Synergism

Synergism comes from the Greek syn (with) and ergon (work) and refers to two or more sources working together.{{sfn|Allison|2021|p=209}} In Christian theology, it describes the cooperative effort between God and humanity in the process of salvation.{{sfn|Bordwell|1999|p=766|ps=. "[Synergism involves] a kind of interplay between human freedom and divine grace".}}{{sfn|Kirkpatrick|2018|p=xiii|ps=. "[synergism is] the belief that salvation is a cooperative work between God and humans".}} It implies a free human participation in salvation.{{sfn|Olson|2009|p=17|ps=. "Synergism is any theological belief in free human participation in salvation."}}

Before Augustine (354–430), the synergistic view of salvation was almost universally endorsed.{{sfn|Schaff|1997|loc=§ 173|ps=. "In anthropology and soteriology [Lactantius] follows the synergism which, until Augustine, was almost universal."}}{{sfn|Wiley|1941|pp=234-235|ps=. "Augustine, himself, distinctly advocated this [synergistic] position at first, but in his controversy with the Pelagians adopted a strictly monergistic system. He held to the total inability of man to exercise good works, and hence, until the individual was regenerated, there was no power to exercise faith. Grace, therefore, was bestowed solely upon the elect through effectual calling, and the atonement limited to those for whom it availed. Previous to this time, synergism had been the dominant theory, i.e., that the individual in his recovery from sin, works with God through grace universally bestowed as a free gift, in such a manner as to condition the result."}}

Pelagius (c. 354–418), however, argued that humans could perfectly obey God by their own will.{{sfn|Puchniak|2008|p=124}} The Pelagian view is therefore referred to as "humanistic monergism".{{sfn|Barrett|2013|p=xxvii|ps=. "[H]umanistic monergism is the view of Pelagius and Pelagianism".}}{{sfn|Peterson|Williams|2004|p=36|ps=. "[T]he humanistic monergism of Pelagius."}} This view was condemned at the Council of Carthage (418) and Ephesus (431).{{sfn|Teselle|2014|p=6}}

In response, Augustine proposed a view in which God is the ultimate cause of all human actions, a stance that aligns with soft determinism.{{sfn|Rogers|2004|p=1}}{{sfn|Crisp|2014|loc=ch. "Traditional Augustinianism"|p=. "I take it that most traditional Augustinians [...] align themselves with the doctrines of election and theological determinism of a compatibilist variety."}} The Augustinian view is therefore referred to as "divine monergism".{{sfn|Barrett|2013|p=xxvii|loc={{zwnj}}|ps=. "[D]ivine monergism is the view of Augustine and the Augustinians."}} However, Augustinian soteriology implied double predestination,{{sfn|James|1998|p=103|ps=. "If one asks, whether double predestination is a logical implication or development of Augustine's doctrine, the answer must be in the affirmative."}} which was condemned by the Council of Arles (475).{{sfn|Levering|2011|p=37}}

During this period, a moderate form of Pelagianism emerged, later termed Semi-Pelagianism.{{sfn|Olson|1999|p=281}} This view asserted that human will initiates salvation, rather than divine grace.{{sfn|Stanglin|McCall|2012|p=160}} The Semi-Pelagian view is therefore described as "human-initiated synergism".{{sfn|Barrett|2013|p=xxvii|loc={{zwnj}}{{zwnj}}|ps=. "[H]uman-initiated synergism is the view of Semi-Pelagianism".}}

In 529, the Second Council of Orange addressed Semi-Pelagianism and declared that even the inception of faith is a result of God’s grace.{{sfn|Denzinger|1954|loc=ch. Second Council of Orange, art. 5-7}}{{sfn|Pickar|1981|p=797}}{{sfn|Cross|2005|p=701}} This highlights the role of prevenient grace enabling human belief.{{sfn|Olson|2009|p=81}}{{sfn|Stanglin|McCall|2012|p=153}} This view, often referred to as "Semi-Augustinian," is therefore described as "God-initiated synergism".{{sfn|Oakley|1988|p=64}}{{sfn|Thorsen|2007|loc=ch. 20.3.4}}{{sfn|Bounds|2011}}{{sfn|Barrett|2013|p=xxvii|loc={{zwnj}}{{zwnj}}{{zwnj}}|ps=. "God-initiated synergism is the view of the Semi-Augustinians".}} The Council also rejected predestination to evil.{{sfn|Denzinger|1954|loc=ch. Second Council of Orange, art. 199|ps=. "We not only do not believe that some have been truly predestined to evil by divine power, but also with every execration we pronounce anathema upon those, if there are [any such], who wish to believe so great an evil."}}

