014}}{{cite web |last1=Martínez Leal |first1=Juan |title=El exilio republicano en el norte de África. 3. Los barcos del exilio |url=https://archivodemocracia.ua.es/es/exilio-republicano-africa/3.-los-barcos-del-exilio.html |website=University of Alicante |access-date=12 August 2024 |language=Spanish}}{{cite web |title=Stanbrook, 1939. The republican exile to north Africa |url=https://www.uv.es/uvweb/culture/en/presentation/exhibitions-preparation/stanbrook-1939-republican-exile-north-africa-1285866236311/Activitat.html?id=1285901639626 |website=University of Valencia |access-date=12 August 2024}}

These refugees were interned in so-called refugee camps, which were actually forced labor camps located in Boghar, such as the {{ill|Morand internment camp|fr|Camp Morand}} and Camp Suzzoni.{{cite web |last1=Martínez Leal |first1=Juan |title=El exilio republicano en el norte de África. 5. El destino de los refugiados: los campos de internamiento |url=https://archivodemocracia.ua.es/es/exilio-republicano-africa/5.-el-destino-de-los-refugiados-los-campos-de-internamiento.html |website=University of Alicante |access-date=12 August 2024 |language=Spanish}} Around 15,000 Spanish refugees in mainland France were deported to French Algeria over the summer.{{cite web |title=Speaking in Oran, Dolores Delgado calls the exile "an indelible mark in our history" |url=https://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/lang/en/gobierno/news/Paginas/2019/20190305republicanexile.aspx |website=Palace of Moncloa |access-date=12 August 2024}} In total, the number of Spaniards who passed through the North African camps has been estimated at 30,000. Among the fifty camps used to intern Spaniards, in addition to those already mentioned, the main ones are: Relizane, Bouarfa, Settat, Oued-Akrouch, Kénadsa, and Tandara. Disciplinary or punishment camps were set up in Hadjerat M'Guil, Aïn El Orak, Méridja, Djelfa, and Berrouaghia. Many of these refugees met their deaths in the camps in North Africa.{{sfn|Mesquida|2016}}{{sfn|Kateb|2007|pp=155–175}}

Although the winning side had been recognized by international observers after the fall of Barcelona, things were not yet settled in Spain. Spaniards had been left alienated after the Second World War. The Francoist police persecuted the opposition and purged villages,{{sfn|Ruiz|2005|pp=165–191}} causing a situation that historians refer to as the posguerra{{refn|group=lower-alpha|English: Post-war}} period—from 1938 to the early sixties, during which exiles continued to flee from the regime.

Some exiles, mainly men of military age, found themselves integrated as combatants in the imminent Second World War, primarily in the territory of metropolitan France itself, but also in the USSR,{{sfn|Young|2014|pp=395–420}} North Africa, and a large part of that war's theaters, either as regular combatants or participating in the actions of the Resistance. Almost 9,000 Republican Spaniards were also among those who were deported to Nazi concentration camps.{{cite web |last1=Jones |first1=Sam |title=Madrid exhibition tells story of Spaniards sent to Nazi concentration camp |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/26/madrid-exhibition-tells-story-of-spaniards-sent-to-nazi-concentration-camp |website=The Guardian |access-date=13 August 2024 |date=26 January 2023}}

File:Luis Buñuel.JPG]]

File:RafaelAlberti01.JPG]]

Part of the Republican exiles went to Latin America, where they benefited from an intellectual and artistic group made up mostly of the institutions derived from Krausism, such as the Institución Libre de Enseñanza, the {{ill|Junta para Ampliación de Estudios e Investigaciones Científicas|es}}, the Residencia de Estudiantes, the {{ill|Centro de Estudios Históricos|es|Centro de Estudios Históricos (España)}}, the {{ill|Instituto-Escuela|es}}, and the {{ill|Museo Pedagógico Nacional|es}}, among others. This brain drain impoverished the cultural life in post-war Spain, but enriched that of the host countries:{{sfn|López Sánchez|Murga Castro|2018}} Mexico (thanks to the support of President Lázaro Cárdenas), Argentina, and the United States, among others. More than 500 physicians settled in Mexico. Most of the members of the Generation of 1914, the Generation of '27, and the various historical avant-garde movements emigrated to other lands. Some referred to this as being transplanted or exiled.

Many were unable to return to their homeland or did so at a very old age after the restoration of democracy, although there were numerous cases of exiles who returned to Spain during the Francoist era, including, among others, the case of General Vicente Rojo Lluch, and writers Manuel Altolaguirre and José Bergamín. There were others who chose to stay and suffered reprisals, such as {{ill|Antonio Rodríguez-Moñino|es}}, or lived in a kind of {{ill|Internal exile (Spanish Republicans)|lt=internal exile|es|Exilio interior}}, such as {{ill|Juan Gil-Albert|es}} or Vicente Aleixandre.

