Spintronics

Spintronics emerged from discoveries in the 1980s concerning spin-dependent electron transport phenomena in solid-state devices. This includes the observation of spin-polarized electron injection from a ferromagnetic metal to a normal metal by Johnson and Silsbee (1985){{Cite journal | last1 = Johnson | first1 = M. | last2 = Silsbee | first2 = R. H. | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.55.1790 | title = Interfacial charge-spin coupling: Injection and detection of spin magnetization in metals | journal = Physical Review Letters | volume = 55 | issue = 17 | pages = 1790–1793 | year = 1985 | pmid = 10031924|bibcode = 1985PhRvL..55.1790J }} and the discovery of giant magnetoresistance independently by Albert Fert et al.{{Cite journal | last1 = Baibich | first1 = M. N. | last2 = Broto | first2 = J. M. | last3 = Fert | first3 = A. | last4 = Nguyen Van Dau | first4 = F. N. | last5 = Petroff | first5 = F. | last6 = Etienne | first6 = P. | last7 = Creuzet | first7 = G. | last8 = Friederich | first8 = A. | last9 = Chazelas | first9 = J. | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.61.2472 | title = Giant Magnetoresistance of (001)Fe/(001)Cr Magnetic Superlattices | journal = Physical Review Letters | volume = 61 | issue = 21 | pages = 2472–2475 | year = 1988 | pmid = 10039127|bibcode = 1988PhRvL..61.2472B | url = http://www.lume.ufrgs.br/bitstream/10183/99075/1/000014840.pdf | doi-access = free }} and Peter Grünberg et al. (1988).{{Cite journal | last1 = Binasch | first1 = G. | last2 = Grünberg | first2 = P. | last3 = Saurenbach | first3 = F. | last4 = Zinn | first4 = W. | title = Enhanced magnetoresistance in layered magnetic structures with antiferromagnetic interlayer exchange | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevB.39.4828 | journal = Physical Review B | volume = 39 | issue = 7 | pages = 4828–4830 | year = 1989 | pmid = 9948867|bibcode = 1989PhRvB..39.4828B | doi-access = free }} The origin of spintronics can be traced to the ferromagnet/superconductor tunneling experiments pioneered by Meservey and Tedrow and initial experiments on magnetic tunnel junctions by Julliere in the 1970s.{{Cite journal | last1 = Julliere | first1 = M. | title = Tunneling between ferromagnetic films | doi = 10.1016/0375-9601(75)90174-7 | journal = Physics Letters A | volume = 54 | issue = 3 | pages = 225–226| year = 1975 |bibcode = 1975PhLA...54..225J }} The use of semiconductors for spintronics began with the theoretical proposal of a spin field-effect-transistor by Datta and Das in 1990{{cite journal| doi = 10.1063/1.102730| author = Datta, S.| author2 = Das, B.| name-list-style = amp |title = Electronic analog of the electrooptic modulator|journal = Applied Physics Letters| volume = 56| pages = 665–667|date = 1990|bibcode = 1990ApPhL..56..665D| issue = 7 }} and of the electric dipole spin resonance by Rashba in 1960.E. I. Rashba, Cyclotron and combined resonances in a perpendicular field, Sov. Phys. Solid State 2, 1109 -1122 (1960)

{{main|Spin (physics)}}

The spin of the electron is an intrinsic angular momentum that is separate from the angular momentum due to its orbital motion. The magnitude of the projection of the electron's spin along an arbitrary axis is $\backslash tfrac\{1\}\{2\}\backslash hbar$, implying that the electron acts as a fermion by the spin-statistics theorem. Like orbital angular momentum, the spin has an associated magnetic moment, the magnitude of which is expressed as

:$\backslash mu=\backslash tfrac\{\backslash sqrt\{3\}\}\{2\}\backslash frac\{q\}\{m\_e\}\backslash hbar$.

In a solid, the spins of many electrons can act together to affect the magnetic and electronic properties of a material, for example endowing it with a permanent magnetic moment as in a ferromagnet.

