Swietenia macrophylla

{{Speciesbox

| image = Big-leaved Mahogany.jpg

| image_caption =

| status = EN

| status_system = IUCN3.1

| status_ref ={{cite iucn |author=Barstow, M. & Negrão, R. |date=2023 |title=Swietenia macrophylla |volume=2023 |page=e.T32293A68104718 |access-date=12 December 2023}}

| genus = Swietenia

| species = macrophylla

| authority = King

| range_map = Historic_distribution_big-leaf_mahogany.jpg

| range_map_alt = Historic range of big-leaf mahogany in South America

| range_map_caption = Historic range of big-leaf mahogany in South America

| range_map2 = Current_range_of_big-leaf_mahogany_in_South_America.jpg

| range_map2_alt = Current range of big-leaf mahogany in South America

| range_map2_caption = Current range of big-leaf mahogany in South America

| synonyms =

{{Plainlist | style = margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; |

Swietenia belizensis Lundell
Swietenia candollei Pittier
Swietenia krukovii Gleason
Swietenia macrophylla var. marabaensis Ledoux & Lobato
Swietenia tessmannii Harms

}}

| synonyms_ref = {{cite web|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-2601504|title=The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species|access-date=20 December 2014|archive-date=27 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060552/http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-2601504|url-status=live}}

}}

Swietenia macrophylla, commonly known as mahogany,{{GRIN | access-date=5 November 2014}} Honduran mahogany, Honduras mahogany,{{PLANTS|id=SWMA|taxon=Swietenia macrophylla|access-date=4 December 2015}} or big-leaf mahogany{{Cite web |title=Home |url=http://www.swietking.org/ |website=Swietking |publisher=SwietKing Research |first=Chris |last=Free |year=2012 |access-date=29 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121122443/http://www.swietking.org/ |archive-date=21 January 2022 |url-status=usurped}} is a species of plant in the Meliaceae family. It is one of three species that yields genuine mahogany timber (Swietenia), the others being Swietenia mahagoni and Swietenia humilis. It is native to South America, Mexico and Central America, but naturalized in the Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia and Hawaii,{{cite journal | last=Cernansky | first=Rachel | title = How to plant a trillion trees | language = EN | journal = Nature | volume = 560 | issue = 7720 | pages = 542–544 | date = August 2018 | pmid = 30158623 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-018-06031-x | bibcode = 2018Natur.560..542C | s2cid = 52120407 | doi-access = free | issn=0028-0836}} and cultivated in plantations and wind-breaks elsewhere.{{cite book |page=57 |vauthors=Elevitch CR, Wilkinson KM |year=2000 |title=Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands |publisher=Permanent Agriculture Resources |isbn=9780970254405 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sHU_902_pIYC}}

Description

= Wood =

Mahogany wood is strong and is usually a source for furniture, musical instruments, ships, doors, coffins, decors.{{Cite web|url=https://www.frim.gov.my/colour-of-frim/swietenia-macrophylla-big-leaf-mahogany/|title=Swietenia macrophylla: Big-leaf mahogany|last=admin|website=Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM)|language=en-US|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227061622/https://www.frim.gov.my/colour-of-frim/swietenia-macrophylla-big-leaf-mahogany/|url-status=live}}

= Leaves =

Mahogany is characterised by its large leaves, up to 45 cm (17 in) long. The leaflets are even in number and are connected by a central midrib.

= Fruits =

The fruits are called "sky fruits" because of its upwards growth towards the sky.{{Cite journal|doi=10.3390/molecules180910465|title=Biological Activities and Phytochemicals of Swietenia macrophylla King|year=2013|last1=Moghadamtousi|first1=Soheil|last2=Goh|first2=Bey|last3=Chan|first3=Chim|last4=Shabab|first4=Tara|last5=Kadir|first5=Habsah|journal=Molecules|volume=18|issue=9|pages=10465–10483|pmid=23999722|pmc=6270564|doi-access=free}} The fruits of mahogany can be measure to 40 cm (15.7 in) in length, in a light grey to brown capsule. Each fruit capsule could contain 71 winged seeds.

= Seeds =

The seeds of mahogany can reach 7 to 12 cm (2.7 to 4.7 in) long.