The Pelagian-Augustinian framework serves as a key paradigm for understanding contemporary forms of synergism.{{sfn|Bounds|2011|pp=32–33}} Augustine argued that prevenient grace is necessary to prepare the human will for conversion.{{sfn|McGrath|2001|p=356}} He maintained that God predetermined parents to seek baptism for their newborns, linking water baptism to regeneration.{{sfn|Augustine|1994|pp=184, 196|loc=Sermons III/8, Sermon 294}} Furthermore, he viewed the divine grace that brings about conversion as unfailing.{{sfn|McGrath|2005|pp=107-110}}{{sfn|Bird|2021|p=89-90|ps=. "The asymmetry in Augustine’s doctrine of grace is here plainly stated: if a man believes, it is because he has been irresistibly drawn; but if he does not believe, “his determination stands alone.” All credit for conversion is attributed to God; all guilt for refusal, to man. In coming to this position, Augustine had not abandoned his previously developed notions of adjutive grace and the power of delight, but now comprehended that both the adjutum and the delectatio must be of overwhelming strength. Salvation comes to a man when God does a work in him by his Spirit that can neither fail nor be refused."}}{{sfn|Wilson|2018|p=106}}

The Semi-Augustinian stance builds upon Augustinian thought, also associating regeneration with water baptism.{{sfn|Denzinger|1954|loc=ch. Confirmation of the Council of Orange II, Item 178|ps=. "If anyone says, that just as the increase [of faith] so also the beginning of faith and the very desire of credulity, by which we believe in Him who justifies the impious, and (by which) we arrive at the regeneration of holy baptism (is) not through the gift of grace, that is, through the inspiration of the Holy Spirit reforming our will from infidelity to faith, from impiety to piety, but is naturally in us, he is proved (to be) antagonistic to the doctrine of the Apostles [...]".}} However, it rejects predetermination, allowing space for human decision, particularly in the act of faith.{{sfn|Denzinger|1954|loc=ch. Confirmation of the Council of Orange II, Item 199}} Thus, it maintains that vocation and the gift of faith are divine actions through prevenient grace, while faith itself is a human action, and regeneration remains a divine action.{{sfn|Olson|2009|p=81}}{{sfn|Stanglin|McCall|2012|p=153}} The Semi-Pelagian position holds that vocation and conversion through faith are human actions, while the "increase of faith" bringing regeneration is a divine action.{{Sfn|Pohle|1912}}{{sfn|Stanglin|McCall|2012|p=160}}{{sfn|Lambert|2005}} In Pelagianism, humans possess the innate capacity to obey God. Consequently, all steps of salvation are voluntary human actions.{{sfn|Puchniak|2008|p=123}}{{sfn|Harrison|2016|p=79}}

File:Hunt Light of the World.jpg by William Holman Hunt).]]

Synergism is an important part of the salvation theology of the Catholic Church.{{sfn|Bordwell|1999|loc={{zwnj}}|p=766}} Following the Second Council of Orange (529),{{sfn|Stanglin|McCall|2012|p=153}} the Council of Trent (1545–63) reaffirmed the resistibility of prevenient grace and its synergistic nature.{{sfn|Reymond|2010|loc=ch. Who saves men?}} The Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992) teaches that the ability of the human will to respond to divine grace is itself conferred by grace.{{sfn|John Paul II|1993|loc=item 2001|ps=. "The preparation of man for the reception of grace is already a work of grace."}}{{sfn|John Paul II|1993|loc=item 1742|ps=. "By the working of grace the Holy Spirit educates us in spiritual freedom in order to make us free collaborators in his work in the Church and in the world".}} This synergistic process applies to both justification and sanctification.{{sfn|Kirkpatrick|2018|p=223|ps=. "[Sungenis] is showing how baptism is the entry point into justification, that righteousness is something progressively attained synergistically, and that sanctification and justification belong together as one in the same end."}}{{sfn|LWF&RCC|2019|ps=. "When Catholics say that persons 'cooperate' in preparing for and accepting justification by consenting to God's justifying action, they see such personal consent as itself an effect of grace, not as an action arising from innate human abilities."}} The sacraments of the Catholic Church such as baptism and the Eucharist, are part of God's grace and are thus a vital element in the synergistic process of salvation.{{sfn|Reymond|2010|loc=ch. How does God saves men?|ps=. "Rome holds that through the foundational sacraments of baptism the sinner is delivered from the liability of original sin, and through the sacraments of the Mass and of penance the liabilities of postbaptismal sins are removed. The institutional church becomes then through its sacramental ministrations the sources and conveyer of saving grace to men [...]".}}