In many materials, electron spins are equally present in both the up and the down state, and no transport properties are dependent on spin. A spintronic device requires generation or manipulation of a spin-polarized population of electrons, resulting in an excess of spin up or spin down electrons. The polarization of any spin dependent property X can be written as

:$P\_X=\backslash frac\{X\_\{\backslash uparrow\}-X\_\{\backslash downarrow\}\}\{X\_\{\backslash uparrow\}+X\_\{\backslash downarrow\}\}$.

A net spin polarization can be achieved either through creating an equilibrium energy split between spin up and spin down. Methods include putting a material in a large magnetic field (Zeeman effect), the exchange energy present in a ferromagnet or forcing the system out of equilibrium. The period of time that such a non-equilibrium population can be maintained is known as the spin lifetime, $\backslash tau$.

In a diffusive conductor, a spin diffusion length $\backslash lambda$ can be defined as the distance over which a non-equilibrium spin population can propagate. Spin lifetimes of conduction electrons in metals are relatively short (typically less than 1 nanosecond). An important research area is devoted to extending this lifetime to technologically relevant timescales.

File:Spin Injection.svg

The mechanisms of decay for a spin polarized population can be broadly classified as spin-flip scattering and spin dephasing. Spin-flip scattering is a process inside a solid that does not conserve spin, and can therefore switch an incoming spin up state into an outgoing spin down state. Spin dephasing is the process wherein a population of electrons with a common spin state becomes less polarized over time due to different rates of electron spin precession. In confined structures, spin dephasing can be suppressed, leading to spin lifetimes of milliseconds in semiconductor quantum dots at low temperatures.

Superconductors can enhance central effects in spintronics such as magnetoresistance effects, spin lifetimes and dissipationless spin-currents.{{cite journal|last1=Linder|first1=Jacob|last2=Robinson|first2=Jason W. A.|title=Superconducting spintronics|journal=Nature Physics|date=2 April 2015|volume=11|issue=4|pages=307–315|issn=1745-2473|doi=10.1038/nphys3242|arxiv = 1510.00713 |bibcode = 2015NatPh..11..307L |s2cid=31028550}}{{Cite journal | doi=10.1063/1.3541944|title = Spin-polarized supercurrents for spintronics| journal=Physics Today| volume=64|issue = 1| pages=43–49|year = 2011|last1 = Eschrig|first1 = Matthias|bibcode = 2011PhT....64a..43E}}

The simplest method of generating a spin-polarised current in a metal is to pass the current through a ferromagnetic material. The most common applications of this effect involve giant magnetoresistance (GMR) devices. A typical GMR device consists of at least two layers of ferromagnetic materials separated by a spacer layer. When the two magnetization vectors of the ferromagnetic layers are aligned, the electrical resistance will be lower (so a higher current flows at constant voltage) than if the ferromagnetic layers are anti-aligned. This constitutes a magnetic field sensor.

Two variants of GMR have been applied in devices: (1) current-in-plane (CIP), where the electric current flows parallel to the layers and (2) current-perpendicular-to-plane (CPP), where the electric current flows in a direction perpendicular to the layers.

Other metal-based spintronics devices:

• Tunnel magnetoresistance (TMR), where CPP transport is achieved by using quantum-mechanical tunneling of electrons through a thin insulator separating ferromagnetic layers.
• Spin-transfer torque, where a current of spin-polarized electrons is used to control the magnetization direction of ferromagnetic electrodes in the device.
• Spin-wave logic devices carry information in the phase. Interference and spin-wave scattering can perform logic operations.

