Symplocarpus foetidus

{{Speciesbox

| name = Eastern skunk cabbage

| image = SKUNKCABBAGE-MOSS-400X575.jpg

| image_caption = Skunk cabbage in early spring

| genus = Symplocarpus

| species = foetidus

| authority = (L.) Salisb. ex W.P.C.Barton{{r|IPNI:1149384-2}}

| status = LC

| status_system = IUCN3.1

| status_ref = {{cite iucn|author=Maiz-Tome, L.|year=2016|title=Symplocarpus foetidus|page=e.T64325342A67731102|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T64325342A67731102.en|access-date=29 May 2023}}

| status2 = G5

| status2_system = TNC

| status2_ref = {{cite web |title=NatureServe Explorer 2.0 |url=https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.145721/Symplocarpus_foetidus |website=explorer.natureserve.org |access-date=31 October 2022 |language=en}}

| synonyms_ref = [http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/synonomy.do?name_id=198911 Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]

| synonyms =

Dracontium foetidum L.
Spathyema foetida (L.)Raf.
Pothos foetidus (L.) Aiton
Ictodes foetidus (L.) Bigelow
Pothos putorii Barton
Spathyema angusta Raf.
Spathyema lanceolata Raf.
Spathyema latifolia Raf.
Symplocarpus foetidus f. variegatus Otsuka

}}

Symplocarpus foetidus, commonly known as skunk cabbage[http://plants.usda.gov/java/nameSearch?keywordquery=Symplocarpus+foetidus&mode=sciname&submit.x=0&submit.y=0 USDA PLANTS Database: S. foetidus] or eastern skunk cabbage (also swamp cabbage, clumpfoot cabbage, or meadow cabbage, foetid pothos or polecat weed), is a low-growing plant that grows in wetlands and moist hill slopes of eastern North America. Bruised leaves present an odor reminiscent of skunk.

Symplocarpus combines the Greek word symploce, meaning "connection" and carpos, meaning "fruit", to indicate that the plant has a compound fruit.{{Cite web |last=Stritch |first=Larry |title=Eastern Skunk Cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus (L.) Salisb. Ex W.P.C. Barton) |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/wildflowers/plant-of-the-week/symplocarpus_foetidus.shtml |access-date=31 March 2023}}{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Katherine A. |title=A Botanical Study of Skunk Cabbage, Symplocarpus Foetidus |date=1919 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40595977 |journal=Torreya |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=21–29 |jstor=40595977 |issn=0096-3844}} {{PD-notice}}

Linnaeus gave the plant its species name of foetidus, Latin for "bad-smelling".{{Cite web |title=Skunk Cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus) - Ontario Wildflowers |url=http://ontariowildflowers.com/main/species.php?id=105 |access-date=2022-12-03 |website=ontariowildflowers.com}} The plant produces a strong odor, which is repulsive to many but sometimes described as smelling like "fresh cabbage with a slight suggestion of mustard". The odor increases in intensity over time, as the plant matures, likely due to increased ripeness in the plant's stamens.

Description

The plant grows from a thick rhizome, typically measuring {{convert|30|cm|ft|abbr=on}}. It has leaves that are large, each {{cvt|40|–|55|cm|in}} long and {{cvt|30|–|40|cm|in}} wide. Blooming early in the spring, just its blossoms can be seen above the mud.

The plant is generally pulled back into the earth as it develops every year. The roots permanently wrinkle up due to their contractile activity. Particularly towards the top or older end of older roots, these marks or wrinkles have an odd ring-like appearance. As time elapses the entire stem is buried below ground and the plant becomes practically impossible to dig up.

The spathe, which is {{convert|10|–|15|cm|in|abbr=on}} tall and comes in a variety of colours, contains a spadix that is {{convert|5|–|10|cm|in|abbr=on}} long in which the flowers reside. While older spathes develop a darker general color with purple smears, younger spathes have a yellowish-green color.{{Cite journal |last=Kevan |first=P. G. |date=1989 |title=How honey bees forage for pollen at skunk cabbage, Symplocarpus fœtidus (Araceae) |journal=Apidologie |language=fr |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=485–490 |doi=10.1051/apido:19890604 |issn=0044-8435|doi-access=free }} Due to thermogenic properties, spathes can melt the surrounding ice in a circle around the spathe.{{Cite web |title=Skunk Cabbage |url=https://www.natureinstitute.org/article/craig-holdrege/skunk-cabbage |access-date=2022-12-11 |website=The Nature Institute |language=en-US}} The spathes are hood-like or shell-like in shape. Their mottling closely mimics the fluttering lights and hues frequently observed on underbrush as the sun passes through the leaves of the trees above. On the forest floor, this usually makes it difficult to observe them.