In Eastern Orthodox theology, God's grace and the human response work together in a "cooperation" or "synergy".{{sfn|Ware|1993|loc=PT274|ps=. "To describe the relation between the grace of God and human freedom, Orthodoxy uses the term cooperation or synergy (synergeia); in Paul's words, 'We are fellow-workers (synergoi) with God' (1 Corinthians iii, 9). If we are to achieve full fellowship with God, we cannot do so without God's help, yet we must also play our own part: we humans as well as God must make our contribution to the common work, although what God does is of immeasurably greater importance than what we do."}} This perspective has historically presented less theological tension on this issue compared to the Christian West.{{sfn|Payton Jr.|2010|p=151|ps=. "In Eastern Christian understanding of synergy, God's grace and human response work together without the questions of rivalry that have bedeviled the Western Christian disagreement about monergism and synergism."}} In the salvation process, divine grace always precedes any human action.{{sfn|Overbeck|1899|loc=Decree 14|ps=. "For the regenerated to do spiritual good — for the works of the believer being contributory to salvation and wrought by supernatural grace are properly called spiritual — it is necessary that he be guided and prevented [preceded] by grace."}} Man possesses libertarian freedom (as implied by the Gnomic will) and must consciously respond to divine grace.{{sfn|Payton Jr.|2010|p=151|loc={{zwnj}}|ps=. "[H]uman beings always have the freedom to choose, in their personal (gnomic) wills, whether to walk with God or turn from Him".}} This understanding is similar to the Arminian protestant synergism.{{sfn|Stamoolis|2010|p=138|ps=. "A further concession is made, one that could easily be made by an Arminian Protestant who shared the Orthodox understanding of synergism (i.e., regeneration as the fruit of free will's cooperation with grace): 'The Orthodox emphasis on the importance of the human response toward the grace of God, which at the same time clearly rejects salvation by works, is a healthy synergistic antidote to any antinomian tendencies that might result from (distorted) juridical understandings of salvation'."}} The Orthodox synergistic process of salvation includes baptism as a response to divine grace.{{sfn|Stamoolis|2010|p=74|ps=. "In orthodox baptismal theology, [...] the candidate for baptism merely responds to and cooperates with that divine grace by actively welcoming it into his or her heart by faith and then living out the baptism through active obedience on that same principle of unmeritable synergism."}} Deification, or theosis, is also an integral part of this process.{{sfn|Stamoolis|2010|p=74|loc={{zwnj}}|ps=. "Faith is both a divine gift and the free response of the human person. [...] This is the basis for Orthodox asceticism and its goal of deification (theosis) as the content of salvation."}}

{{further|Anabaptist theology}}

Anabaptists hold to synergism,{{sfn|Bloesch|2005|p=362|ps=. "Yet the polarity seems to fall between Reformation monergism (esp. Calvinist) and Anabaptist and Wesleyan synergism."}} teaching that "both God and man play real and necessary parts in the reconciling relationship which binds them."{{sfn|Hill|2020|p=129}} Anabaptists have a high view of the moral capacities of humans when "enlivened by the active agency of the Holy Spirit".{{sfn|Hill|2020|p=129}}

