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Stachybotrys

{{Short description|Genus of fungi}}

{{Other uses|Black mold (disambiguation)}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}

{{Automatic taxobox

| image = 2009-05-09 Stachybotrys chartarum (Ehrenb.) S. Hughes 43158.jpg

| image_caption = Conidiophores of Stachybotrys chartarum with clusters of phlialides

| taxon = Stachybotrys

| authority = Corda (1837)

| type_species = Stachybotrys atrus

| type_species_authority = Corda (1837)

| subdivision_ranks = Species

| subdivision = ~ 50, see text

| synonyms_ref =

| synonyms = *Synsporium {{au|Preuss (1849)}}

  • Fuckelina {{au|Sacc. (1875)}}
  • Gliobotrys {{au|Höhn. (1902)}}
  • Hyalobotrys {{au|Pidopl. (1948)}}
  • Hyalostachybotrys {{au|Sriniv. (1958)}}
  • Ornatispora {{au|K.D.Hyde (1999)}}

}}

Stachybotrys ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|s|t|æ|k|i|ˈ|b|ɒ|t|r|ɪ|s}}) is a genus of molds, hyphomycetes or asexually reproducing, filamentous fungi, now placed in the family Stachybotryaceae. The genus was erected by August Carl Joseph Corda in 1837. Historically, it was considered closely related to the genus Memnoniella,{{cite journal|last1=Haugland|first1=Richard A.|last2=Vesper|first2=Stephen J.|last3=Harmon|first3=Stephen M.|date=January–February 2001|title=Phylogenetic relationships of Memnoniella and Stachybotrys species and evaluation of morphological features for Memnoniella species identification|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1235157|url-status=live|journal=Mycologia|volume=93|issue=1|pages=54–65|doi=10.2307/3761605 |jstor=3761605 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719045835/https://zenodo.org/record/1235157/files/article.pdf |archive-date=19 July 2018|via=Zenodo}}{{cite journal|last1=Castlebury|first1=Lisa A.|last2=Rossman|first2=Amy Y.|last3=Sung|first3=Gi-Ho|last4=Hyten|first4=Aimee S.|last5=Spatafora|first5=Joseph W.|date=August 2004|title=Multigene phylogeny reveals new lineage for Stachybotrys chartarum, the indoor air fungus|url=http://cordyceps.us/files/Castlebury_etal_2004.pdf|url-status=live|journal=Mycological Research|volume=108|issue=8|pages=864–72|doi=10.1017/S0953756204000607 |pmid=15449591 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191103022731/http://cordyceps.us/files/Castlebury_etal_2004.pdf |archive-date=3 November 2019}} because the spores are produced in slimy heads rather than in dry chains. Recently, the synonymy of the two genera is generally accepted.{{cite book|title=The Genera of Hyphomycetes|author=Seifert|first1=Keith A.|last2=Gams|first2=Gareth|last3=Morgan-Jones|first3=Walter|last4=Kendrick|first4=Bryce|publisher=CBS Fungal Biodiversity Centre|year=2011|isbn=978-90-70351-85-4|series=CBS Biodiversity Series|location=Utrecht, the Netherlands|pages=1–997|issn=1571-8859}} Most Stachybotrys species inhabit materials rich in cellulose. The genus has a widespread distribution and contained about 50 species in 2008.{{cite book|title=Dictionary of the Fungi|publisher=CABI|year=2008|isbn=978-0-85199-826-8|editor-last=Paul M.|editor-first=Kirk|edition=10th|location=Wallingford|page=659|lccn=2009285939|editor-last2=Cannon|editor-first2=Paul F.|editor-last3=Minter|editor-first3=David W.|editor-last4=Stalpers|editor-first4=Joost A.}} There are 88 records of Stachybotrys on Species Fungorum (in 2023), of which 33 species have DNA sequence data in GenBank. Species in the genus are commonly found in soil, plant litter (hay, straw, cereal grains, and decaying plant debris) and air and a few species have been found from damp paper, cotton, linen, cellulose-based building materials water-damaged indoor buildings, and air ducts from both aquatic and terrestrial habitats (Izabel et al. 2010;{{cite journal |last1=Izabel |first1=T.D.S.S. |last2=Cruz |first2=A.C.R.D. |last3=Barbosa |first3=F.R. |last4=Ferreira |first4=S.M.L. |last5=Marques |first5=M.F.O. |last6=Gusmão |first6=L.F.P. |title=The genus Stachybotrys anamorphic fungi) in the semi-arid region of Brazil. |journal=Rev. Bras. Bot. |date=2010 |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=479–487|doi=10.1590/S0100-84042010000300010 |doi-access=free }} Lombard et al. 2016;{{cite journal |last1=Lombard |first1=L. |last2=Houbraken |first2=J. |last3=Decock |first3=C. |last4=Samson |first4=R.A. |last5=Meijer |first5=M. |last6=Réblová |first6=M. |last7=Groenewald |first7=J.Z. |last8=Crous |first8=P.W. |title=Generic hyper-diversity in Stachybotriaceae. |journal=Persoonia – Molecular Phylogeny and Evolution of Fungi |date=2016 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=156–246|doi=10.3767/003158516X691582 |pmid=27616791 |pmc=4988370 }} Hyde et al. 2020a).{{cite journal |last1=Hyde |first1=Kevin D. |last2=Norphanphoun |first2=C. |last3=Maharachchikumbura |first3=S.S.N. |last4=Bhat |first4=D.J. |last5=Jones |first5=E.B.G. |last6=Bundhun |first6=D. |last7=Chen |first7=Y.J. |last8=Bao |first8=D.F. |last9=Boonmee |first9=S. |last10=Calabon |first10=M.S. |last11=Chaiwan |first11=N. |last12=Chethana |first12=K.W.T. |last13=Dai |first13=D.Q. |last14=Dayarathne |first14=M.C. |last15=Devadatha |first15=B. |last16=Dissanayake |first16=A.J. |last17=Dissanayake |first17=L.S. |last18=Doilom |first18=M. |last19=Dong |first19=W. |last20=Fan |first20=X.L. |last21=Goonasekara |first21=I.D. |last22=Hongsanan |first22=S. |last23=Huang |first23=S.K. |last24=Jayawardena |first24=R.S. |last25=Jeewon |first25=R. |last26=Karunarathna |first26=A. |last27=Konta |first27=S. |last28=Kumar |first28=V. |last29=Lin |first29=C.G. |last30=Liu |first30=J.K. |last31=Liu |first31=N.G. |last32=Luangsa-ard |first32=J. |last33=Lumyong |first33=S. |last34=Luo |first34=Z.L. |last35=Marasinghe |first35=D.S. |last36=McKenzie |first36=E.H.C. |last37=Niego |first37=A.G.T. |last38=Niranjan |first38=M. |last39=Perera |first39=R.H. |last40=Phukhamsakda |first40=C. |last41=Rathnayaka |first41=A.R. |last42=Samarakoon |first42=M.C. |last43=Samarakoon |first43=S.M.B.C. |last44=Sarma |first44=V.V. |last45=Senanayake |first45=I.C. |last46=Shang |first46=Q.J. |last47=Stadler |first47=M. |last48=Tibpromma |first48=S. |last49=Wanasinghe |first49=D.N. |last50=Wei |first50=D.P. |last51=Wijayawardene |first51=N.N. |last52=Xiao |first52=Y.P. |last53=Yang |first53=J. |last54=Zeng |first54=X.Y. |last55=Zhang |first55=S.N. |last56=Xiang |first56=M.M. |title=Refined families of Sordariomycetes. |journal=Mycosphere |date=2020 |volume=11 |pages=305–1059 |doi=10.5943/mycosphere/11/1/7|s2cid=219808477 |hdl=10033/622756 |hdl-access=free }}