Eastern skunk cabbage flowers have both male and female reproductive organs, making them perfect. Dichogamy, or the division of gender expression into two temporal periods, is a common feature of blooming plants and serves to avoid self-fertilization. Because the flowers are protogynous, the pistils, which are the female reproductive components, reach sexual maturity before the male parts do (stamens).{{Cite journal |last=Knutson |first=Roger M. |date=1974-11-22 |title=Heat Production and Temperature Regulation in Eastern Skunk Cabbage |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.186.4165.746 |journal=Science |volume=186 |issue=4165 |pages=746–747 |doi=10.1126/science.186.4165.746 |pmid=4417289 |bibcode=1974Sci...186..746K |s2cid=34084663 |issn=0036-8075|url-access=subscription }} The flowers are inconspicuously crowded on the spadix. The spathes act as the conspicuous portion of the plant. The inflorescence differs in size and the amount of flowers it contains. Due mostly to the crowding effect, the flowers do not show three (or its multiple) floral parts, as should be expected for monocots, but four perianth parts. These look almost cuboidal in shape and overlap each other to make a box-like arrangement. In opposition to the components of the perianth are the stamens. The two-celled anthers are extrorse and move rather flexibly. The pistil's overall structural shape is distinctive: the style is cuboidal, the ovary is one cell, and the stigma has three lobes.

The leafage consists of two whitish sheathing leaves, which have parallel veins characteristic of monocots. The true leaves are rolled within the hard-coiled center. When the tips have pierced the encasing sheath-like leaves, they are typically tinted purplish like the plant's spathe. The first and even second leaves' tips may have this hue on the exterior. These inner, or true, leaves appear to diverge from monocotyledonous plants and lean more toward the dicotyledonous plants' netted veining. The unfolding of the first three leaves reveals a progressive shift toward the later leaves' netted veining. The veining is palmately netted in every instance. The leaves have fairly big air spaces and loosely packed cellular structures under a microscope. There are several rhaphides present in the leaf's enormous bundle masses. There are a number of other crystal forms, some of which are cuboidal in shape or even spherical.

Symplocarpus foetidus reproduce by hard, pea-sized seeds which, when fully grown, drop onto the slimy substrate after developing inside the spadix. Birds, small animals, and floods can then spread the seeds.

Taxonomy

Symplocarpus foetidus was first described as Dracontium foetidum by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in Species Plantarum in 1753.{{r|IPNI:328853-2}} The British botanist Richard Anthony Salisbury placed Dracontium foetidum {{small|L.}} in genus Symplocarpus in 1812.{{r|IPNI:89118-1}} However, the name Symplocarpus foetidus {{small|(L.) Salisb.}} was invalidly described by Salisbury. Five years later, the American botanist William P. C. Barton provided a valid description for Symplocarpus foetidus {{small|(L.) Salisb. ex W.P.C.Barton}}.{{r|IPNI:1149384-2}}

Distribution and habitat

The native region of the eastern skunk cabbage is eastern North America. Its geographic range includes eastern Canada, the northeastern United States, and the states of Tennessee and North Carolina in the southeast and Minnesota in the west. In Canada, the plant's distribution ranges from western Nova Scotia to southeastern Manitoba.{{Cite web |title=Herbs, Plants, and Healing Properties – Page 4 – Legends of America |url=https://www.legendsofamerica.com/na-herbs/4/ |access-date=2022-12-11 |website=www.legendsofamerica.com}}{{Cite journal |last=Small |first=John A. |date=1959 |title=Skunk Cabbage, Symplocarpus foetidus |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2482646 |journal=Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club |volume=86 |issue=6 |pages=413–416 |doi=10.2307/2482646 |jstor=2482646 |issn=0040-9618|url-access=subscription }} In Tennessee, it is protected as an endangered species. Its habitats include moist regions including marshes, wet forests, and stream banks.{{Cite web|title=Symplocarpus foetidus - Plant Finder|url=https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=292066&isprofile=0&|access-date=2022-02-16|website=www.missouribotanicalgarden.org}} Like others in the arum family, the eastern skunk cabbage grows best in areas with great moisture.