Non-volatile spin-logic devices to enable scaling are being extensively studied.International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors Spin-transfer, torque-based logic devices that use spins and magnets for information processing have been proposed.{{Cite journal | last1 = Behin-Aein | first1 = B. | last2 = Datta | first2 = D. | last3 = Salahuddin | first3 = S. | last4 = Datta | first4 = S. | title = Proposal for an all-spin logic device with built-in memory | doi = 10.1038/nnano.2010.31 | journal = Nature Nanotechnology | volume = 5 | issue = 4 | pages = 266–270 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20190748|bibcode = 2010NatNa...5..266B }}Manipatruni, Sasikanth; Nikonov, Dmitri E. and Young, Ian A. (2011) [https://arxiv.org/abs/1112.2746 [1112.2746] Circuit Theory for SPICE of Spintronic Integrated Circuits]. Arxiv.org. Retrieved on 21 October 2013. These devices are part of the ITRS exploratory road map. Logic-in memory applications are already in the development stage.[https://archive.today/20120420160205/http://crocus-technology.com/pr-12-08-11.html Crocus Partners With Starchip To Develop System-On-Chip Solutions Based on Magnetic-Logic-Unit (MLU) Technology]. crocus-technology.com. 8 December 2011[http://www.nec.com/en/press/201206/global_20120611_02.html Groundbreaking New Technology for Improving the Reliability of Spintronics Logic Integrated Circuits]. Nec.com. 11 June 2012. A 2017 review article can be found in Materials Today.

A generalized circuit theory for spintronic integrated circuits has been proposedS. Manipatruni, D. E. Nikonov and I. A. Young, "Modeling and Design of Spintronic Integrated Circuits," in IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I: Regular Papers, vol. 59, no. 12, pp. 2801–2814, Dec. 2012, doi: 10.1109/TCSI.2012.2206465. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6359950&isnumber=6359940 so that the physics of spin transport can be utilized by SPICE developers and subsequently by circuit and system designers for the exploration of spintronics for "beyond CMOS computing".

Read heads of magnetic hard drives are based on the GMR or TMR effect.

Motorola developed a first-generation 256 kb magnetoresistive random-access memory (MRAM) based on a single magnetic tunnel junction and a single transistor that has a read/write cycle of under 50 nanoseconds.[http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/materials-science/alternative-energy-materials/magnetic-materials/tutorial/spintronics.html Spintronics]. Sigma-Aldrich. Retrieved on 21 October 2013. Everspin has since developed a 4 Mb version.[http://www.everspin.com/technology.php Everspin] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120630001137/http://www.everspin.com/technology.php |date=30 June 2012 }}. Everspin. Retrieved on 21 October 2013. Two second-generation MRAM techniques are in development: thermal-assisted switching (TAS)Hoberman, Barry. [http://www.crocustechnology.com/pdf/BH%20GSA%20Article.pdf The Emergence of Practical MRAM] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021115241/http://www.crocustechnology.com/pdf/BH%20GSA%20Article.pdf |date=21 October 2013 }}. crocustechnology.com and spin-transfer torque (STT).LaPedus, Mark (18 June 2009) [http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1171188 Tower invests in Crocus, tips MRAM foundry deal]. eetimes.com

Another design, racetrack memory, a novel memory architecture proposed by Dr. Stuart S. P. Parkin, encodes information in the direction of magnetization between domain walls of a ferromagnetic wire.

In 2012, persistent spin helices of synchronized electrons were made to persist for more than a nanosecond, a 30-fold increase over earlier efforts, and longer than the duration of a modern processor clock cycle.{{cite journal|author=Walser, M.|author2=Reichl, C.|author3=Wegscheider, W.|author4=Salis, G.|name-list-style=amp |title=Direct mapping of the formation of a persistent spin helix|journal=Nature Physics|doi=10.1038/nphys2383|bibcode = 2012NatPh...8..757W|date=2012|volume=8|issue=10|pages=757 |arxiv=1209.4857|s2cid=119209785}}