The name of Stachybotrys is derived from the Greek words σταχυς stakhus (ear of grain, stalk, stick; metaphorically, progeny) and βότρυς botrus (cluster or bunch as in grapes, trusses).

The most infamous species, Stachybotrys chartarum (previously known as Stachybotrys atra) and Stachybotrys chlorohalonata, are known as black mold or toxic black mold in the U.S., and are frequently associated with poor indoor air quality that arises after fungal growth on water-damaged building materials.{{cite journal|author=Nielsen|first=Kristian Fog|date=July 2003|title=Mycotoxin production by indoor molds|url=https://realtimelab.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/11.-Mycotoxin-production-by-indoor-molds.pdf|url-status=live|journal=Fungal Genetics and Biology|volume=39|issue=2|pages=103–17|doi=10.1016/S1087-1845(03)00026-4|pmid=12781669|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410001452/https://realtimelab.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/11.-Mycotoxin-production-by-indoor-molds.pdf|archive-date=10 April 2017}} Stachybotrys chemotypes are toxic, with one producing trichothecene mycotoxins including satratoxins, and another that produces atranones.{{cite journal|last1=Andersen|first1=Birgitte|last2=Nielsen|first2=Kristian F.|last3=Thrane|first3=Ulf|last4=Szaro|first4=Tim|last5=Taylor|first5=John W.|last6=Jarvis|first6=Bruce B.|year=2003|title=Molecular and phenotypic descriptions of Stachybotrys chlorohalonata sp. nov. and two chemotypes of Stachybotrys chartarum found in water-damaged buildings|url=https://nature.berkeley.edu/brunslab/papers/andersen2003.pdf|url-status=live|journal=Mycologia|volume=95|issue=6|pages=1227–38|doi=10.1080/15572536.2004.11833031|pmid=21149024|s2cid=203881222|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917071455/https://nature.berkeley.edu/brunslab/papers/andersen2003.pdf|archive-date=17 September 2018|via=the University of California Berkeley}} However, the association of Stachybotrys mold with specific health conditions is not well proven and there exists a debate within the scientific community.{{cite journal |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1744666X.2017.1324298|doi=10.1080/1744666X.2017.1324298|title=Mold allergy: Is it real and what do we do about it?|year=2017|last1=Rudert|first1=Amanda|last2=Portnoy|first2=Jay|journal=Expert Review of Clinical Immunology|volume=13|issue=8|pages=823–835|pmid=28453304|s2cid=4755858|url-access=subscription}}{{cite journal |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31608429/|pmid=31608429|year=2019|last1=Chang|first1=C.|last2=Gershwin|first2=M. E.|title=The Myth of Mycotoxins and Mold Injury|journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology|volume=57|issue=3|pages=449–455|doi=10.1007/s12016-019-08767-4|s2cid=204458646}}{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mold/control_mold.htm|title=You Can Control Mold | CDC|date=17 May 2021}}