Some of these intellectuals included:

Biologists

• Severo Ochoa
• {{ill|Enrique Rioja Lo Bianco|es}}

Physicists

• {{ill|Arturo Duperier Vallesa|es}}
• Blas Cabrera
• Onofre Rojo Asenjo

Chemists

• Enrique Moles Ormella
• {{ill|Francisco Giral|es}}

Mathematicians

• {{ill|Enrique Jiménez González|es}}
• {{ill|Ricardo Vinós Santos|es}}
• {{ill|Lorenzo Alcaraz|es}}

Engineers

• {{ill|Francisco Rived Revilla|es}}

Astronomers

• {{ill|Pedro Carrasco Garrorena|es}}
• Marcelo Santaló

Oceanographers

• Odón de Buen y del Cos

Writers

• Manuel Azaña
• Max Aub
• Ramón J. Sender
• Arturo Barea
• Manuel Andújar
• Rafael Alberti
• Pedro Salinas
• Luis Cernuda
• Emilio Prados
• Paulino Masip

Filmmakers

• Luis Buñuel

Artists

• Josep Gausachs
• Óscar Domínguez
• Pablo Picasso

Historians

• Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz

Philologists

• Tomás Navarro Tomás

Pedagogues

• José Castillejo
• Lorenzo Luzuriaga

Philosophers

• Juan David García Bacca

Essayists

• {{ill|Anselmo Carretero|es}}

In Spain, three exhibitions marked the beginning of the commemorations of the 80th anniversary of the Republican exile.{{cite news |last1=Aguilar |first1=Andrea |title=La España peregrina vuelve del olvido |url=https://elpais.com/cultura/2019/12/04/actualidad/1575486410_405459.html |website=El País |access-date=13 August 2024 |language=Spanish |date=4 December 2019|url-access= subscription }}{{cite web |title=80 aniversario del Exilio Republicano |url=https://www.mpr.gob.es/memoriademocratica/actividades-de-difusion/80-aniversario-del-exilio-republicano/Paginas/index.aspx |website=Ministry of Territorial Policy and Democratic Memory |access-date=13 August 2024 |language=Spanish}}

France officially commemorated the 80th anniversary of La Retirada especially in Paris,{{Cite tweet |user=Anne_Hidalgo|author-link= Anne Hidalgo |number=1094244414556463104 |title=Hommage aujourd'hui aux républicains espagnols qui ont fui le régime franquiste lors de la Retirada. Il y a 80 ans, près de 500 000 Espagnols franchissaient la frontière des Pyrénées pour échapper au fascisme et à une mort plus que probable.}}{{refn|group=lower-alpha|English: Today we pay tribute to the Spanish Republicans who fled the Franco regime during La Retirada. Eighty years ago, almost 500,000 Spaniards crossed the border through the Pyrénées to escape fascism and a more than likely death.}} in the Pyrénées-Orientales, and throughout the south of the country, in memory of the 500,000 Republican Spaniards who crossed the border into France in early 1939. For the first time, a Spanish Prime Minister, Pedro Sánchez, visited the tomb of the last president of the Second Spanish Republic, Manuel Azaña, in Montauban. He also paid tribute in the town of Collioure to poet Antonio Machado, who died and was buried there in 1939.{{cite web |title=En France, hommage inédit de Pedro Sanchez aux Espagnols exilés |url=https://www.lepoint.fr/video/en-france-hommage-inedit-de-pedro-sanchez-aux-espagnols-exiles-25-02-2019-2296005_738.php |website=Le Point |access-date=13 August 2024 |language=French |date=25 February 2019}}

In the French capital, the Council of Paris voted unanimously to dedicate a garden and a street to the memory of Federica Montseny{{cite web |title=2019 DEVE 63 Dénomination « Jardin Federica Montseny » attribuée au jardin situé 2, place Louis Armstrong (13e). Projet de deliberation expose des motifs. |url=https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=http%3A%2F%2Fa06.apps.paris.fr%2Fa06%2Fjsp%2Fsite%2Fplugins%2Fodjcp%2FDoDownload.jsp%3Fid_entite%3D48879%26id_type_entite%3D6 |website=Council of Paris |access-date=13 August 2024 |language=French |format=PDF}} and Neus Català,{{cite web |title=Conseil de Paris. Extrait du registre des délibérations. Séance des 8, 9, 10 et 11 juillet 2019. |url=http://a06.apps.paris.fr/a06/jsp/site/plugins/solr/modules/ods/DoDownload.jsp?id_document=149260&items_per_page=20&sort_name=&sort_order=&terms=neus&query=neus&fq=seance_string%3AJUILLET%202019 |website=Council of Paris |access-date=13 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728081937/http://a06.apps.paris.fr/a06/jsp/site/plugins/solr/modules/ods/DoDownload.jsp?id_document=149260&items_per_page=20&sort_name=&sort_order=&terms=neus&query=neus&fq=seance_string%3AJUILLET%202019 |archive-date=28 July 2022 |language=French}} respectively. There were ceremonies held in front of the {{ill|Jardin des Combattants-de-la-Nueve|fr}}; at the Paris City Hall; in front of the plaques in the memory of Domingo Tejero Pérez, {{ill|José Barón Carreño|es}}, {{ill|Conrad Miret i Musté|fr}} (all officially declared by the French government as having "died for France"); in front of the plaque in memory of {{ill|Manuel Pinto Queiroz Ruiz|es}}, and at Père Lachaise Cemetery, where the monument to the "Spaniards who died for freedom" is located, in honor of the Spanish Republic; in front of the graves of Juan Negrín and Francisco Boix, and in {{ill|Mont Valérien|fr}}, in the Mémorial de la France combattante inaugurated by Charles de Gaulle on 18 June 1960.