Christians who adhere to Arminian theology, such as Methodists, believe that salvation is synergistic.{{sfn|Olson|2002|p=281|ps=. "John Wesley, founder of the Methodist tradition, was also a synergist with regard to salvation."}} Jacobus Arminius first emphasized the role of prevenient grace, which involves a monergistic act of God, followed by "subsequent" act involving a synergistic work.{{sfn|Stanglin|McCall|2012|p=152}} Thus, for Arminians, prevenient grace involves a synergistic process.{{sfn|Olson|2009|p=18|ps=. "When Arminian synergism is referred to, I am referring to evangelical synergism, which affirms the prevenience of grace to every human exercise of a good will toward God, including simple nonresistance to the saving work of Christ."}} Similarly, John Wesley held that salvation begins with divine initiative.{{sfn|Lowery|2008|loc=ch. A more Naturalized Interpretation of Grace|ps=. "Although Wesley believes that salvation begins with divine initiative, he still places great emphasis on human responsibility. As such, salvation itself should be viewed as a synergism initiated by God".}} Additionally, Wesleyan-Arminian theology teaches that both justification and sanctification are synergistic.{{sfn|Fahlbusch|2008|p=272|ps=. "Methodist 'synergism' is grounded in the conviction that in the justification begun in the new birth (the beginning of the divine work), there will have to be 'appropriate fruits'."}} The Arminian perspective on salvation is often described as "God-initiated synergism".{{sfn|Lowery|2008|loc=ch. A more Naturalized Interpretation of Grace|ps=. "Although Wesley believes that salvation begins with divine initiative, he still places great emphasis on human responsibility. As such, salvation itself should be viewed as a synergism initiated by God".}} This perspective aligns closely with the main characteristic of the early Semi-Augustinian thought.{{sfn|Bounds|2011|pp=39–43}}{{sfn|Barrett|2013|p=xxvii|loc={{zwnj}}{{zwnj}}{{zwnj}}|ps=. "God-initiated synergism is the view of the Semi-Augustinians".}}

Semi-Pelagianism is present in many current evangelical denominations.{{sfn|Olson|2009|p=30|ps=. "Today, semi-Pelagianism is the default theology of most American evangelical Christians."}} It holds that a person can initiate faith independently, without prevenient grace, while its continuation through regeneration depends on God’s grace.{{Sfn|Pohle|1912}}{{sfn|Stanglin|McCall|2012|p=160}}{{sfn|Lambert|2005}} This has led to its characterization as "human-initiated synergism".{{sfn|Barrett|2013|loc={{zwnj}}{{zwnj}}|p=xxvii|ps=. "[H]uman-initiated synergism is the view of Semi-Pelagianism".}} After the Reformation, Reformed theologians used the term "Semi-Pelagianism" to describe both "Semi-Pelagianism" and "Semi-Augustininianism," the latter being a divine-initiated synergism.{{sfn|Barrett|2013|p=xxvii|loc={{zwnj}}{{zwnj}}{{zwnj}}|ps=. "God-initiated synergism is the view of the Semi-Augustinians".}}{{sfn|Marko|2020|p=772|ps=. "Those who did not think a prevenient grace was necessary for initial human response or that it was resistible came to be called semi-Pelagians by Protestants in the post Reformation period."}}

Martin Luther (1483-1546) limited monergism strictly to soteriological aspects.{{sfn|Straton|2020|p=159|ps=. "Luther: A person's will is in bondage to sin and cannot, without the grace of God, respond to the gospel. However, apart from salvation-related issues, people can choose freely".}} He asserted that monergism applied to both election (to salvation) and reprobation.{{sfn|Horton|2011|loc=ch. 9.2|ps=. "In fact, Luther affirmed both election and reprobation in the strongest terms."}}{{sfn|Sammons|2020|p=60|ps=. "Luther presents double predestination clearly, basing it on his understanding of God."}} Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560), however, rejected monergism after Luther's death in favor of synergism.{{sfn|Bente|1921|loc=ch. 14.154|ps=. "Melanchthon repudiated the monergism of Luther, espoused and defended the powers of free will in spiritual matters, and thought, argued, spoke, and wrote in terms of synergism. Indeed, Melanchthon must be regarded as the father of both synergism and the rationalistic methods employed in its defense, and as the true father also of the modern rationalistico-synergistic theology represented by such distinguished men as Von Hofmann, Thomasius, Kahnis, Luthardt."}} Melanchthon's stance influenced many Lutherans of his time throughout Europe to adopt synergism.{{sfn|Olson|2009|p=14|ps=. "Because of Melanchthon's influence on post-Luther Lutheranism, many Lutherans throughout Europe adopted a synergistic outlook on salvation, eschewing unconditional predestination and affirming that grace is resistible".}} The "synergistic controversy" arose when Gnesio-Lutherans, citing Luther's monergistic stance, opposed John Pfeffinger's synergistic views on the role of human will in conversion.{{sfn|Kolb|1973|p=263}}