Conidia

Conidia are in slimy masses, smooth to coarsely rough, dark olivaceous to brownish black, obovoid, later becoming ellipsoid with age, 10–13 × 5–7 mm. Phialides are obovate or ellipsoidal, colorless early then turning to olivaceous with maturity, smooth, 12–14 × 5–7 mm, in clusters of 5 to 9 phialides. Conidiophores are simple, erect, smooth to rough, colorless to olivaceous, slightly enlarged apically, mostly unbranched but occasionally branched. Conidia of Stachybotrys are very characteristic and can be confidently identified in spore count samples. This genus is closely related to Memnoniella. Species of Memnoniella may occasionally develop Stachybotrys-like conidia, and vice versa.{{Citation|last=Morey|first=Philip R.|title=Microbiological Sampling Strategies in Indoor Environments|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470112434.ch3|work=Sampling and Analysis of Indoor Microorganisms|year=2007|pages=51–74|place=Hoboken, NJ, USA|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|doi=10.1002/9780470112434.ch3|isbn=978-0-470-11243-4|access-date=27 October 2020|url-access=subscription}}

Detection

Four distinctive microbial volatile organic compounds (MVOCs) – 1-butanol, 3-methyl-1-butanol, 3-methyl-2-butanol, and thujopsene – were detected on rice cultures, and only one (1-butanol) was detected on gypsum board cultures.{{cite journal|last1=Gao|first1=Pengfei|last2=Martin|first2=Jennifer|date=June 2002|title=Volatile metabolites produced by three strains of Stachybotrys chartarum cultivated on rice and gypsum board|journal=Applied Occupational and Environmental Hygiene|volume=17|issue=6|pages=430–6|doi=10.1080/10473220290035462|pmid=12049433|id=NIOSHTIC No. 20022270}}

Pathogenicity

File:Stachybotrys Spores.jpg

=Symptoms of ''Stachybotrys'' exposure in humans=

A controversy began in the early 1990s after analysis of two infant deaths and multiple cases in children from the poor areas of Cleveland, Ohio, United States, due to pulmonary hemorrhage were initially linked to exposure to heavy amounts of Stachybotrys chartarum. Subsequent and extensive reanalysis of the cases by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have failed to find any link between the deaths and the mold exposure.{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/mold/aiphicasedef.htm|title=Case Definition for Acute Idiopathic Pulmonary Hemorrhage in Infants|publisher=National Center for Environmental Health|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011115003239/https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/asthma/acute/AIPHIcasedef.htm|archive-date=15 November 2001}}{{Cite journal|last=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|author-link=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|date=10 March 2000|title=Update: Pulmonary Hemorrhage/Hemosiderosis Among Infants — Cleveland, Ohio, 1993–1996|url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm4909a3.htm|url-status=live|journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report|volume=49|issue=9|pages=180–4|pmid=11795499|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520232605/https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm4909a3.htm|archive-date=20 May 2016}}

Species

As accepted by Species Fungorum (as of July 2023);{{cite web |title=Species Fungorum – Search Page – Stachybotrys |url=https://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/Names.asp |website=www.speciesfungorum.org |access-date=20 July 2023}}

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See also

{{Portal|Fungi}}

References

Notes

{{Reflist|refs=

{{cite web |title=Synonymy. Current Name: Stachybotrys Corda, Icon. fung. (Prague) 1: 21 (1837) |url=http://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/SynSpecies.asp?RecordID=10052 |publisher=Species Fungorum |access-date=19 November 2022}}

}}

Further reading

  • {{Cite book|title=Black Mold: Your Health and Your Home|last=Progovitz|first=Richard F.|publisher=The Forager Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-9743943-9-8}}

External links

{{Commons category|Stachybotrys}}

  • {{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mold/stachy.htm |title=Facts about Stachybotrys chartarum and Other Molds |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191101164909/https://www.cdc.gov/mold/stachy.htm|archive-date=1 November 2019|url-status=live}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q625873}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Hypocreales genera

Category:Environmental toxicology

Category:Stachybotryaceae

Category:Taxa named by August Carl Joseph Corda

Category:Taxa described in 1837