• Spanish Republican government in exile
• La Retirada
• Spanish diaspora
• Spanish immigration to France
• Women in exile during Francoist Spain

{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

{{reflist}}

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• {{cite journal |last1=Rodrigo |first1=Javier |last2=Alegre Lorenz |first2=David |title=Before the Convention: The Spanish Civil War and Challenges for Research on Refugee History |journal=Refugee Survey Quarterly |date=June 2022 |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=196–217 |doi=10.1093/rsq/hdac005 |url=https://academic.oup.com/rsq/article/41/2/196/6537529 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |format=PDF |issn=1020-4067|doi-access=free }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Ruiz-Manjón Cabeza |first1=Octavio |title=Gloria Giner de los Ríos: noticia biográfica de una madrileña |journal=Cuadernos de historia contemporánea |date=2007 |issue=1 |pages=265–272 |url=https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/CHCO/article/view/CHCO0707220265A/6767 |publisher=Complutense University of Madrid |location=Madrid |language=Spanish |issn=0214-400X}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Young |first1=Glennys |author1-link=Glennys Young |title=To Russia with 'Spain': Spanish Exiles in the USSR and the Longue Durée of Soviet History |journal=Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History |date=2014 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=395–420 |url=https://jsis.washington.edu/publication/to-russia-with-spain-spanish-exiles-in-the-ussr-and-the-longue-duree-of-soviet-history/ |publisher=Slavica Publishers |location=Indiana |doi=10.1353/kri.2014.0031 |issn=1538-5000|url-access=subscription }}

• {{cite magazine |date=2001 |title=The Basque Child Refugees in the UK

|url=https://www.basquechildren.org/-/docs/articles/leedszine |magazine=Zine by the Students of the University of Leeds |location=Leeds, United Kingdom |publisher=Basque Children of '37 Association UK|format=PDF|ref=leeds2001}}

• {{cite thesis |last=Córdoba Guzmán |first=Paulo Tirso |title=Repensar el transtierro: Una historia conceptual y sus implicaciones para la teoría hermenéutica|url=https://repository.urosario.edu.co/server/api/core/bitstreams/3aeae351-c6c4-4fab-adf0-f06d9a543d17/content|degree=M.A. in Philosophy|location=Bogotá |publisher=University of the Rosary|date=2018|language=es}}
• {{cite thesis |last=Peschanski |first=Denis|title=Les camps français d'internement (1938-1946)|url=https://theses.hal.science/tel-00362523/fr/|degree=PhD in history|location=Paris |publisher=Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne University|date=2000|language=fr|format=PDF}}
• {{cite report

|last1=Sánchez-Alonso |first1=Blanca

|last2=Santiago-Caballero|first2=Carlos

|title=The loss of human capital after the Spanish Civil War

|url=https://e-archivo.uc3m.es/rest/api/core/bitstreams/d0e8c2ee-055a-4caf-8579-395ef603c21b/content

|publisher=Charles III University of Madrid

|date=2021|issn=2341-2542 |location=Madrid|type=Working Papers in Economic History }}

• {{cite thesis |last=Willis |first=Gary|title=What were the British motivations for and against receiving Basque refugees during the Spanish Civil War? |url=https://www.basquechildren.org/-/docs/articles/britishmotivations |degree=MRes in Historical Research |publisher=University of London}}

{{refend}}

• [https://www.cultura.gob.es/en/cultura/areas/archivos/mc/centros/cida/4-difusion-cooperacion/4-1-guias-de-lectura/guia-exilio-espanol-1939-archivos-estatales.html Guide to the Spanish Exile of 1939 in the State Archives], at the National Archives of Spain
• [https://www.france24.com/en/20190209-france-spanish-civil-war-republican-refugees-la-retirada-80th-anniversary The painful past of Spanish Civil War refugees in France, 80 years on], interview with historian Geneviève Dreyfus-Armand, (France24, 2019)
• [https://www.ninosdemorelia.com/english2 Los Niños de Morelia], photo story on the Children of Morelia, Mexico

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{{Spanish diaspora}}

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