Ecology

Eastern skunk cabbage belongs to a select group of thermogenic plants for its capacity to create temperatures of up to {{convert|15|–|35|C-change|F-change}} above air temperature through cyanide-resistant cellular respiration (via alternative oxidase) in order to melt its way through frozen ground. One mechanism behind maintaining heat around the plant is the thermogenic oscillation of the spadix: independent of light, a precise thermal regulator is produced by an oscillatory temperature-sensing model in the spadix under dynamic external temperature variation. An equilibrium between heat production and loss, due to heat radiation, evaporation, conduction and convection, is maintained in the spadix.{{Cite journal |last1=Ito |first1=Kikukatsu |last2=Ito |first2=Takanori |last3=Onda |first3=Yoshihiko |last4=Uemura |first4=Matsuo |date=2004-03-15 |title=Temperature-Triggered Periodical Thermogenic Oscillations in Skunk Cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus) |journal=Plant and Cell Physiology |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=257–264 |doi=10.1093/pcp/pch038 |pmid=15047873 |issn=1471-9053|doi-access=free }} Additionally, the airflow around the spathe effiectively maintains heat generated by the spadix.{{Cite journal |last1=Camazine |first1=Scott |last2=Niklas |first2=Karl J. |title=Aerobiology of Symplocarpus Foetidus: Interactions Between the Spathe and Spadix |date=July 1984 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1537-2197.1984.tb14149.x |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=71 |issue=6 |pages=843–850 |doi=10.1002/j.1537-2197.1984.tb14149.x |issn=0002-9122|url-access=subscription }}

Eastern skunk cabbage blooms while there is snow and ice on the ground, yet early insects that also emerge at this time effectively pollinate it. According to certain research, the heat the plant generates may aid in dispersing its odour in the atmosphere in addition to enabling the plant to flourish in cold environments.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}}

Skunk cabbage plants generate skunk-like floral odours that contain dimethyl disulfide, aliphatic hydrocarbons, carboxylic acids, and esters, whereas only female plants produce aromatic hydrocarbons and indole chemicals. The fact that the spathe is warmer than the surrounding air may induce carrion-feeding insects to enter it more than once, promoting pollination.{{Cite journal |last=Moodie |first=G. E. E. |date=1976-03-01 |title=Heat production and pollination in Araceae |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/b76-053 |journal=Canadian Journal of Botany |volume=54 |issue=5–6 |pages=545–546 |doi=10.1139/b76-053 |issn=0008-4026|url-access=subscription }}

Calliphora vomitoria and other blowflies are common pollinators of skunk cabbage. Curiously, spiders' webs were frequently noticed at the entrance to the spathes. The flower's carrion-like odor attracts the flies, which become tangled in the spider's web and become food for the spider.

Uses

Numerous Native American cultures employed the eastern skunk cabbage substantially as a medicinal herb, spice, and mystical talisman. The plant was mainly utilised for its antispasmodic and expectorant qualities, which are still used in contemporary herbalism.{{Cite book |last=Chevallier |first=Andrew |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/641789249 |title=The encyclopedia of medicinal plants |date=1996 |publisher=D. Kindersley |isbn=0-7513-0314-3 |location=London |oclc=641789249}} In particular, the Winnebago and Dakota tribes utilised it to encourage phlegm evacuation in asthma patients. Different cultures also utilised it as a talisman and seasoning. It was employed as the medicine "dracontium" in pharmaceutical goods from 1820 until 1882 to treat respiratory conditions, neurological disorders, rheumatism, and dropsy.{{Cite web |title=Herbs, Plants, and Healing Properties – Page 4 – Legends of America |url=https://www.legendsofamerica.com/na-herbs/4/ |access-date=2022-12-05 |website=www.legendsofamerica.com}} Internal administration of the plant's rootstock can be used to treat a variety of respiratory and nervous conditions, including hay fever, asthma, whooping cough, catarrh, and bronchitis.{{Cite book |last=Bown |first=Deni |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32166152 |title=Encyclopedia of herbs & their uses |date=1995 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |others=Herb Society of America |isbn=0-7894-0184-3 |edition=1st American |location=London |oclc=32166152}} Young leaves that have been completely dried are particularly useful when reintroduced in soups or stews.