Doped semiconductor materials display dilute ferromagnetism. In recent years, dilute magnetic oxides (DMOs) including ZnO based DMOs and TiO₂-based DMOs have been the subject of numerous experimental and computational investigations.{{cite journal| last1=Assadi| first1=M.H.N| last2=Hanaor| first2=D.A.H| title= Theoretical study on copper's energetics and magnetism in TiO₂ polymorphs| journal= Journal of Applied Physics| date=2013| volume=113| issue=23| pages= 233913–233913–5| doi=10.1063/1.4811539|arxiv = 1304.1854 |bibcode = 2013JAP...113w3913A | s2cid=94599250}}{{cite journal| last1=Ogale| first1=S.B| title= Dilute doping, defects, and ferromagnetism in metal oxide systems| journal= Advanced Materials| date=2010| volume=22| issue=29| pages= 3125–3155| doi=10.1002/adma.200903891| pmid=20535732| bibcode=2010AdM....22.3125O| s2cid=25307693}} Non-oxide ferromagnetic semiconductor sources (like manganese-doped gallium arsenide {{chem2|(Ga,Mn)As}}),{{Cite journal | last1 = Jonker | first1 = B. | last2 = Park | first2 = Y. | last3 = Bennett | first3 = B. | last4 = Cheong | first4 = H. | last5 = Kioseoglou | first5 = G. | last6 = Petrou | first6 = A. | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevB.62.8180 | title = Robust electrical spin injection into a semiconductor heterostructure | journal = Physical Review B | volume = 62 | issue = 12 | pages = 8180 | year = 2000 |bibcode = 2000PhRvB..62.8180J }} increase the interface resistance with a tunnel barrier,{{Cite journal | last1 = Hanbicki | first1 = A. T. | last2 = Jonker | first2 = B. T. | last3 = Itskos | first3 = G. | last4 = Kioseoglou | first4 = G. | last5 = Petrou | first5 = A. | title = Efficient electrical spin injection from a magnetic metal/tunnel barrier contact into a semiconductor | doi = 10.1063/1.1449530 | journal = Applied Physics Letters | volume = 80 | issue = 7 | pages = 1240 | year = 2002 |arxiv = cond-mat/0110059 |bibcode = 2002ApPhL..80.1240H | s2cid = 119098659 }} or using hot-electron injection.{{Cite journal | last1 = Jiang | first1 = X. | last2 = Wang | first2 = R. | last3 = Van Dijken | first3 = S. | last4 = Shelby | first4 = R. | last5 = MacFarlane | first5 = R. | last6 = Solomon | first6 = G. | last7 = Harris | first7 = J. | last8 = Parkin | first8 = S. | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.256603 | title = Optical Detection of Hot-Electron Spin Injection into GaAs from a Magnetic Tunnel Transistor Source | journal = Physical Review Letters | volume = 90 | issue = 25 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12857153|bibcode = 2003PhRvL..90y6603J | page=256603}}

Spin detection in semiconductors has been addressed with multiple techniques:

• Faraday/Kerr rotation of transmitted/reflected photons{{Cite journal | last1 = Kikkawa | first1 = J. | last2 = Awschalom | first2 = D. | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.80.4313 | title = Resonant Spin Amplification in n-Type GaAs | journal = Physical Review Letters | volume = 80 | issue = 19 | pages = 4313 | year = 1998 |bibcode = 1998PhRvL..80.4313K }}
• Circular polarization analysis of electroluminescenceJonker, Berend T. [http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/5874749.html Polarized optical emission due to decay or recombination of spin-polarized injected carriers – US Patent 5874749] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091212102246/http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/5874749.html |date=12 December 2009 }}. Issued on 23 February 1999.
• Nonlocal spin valve (adapted from Johnson and Silsbee's work with metals){{Cite journal | last1 = Lou | first1 = X. | last2 = Adelmann | first2 = C. | last3 = Crooker | first3 = S. A. | last4 = Garlid | first4 = E. S. | last5 = Zhang | first5 = J. | last6 = Reddy | first6 = K. S. M. | last7 = Flexner | first7 = S. D. | last8 = Palmstrøm | first8 = C. J. | last9 = Crowell | first9 = P. A. | doi = 10.1038/nphys543 | title = Electrical detection of spin transport in lateral ferromagnet–semiconductor devices | journal = Nature Physics | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages = 197 | year = 2007 |bibcode = 2007NatPh...3..197L | arxiv = cond-mat/0701021 | s2cid = 51390849 }}
• Ballistic spin filtering{{Cite journal | last1 = Appelbaum | first1 = I. | last2 = Huang | first2 = B. | last3 = Monsma | first3 = D. J. | doi = 10.1038/nature05803 | title = Electronic measurement and control of spin transport in silicon | journal = Nature | volume = 447 | issue = 7142 | pages = 295–298 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17507978|arxiv = cond-mat/0703025 |bibcode = 2007Natur.447..295A | s2cid = 4340632 }}