Timber

Unlike mahogany sourced from its native locations, plantation mahogany grown in Asia is not restricted in trade. The mahogany timber grown in these Asian plantations is the major source of international trade in genuine mahogany today. The Asian countries which grow the majority of Swietenia macrophylla are India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Fiji, Philippines, Singapore, and some others, with India and Fiji being the major world suppliers. The tree is also planted in Laos PDR.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}

Medicinal use

It was scientifically studied for its various biological activities. A detailed mechanism of action of apoptotic inducing effect on HCT116 human cancer cell line was elucidated.{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1016/j.jep.2014.02.036|title = Swietenia macrophylla King induces mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis through p53 upregulation in HCT116 colorectal carcinoma cells|year = 2014|last1 = Goh|first1 = Bey Hing|last2 = Chan|first2 = Chim Kei|last3 = Kamarudin|first3 = Muhamad Noor Alfarizal|last4 = Abdul Kadir|first4 = Habsah|journal = Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume = 153|issue = 2|pages = 375–385|pmid = 24613274}} Through solvent extraction and fractionation done on seeds of Swietenia macrophylla, the ethyl acetate fraction (SMEAF) was further examined for its neuroprotective activity and acute toxicity effects.{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jsps.2016.05.002|title=Acute toxicity profiling of the ethyl acetate fraction of Swietenia macrophylla seeds and in - vitro neuroprotection studies|year=2017|last1=Sayyad|first1=Mustak|last2=Tiang|first2=Ning|last3=Kumari|first3=Yatinesh|last4=Goh|first4=Bey Hing|last5=Jaiswal|first5=Yogini|last6=Rosli|first6=Rozita|last7=Williams|first7=Leonard|last8=Shaikh|first8=Mohd Farooq|journal=Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal|volume=25|issue=2|pages=196–205|pmid=28344469|pmc=5355560}} Various purified compounds derived from Swietenia macrophylla were further examined and was revealed to possesses potent PPARγ binding activity which might capable of stimulating glucose uptake in muscle cells.{{Cite journal|doi=10.3390/molecules201219847|title=Potent PPARγ Ligands from Swietenia macrophylla Are Capable of Stimulating Glucose Uptake in Muscle Cells|year=2015|last1=Lau|first1=Wai|last2=Goh|first2=Bey|last3=Kadir|first3=Habsah|last4=Shu-Chien|first4=Alexander|last5=Tengku Muhammad|first5=Tengku|journal=Molecules|volume=20|issue=12|pages=22301–22314|pmid=26703529|pmc=6332226|doi-access=free}}

The ethyl acetate fraction from the seeds of Swietenia macrophylla (SMEAF) was studied for anti-inflammatory properties using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced BV-2 microglia. SMEAF significantly attenuated the LPS-induced production of nitric oxide (NO), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). SMEAF inhibited nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) via the attenuation of IκBα phosphorylation. Moreover, SMEAF markedly suppressed phosphorylation of Akt, p38 Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) in LPS-induced BV-2 cells. Treatment with specific inhibitors for Akt, NF-κB, p38 and ERK1/2 resulted in the attenuation of iNOS and COX-2 protein expression. These findings indicated that SMEAF possesses anti-inflammatory activities in BV-2 cells by modulating LPS-induced pro-inflammatory mediator production via the inhibition of Akt-dependent NF-κB, p38 MAPK and ERK1/2 activation. These results further advocate the potential use of S. macrophylla as nutraceutical for the intervention of neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory disorders.{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1016/j.jff.2015.05.042|title = SMEAF attenuates the production of pro-inflammatory mediators through the inactivation of Akt-dependent NF-κB, p38 and ERK1/2 pathways in LPS-stimulated BV-2 microglial cells|year = 2015|last1 = Supriady|first1 = Hadi|last2 = Kamarudin|first2 = Muhamad Noor Alfarizal|last3 = Chan|first3 = Chim Kei|last4 = Goh|first4 = Bey Hing|last5 = Kadir|first5 = Habsah Abdul|journal = Journal of Functional Foods|volume = 17|pages = 434–448}}

There are also claims of its ability to improve blood circulation and skin condition, as well as anti-erectile dysfunction.{{Cite web|url=http://nbrienvis.nic.in/|title=Home: ENVIS-Center of NBRI on Plants and Pollution|website=nbrienvis.nic.in|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060318/http://nbrienvis.nic.in/|url-status=live}}

However, there are reports of liver injury or hepatotoxicity after consumption of Mahogany Seeds both in raw form{{Cite journal|last1=Ming Fock|first1=Kwong|last2=Kiong Teo|first2=Eng|last3=Vasudevan|first3=Archana|last4=Wah Soe|first4=Wint|last5=Yee Leong|first5=Wai|last6=Joanna|date=2018-09-01|title=42. Consumption of Swietenia macrophylla seeds can lead to hepatitis and autoimmune phenomena|url=https://academic.oup.com/rheumap/article/2/suppl_1/rky034.005/5104012|journal=Rheumatology Advances in Practice|language=en|volume=2|issue=suppl_1|doi=10.1093/rap/rky034.005|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024|access-date=2019-06-08|archive-date=2019-06-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190611083401/https://academic.oup.com/rheumap/article/2/suppl_1/rky034.005/5104012|url-status=live}} and raw seeds grind and pack in capsule form.{{cite web | work = Health Sciences Authority Press Release | date = 11 December 2018