File:Skunk Cabbage in Wetland.jpg in Pennsylvania]]

Toxicity

Since its roots are antispasmodic, diaphoretic, diuretic, emetic, expectorant, and slightly narcotic, it is not recommended to consume the raw plant directly. While high quantities of the root can produce nausea and vomiting, headaches, and dizziness, handling the fresh leaves can burn skin. Other symptoms of poisoning include swelling of the lip, throat, and tongue.{{Cite web |title=Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center - The University of Texas at Austin |url=https://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=syfo |access-date=2022-12-03 |website=www.wildflower.org}} This is due to calcium oxalate crystals, which are moderately harmful to humans. It is possible to eliminate the toxicity with care, such as changing the water frequently when boiling the leaves, or thoroughly drying the plant.{{Cite book |author=Eaton, Janice Schofield |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/730507317 |title=Discovering wild plants : Alaska, Western Canada, the Northwest |date=2011 |publisher=Eaton |isbn=978-0-473-18109-3 |oclc=730507317}}

Gallery

File:앉은부채.jpg|Eastern skunk cabbage melting a hole through snow.

File:Symplocarpus foetidus 002.JPG|A cut-away view of the spadix (flower cluster) inside the spathe of the skunk cabbage.

File:Eastern Skunk Cabbage along brook in sprintime.jpg|Early spring growth of eastern skunk cabbage along a flowing brook on the island of Martha's Vineyard

File:Skunk cabbage and marsh marigolds.jpg|Skunk cabbage leaves and blooming marsh marigolds (Caltha palustris) in a wooded marsh

File:Symplocarpus foetidus (Eastern skunk cabbage) sprouting.jpg|Skunk cabbage emerging from ground during winter

File:SkunkCabbageThermalCam.jpg|alt=Left: Photograph of Eastern Skunk Cabbage spadix and first leaves. Right: Thermal image with bright yellow spadix, indicating a source of warmth, surrounded by leaves and branches in shades of pink and purple, indicating cold surfaces.|Thermal imaging of a newly emerged eastern skunk cabbage showing heat, via thermogenesis, in the spadix

References

{{Reflist|refs=

{{IPNI |id=328853-2 |taxon=Dracontium foetidum |authority={{small|L.}} |access-date=7 April 2023}}

{{IPNI |id=89118-1 |taxon=Symplocarpus foetidus |authority={{small|(L.) Salisb.}} |access-date=7 April 2023}}

{{IPNI |id=1149384-2 |taxon=Symplocarpus foetidus |authority={{small|(L.) Salisb. ex W.P.C.Barton}} |access-date=7 April 2023}}

}}

External links

[http://www.ct-botanical-society.org/galleries/symplocarpusfoet.html Connecticut Botanical Society: Symplocarpus foetidus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209224229/http://www.ct-botanical-society.org/galleries/symplocarpusfoet.html |date=2013-02-09 }}
[http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/wetland/plants/skunk_cabbage.htm Illinois Wildflowers: Symplocarpus foetidus]
[http://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=SYFO Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center: Symplocarpus foetidus]
[https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/skunk-cabbage Minnesota Wildflowers: Symplocarpus foetidus]
[http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Symplocarpus+foetidus Plants For A Future: Symplocarpus foetidus]
{{cite journal |last1=Ito-Inaba |first1=Yasuko |last2=Sato |first2=Mayuko |last3=Masuko |first3=Hiromi |last4=Hida |first4=Yamato |last5=Toyooka |first5=Kiminori |last6=Watanabe |first6=Masao |last7=Inaba |first7=Takehito |title=Developmental changes and organelle biogenesis in the reproductive organs of thermogenic skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus renifolius) |journal=Journal of Experimental Botany |date=2009 |volume=60 |issue=13 |pages=3909–3922 |doi=10.1093/jxb/erp226 |pmid=19640927 |pmc=2736897}}
{{cite web |last1=Ling |first1=Millie |title=Symplocarpus foetidus - Skunk Cabbage |url=https://awesomenativeplants.info/photo_galleries/photo_pages/symplocarpus_foetidus.html |website=Awesome Native Plants |access-date=7 April 2023}}