The latter technique was used to overcome the lack of spin-orbit interaction and materials issues to achieve spin transport in silicon.{{Cite journal | last1 = Žutić | first1 = I. | last2 = Fabian | first2 = J. | doi = 10.1038/447269a | title = Spintronics: Silicon twists | journal = Nature | volume = 447 | issue = 7142 | pages = 268–269 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17507969|bibcode = 2007Natur.447..268Z | s2cid = 32830840 | doi-access = free }}

Because external magnetic fields (and stray fields from magnetic contacts) can cause large Hall effects and magnetoresistance in semiconductors (which mimic spin-valve effects), the only conclusive evidence of spin transport in semiconductors is demonstration of spin precession and dephasing in a magnetic field non-collinear to the injected spin orientation, called the Hanle effect.

Applications using spin-polarized electrical injection have shown threshold current reduction and controllable circularly polarized coherent light output.{{Cite journal | last1 = Holub | first1 = M. | last2 = Shin | first2 = J. | last3 = Saha | first3 = D. | last4 = Bhattacharya | first4 = P. | title = Electrical Spin Injection and Threshold Reduction in a Semiconductor Laser | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.98.146603 | journal = Physical Review Letters | volume = 98 | issue = 14 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17501298|bibcode = 2007PhRvL..98n6603H | page=146603}} Examples include semiconductor lasers. Future applications may include a spin-based transistor having advantages over MOSFET devices such as steeper sub-threshold slope.

Magnetic-tunnel transistor: The magnetic-tunnel transistor with a single base layer{{Cite journal | last1 = Van Dijken | first1 = S. | last2 = Jiang | first2 = X. | last3 = Parkin | first3 = S. S. P. | doi = 10.1063/1.1474610 | title = Room temperature operation of a high output current magnetic tunnel transistor | journal = Applied Physics Letters | volume = 80 | issue = 18 | pages = 3364 | year = 2002 |bibcode = 2002ApPhL..80.3364V }} has the following terminals:

• Emitter (FM1): Injects spin-polarized hot electrons into the base.
• Base (FM2): Spin-dependent scattering takes place in the base. It also serves as a spin filter.
• Collector (GaAs): A Schottky barrier is formed at the interface. It only collects electrons that have enough energy to overcome the Schottky barrier, and when states are available in the semiconductor.

The magnetocurrent (MC) is given as:

:$MC\; =\; \backslash frac\{I\_\{c,p\}-I\_\{c,ap\}\}\{I\_\{c,ap\}\}$

And the transfer ratio (TR) is

:$TR\; =\; \backslash frac\{I\_C\}\{I\_E\}$

MTT promises a highly spin-polarized electron source at room temperature.

Antiferromagnetic storage media have been studied as an alternative to ferromagnetism,{{cite web |author=Jungwirth, T. |type=announcement of a physics colloquium at a Bavarian university |date=28 April 2014 |title=Relativistic Approaches to Spintronics with Antiferromagnets |url=http://www.physik.uni-regensburg.de/aktuell/KollSS14/Kolloquium-Jungwirth.pdf |access-date=29 April 2014 |archive-date=29 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429190040/http://www.physik.uni-regensburg.de/aktuell/KollSS14/Kolloquium-Jungwirth.pdf |url-status=dead }} especially since with antiferromagnetic material the bits can be stored as well as with ferromagnetic material. Instead of the usual definition 0 ↔ 'magnetisation upwards', 1 ↔ 'magnetisation downwards', the states can be, e.g., 0 ↔ 'vertically alternating spin configuration' and 1 ↔ 'horizontally-alternating spin configuration'.This corresponds mathematically to the transition from the rotation group SO(3) to its relativistic covering, the "double group" SU(2)).