| title = HSA Updates on Reports of Liver Injury After Consumption of Mahogany Seeds (Sky Fruit) | url = https://www.hsa.gov.sg/content/dam/HSA/News_and_Events/Press_Releases/2018/HSA%20PR_Mahogany%20seeds_final.pdf }} The severity of liver damage varies. There are also the report of single case kidney injury and polyarthralgia. In most cases, the liver function was recovered after stopping the consumption. The exact mechanism of these adverse events is currently unknown.{{Cite web|url=https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201902/26/P2019022600720.htm|title=CHP investigates suspected cases of hepatotoxicity after consumption of sky fruit seeds and related products|website=www.info.gov.hk|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226234206/https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201902/26/P2019022600720.htm|url-status=live}}

These cases that happened are the first reports of Swietenia Macrophylla seeds’ association with liver injury. This may also due to over dosage and consumption of contaminated raw seeds which are never been thoroughly investigated. Based on acute oral toxicity studies of Swietenia Macrophylla seeds, the consumption of Swietenia Macrophylla by humans is safe if the dose is less than 325 mg/kg body weight. The usual dose of Swietenia Macrophylla prescribed in Malaysian folk-lore medicine is one seed per day.{{cite journal | last1=Balijepalli|first1=Madhu Katyayani|last2=Suppaiah|first2=Velan|last3=Chin|first3=An-me|last4=Buru|first4=Ayuba Sunday|last5=Sagineedu|first5=Sreenivasa Rao|last6=Pichika|first6=Mallikarjuna Rao | title = Acute oral toxicity studies of Swietenia macrophylla seeds in Sprague Dawley rats | journal = Pharmacognosy Research | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 38–44 | date = 2015 | pmid = 25598633 | pmc = 4285647 | doi = 10.4103/0974-8490.147197 | issn=0976-4836 |doi-access=free }}

Population genetics

Mesoamerican rainforest populations show higher structure than in the Amazon.{{cite journal | last1=Pennington | first1=R. Toby | last2=Lavin | first2=Matt | last3=Oliveira-Filho | first3=Ary | title=Woody Plant Diversity, Evolution, and Ecology in the Tropics: Perspectives from Seasonally Dry Tropical Forests | journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics | publisher=Annual Reviews | volume=40 | issue=1 | year=2009 | issn=1543-592X | doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.110308.120327 | pages=437–457}}

Common names

The species is also known under other common names, including bastard mahogany,{{Cite web |url=http://www.flowersofindia.net/catalog/slides/Big-Leaf%20Mahogany.html |title=Flowers of India: Big-leaf mahogany |access-date=2015-07-12 |archive-date=2015-05-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150523103443/http://flowersofindia.net/catalog/slides/Big-Leaf%20Mahogany.html |url-status=live }} broad-leaved mahogany, Brazilian mahogany, large-leaved mahogany, genuine mahogany, tropical American mahogany, and sky fruit, among others.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

English - big leaf mahogany, large-leaved mahogany, Brazilian mahogany
French - {{lang|fr|italic=no|acajou à grandes feuilles, acajou du Honduras}}
Spanish - {{lang|es|italic=no|caoba, mara, mogno}}
Malayalam - {{Transliteration|ml|italic=no|mahagony}}
Tamil - {{Transliteration|ta|italic=no|Thenkani}} (தேன்கனி)
Telugu - {{Transliteration|tl|italic=no|mahagani, peddakulamaghani}}
Sinhala - {{Transliteration|si|italic=no|mahogani}} (මහෝගනි)

File:Mahogany trees in Bangladesh.jpg|Mahogany trees

Image:Young tree I IMG 8665.jpg|Young tree

Image:Young Bark I IMG 8669.jpg|Young Bark

Image:Old Bark & leaves I IMG 8671.jpg|Old Bark and leaves

Image:Fruit with leaves at Branch Canopy I IMG 8673.jpg|Fruit with leaves

Image:Swietenia macrophylla at Kadavoor.jpg|Bark pattern on mahogany tree.

Image:Mahogany seed.JPG|Mahogany seed.

Image:Swietenia macrophylla wood.jpg|Wood

Image:Mahogany historic range lamb.jpg|Historic distribution of mahogany from Mexico to southeastern Amazonia according to Lamb (1966). From Martinez et al. 2008.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

Image:Historic distribution big-leaf mahogany.jpg|Revised historic distribution of mahogany in South America based on expert surveys. From Martinez et al. 2008.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

Image:Mahogany historic range mexico.png|Historic distribution of mahogany in Mexico and Central America. From Calvo et al. 2000.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

File:大葉桃花心木 Swietenia macrophylla 20210327101510 02.jpg|Green leaves turn red.

File:Swietenia macrophylla.jpg|Swietenia macrophylla