The main advantages of antiferromagnetic material are:

• insensitivity to data-damaging perturbations by stray fields due to zero net external magnetization;{{cite journal |last1=Jungwirth |first1=T. |last2=Marti |first2=X. |last3=Wadley |first3=P. |last4=Wunderlich |first4=J. |title=Antiferromagnetic spintronics |journal=Nature Nanotechnology |publisher=Springer Nature |volume=11 |issue=3 |year=2016 |issn=1748-3387 |doi=10.1038/nnano.2016.18 |pmid=26936817 |pages=231–241 |arxiv=1509.05296|bibcode=2016NatNa..11..231J |s2cid=5058124 }}
• no effect on near particles, implying that antiferromagnetic device elements would not magnetically disturb its neighboring elements;
• far shorter switching times (antiferromagnetic resonance frequency is in the THz range compared to GHz ferromagnetic resonance frequency);{{cite journal |last1=Gomonay |first1=O. |last2=Jungwirth |first2=T. |last3=Sinova |first3=J. |title=Concepts of antiferromagnetic spintronics |journal=Physica Status Solidi RRL |publisher=Wiley |volume=11 |issue=4 |date=21 February 2017 |issn=1862-6254 |doi=10.1002/pssr.201700022 |page=1700022 |arxiv=1701.06556|bibcode=2017PSSRR..1100022G |s2cid=73575617 }}
• broad range of commonly available antiferromagnetic materials including insulators, semiconductors, semimetals, metals, and superconductors.

Research is being done into how to read and write information to antiferromagnetic spintronics as their net zero magnetization makes this difficult compared to conventional ferromagnetic spintronics. In modern MRAM, detection and manipulation of ferromagnetic order by magnetic fields has largely been abandoned in favor of more efficient and scalable reading and writing by electrical current. Methods of reading and writing information by current rather than fields are also being investigated in antiferromagnets as fields are ineffective anyway. Writing methods currently being investigated in antiferromagnets are through spin-transfer torque and spin-orbit torque from the spin Hall effect and the Rashba effect. Reading information in antiferromagnets via magnetoresistance effects such as tunnel magnetoresistance is also being explored.{{cite journal |last1=Chappert |first1=Claude |last2=Fert |first2=Albert |last3=van Dau |first3=Frédéric Nguyen |title=The emergence of spin electronics in data storage |journal=Nature Materials |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=6 |issue=11 |year=2007 |issn=1476-1122 |doi=10.1038/nmat2024 |pmid=17972936 |pages=813–823 |bibcode=2007NatMa...6..813C|s2cid=21075877 }}

• Stuart S. P. Parkin
• Electric dipole spin resonance
• Josephson effect
• Magnetoresistive random-access memory (MRAM)
• Magnonics
• Potential applications of graphene#Spintronics
• Rashba effect
• Spin pumping
• Spin-transfer torque
• Spinhenge@Home
• Spinmechatronics
• Spinplasmonics
• Unconventional computing
• Valleytronics
• List of emerging technologies
• Multiferroics

{{reflist}}

• "Introduction to Spintronics". Marc Cahay, Supriyo Bandyopadhyay, CRC Press, {{ISBN|0-8493-3133-1}}
• {{cite journal|title=Ultrafast Manipulation of Electron Spin Coherence|journal=Science|date=29 June 2001|volume=292|issue=5526|pages=2458–2461|doi=10.1126/science.1061169|author=J. A. Gupta|author2=R. Knobel|author3=N. Samarth|author4=D. D. Awschalom|bibcode = 2001Sci...292.2458G|pmid=11431559 |s2cid=22898874}}
• {{cite journal|last1=Wolf|first1=S. A.|title=Spintronics: A Spin-Based Electronics Vision for the Future|journal=Science|date=16 November 2001|volume=294|issue=5546|pages=1488–1495|doi=10.1126/science.1065389|bibcode = 2001Sci...294.1488W|pmid=11711666|first2=DD|last3=Buhrman|first3=RA|last4=Daughton|first4=JM|last5=von Molnár|first5=S|last6=Roukes|first6=ML|last7=Chtchelkanova|first7=AY|last8=Treger|first8=DM |last2=Awschalom|s2cid=14010432}}
• {{cite journal|last=Sharma|first=P.|title=How to Create a Spin Current|journal=Science|date=28 January 2005|volume=307|issue=5709|pages=531–533|doi=10.1126/science.1099388|pmid=15681374|s2cid=118636399|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230880}}
• {{cite book|editor1=Tomasz Dietl |editor2=David D. Awschalom |editor3=Maria Kaminska |display-editors = 3 |editor4=Hideo Ohno |date=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHmM9Hz_kLIC |title=Spintronics |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=9780080914213}}
• {{Cite journal | last1 = Žutić | first1 = I. | last2 = Das Sarma | first2 = S. | doi = 10.1103/RevModPhys.76.323 | title = Spintronics: Fundamentals and applications | journal = Reviews of Modern Physics | volume = 76 | issue = 2 | pages = 323–410 | year = 2004 |arxiv = cond-mat/0405528 |bibcode = 2004RvMP...76..323Z | s2cid = 119398474 }}
• {{cite journal |title=SPIN |url=http://www.worldscinet.com/spin/spin.shtml

|editor=Parkin, Stuart

|editor2=Ching-Ray, Chang

|editor3=Chantrell, Roy

|date=2011 |publisher=World Scientific |issn=2010-3247}}

• [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160517200502/http://news.usf.edu/article/templates/?a=4449&z=123 "Spintronics Steps Forward."], University of South Florida News
• {{Cite journal | last1 = Bader | first1 = S. D. | last2 = Parkin | first2 = S. S. P. | doi = 10.1146/annurev-conmatphys-070909-104123 | title = Spintronics | journal = Annual Review of Condensed Matter Physics | volume = 1 | pages = 71–88 | year = 2010 |bibcode = 2010ARCMP...1...71B | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1234951 }}

• [https://www.nature.com/collections/idgejiafca/ 23 milestones in the history of spin compiled by Nature]
• [https://www.nature.com/articles/milespin18 Milestone 18: A Giant Leap for Electronics: Giant Magneto-resistance, compiled by Nature]
• [https://www.nature.com/articles/milespin20 Milestone 20: Information in a Spin: Datta-Das, compiled by Nature]
• {{cite journal

|title=Spintronics

|journal=Scientific American

|volume=286

|issue=6

|pages=66–73

|date=June 2002|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0602-66

|last1=Awschalom

|first1=David D.

|last2=Flatté

|first2=Michael E.

|last3=Samarth

|first3=Nitin

|pmid=12030093

|bibcode=2002SciAm.286f..66A

}}

• [http://www.spintronics-info.com/ Spintronics portal with news and resources]
• [http://www.informationweek.com/news/internet/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=207200184 RaceTrack:InformationWeek (April 11, 2008)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080414171305/http://www.informationweek.com/news/internet/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=207200184 |date=14 April 2008 }}
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929095850/http://www.eetimes.com/news/semi/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=191504070 Spintronics research targets GaAs.]
• [http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/materials-science/alternative-energy-materials/magnetic-materials/tutorial/spintronics.html Spintronics Tutorial ]
• Lecture on Spin transport by S. Datta (from Datta Das transistor)—[https://web.archive.org/web/20100501232833/http://nanohub.org/resources/5269 Part 1] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20100503010649/http://nanohub.org/resources/5270 Part 2]

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{{emerging technologies|topics=yes|electronics=yes}}

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