By 1580, Melanchthon's view had lost prominence, and the Book of Concord (1580) affirmed soteriological monergism in relation to election (to salvation), but explicitly rejected its application to reprobation.{{sfn|Horton|2011|loc=[https://archive.org/details/michael-horton-the-christian-faith-a-systematic-theology-for-pilgrims-on-the-way/page/n465/mode/2up ch. 9.2]|ps=. "In fact, Luther affirmed both election and reprobation in the strongest terms. The Lutheran confessions, however, affirm God's unconditional election of those on Whom he will mercy but deny his reprobation of the rest as an actual decreee. The confessional Lutheran and Reformed theologies differ with respect to the decree of reprobation, the extent of atonement, and the resistibility of God´s grace, they are united in their defense of soteriological monergism (i.e., God alone working in salvation), grounded in his unconditional election of sinners in Jesus Christ." [emphasis in original].}} Accordingly, the contemporary Lutheran Church continues to uphold this view.{{sfn|Horton|2011|loc=ch. 9.2, n. 11}}{{sfn|Sammons|2020|p=62|ps=. "While there are some in the Lutheran tradition who adhere to single predestination, it is apparent that Luther himself did not."}} While monergism remains the official stance, Lutheran history includes both monergist and synergist views.{{sfn|Pinson|2022|p=147|ps=. "Despite the fact that many scholars neatly divide Lutherans into "monergistic" and "synergistic" camps, no good Lutheran ever wanted to be known as a synergist. This include famous scholastic Lutherans such as Aegidius Hunnius, Johann Gerhard, and Johannes Andreas Quendstedt. Most Lutherans throughout history have believed like Melanchthon, that [...] God personally elects individuals in eternity past intuitu Christi meriti fide apprehendi. This is precisely what Arminius believed."}}{{sfn|Horton|2011|loc=ch. 9.2, n. 11}}

In orthodox Reformed theology, divine monergism is understood as operating through an exhaustive divine providence.{{sfn|Robinson|2022|p=379|ps=. "[T]he heart of Calvinism is as monergism that effectively makes God the sole actor in human history [...]".}} For example, Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) viewed that everything, including human salvation and reprobation, was determined by God.{{sfn|James|1998b|ps=. "Zwingli attributes both to the divine will in the same way, constructing an absolutely symmetrical doctrine of double predestination. The cause and means of both election and reprobation are precisely the same. For Zwingli, God is the exclusive and immediate cause of all things."}} In contrast, "libertarian Calvinism", a revision described by Oliver D. Crisp in his book Deviant Calvinism (2014), is a soteriological monergism.{{sfn|Olson|2015|ps=. "Crisp’s “libertarian Calvinism” is not consistent with the vast majority of modern and contemporary Calvinisms in the U.S., [...] And it is not acceptable to Arminians because of its soteriological monergism [...]".}} Historically, this perspective has remained a minority view within Calvinism.{{sfn|Moreland|2001|p=155|ps=. "Indeed, throughout history there have been Calvinists who have accepted libertarian freedom for non-moral or non-salvific decisions".}}

Anglicanism originally inclined toward monergism due to its Lutheran and Calvinist heritage, but it eventually accommodated both monergistic and synergistic interpretations.{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|p=617}}{{sfn|Olson|1999|p=535|ps=. "Many Anglicans follow Richard Hooker's brand of synergism{{nbsp}}[...]".}} The Thirty-nine Articles of Religion, finalized in 1571, serve as the confession of faith for the Anglican tradition.{{sfn|EncyclopaediaE|2021}} They reflect a complex interplay of Calvinist influence, Catholic practice, and intentional ambiguity within individual articles.{{sfn|Milton|2002|p=396}}{{sfn|McClintock|Strong|1880}} Today, in some Anglican denominations, clergy are required to acknowledge the Articles, while in others, they are not.{{sfn|EncyclopaediaE|2021}}

Anglicanism has historically leaned more toward monergism, particularly in its early phases.{{sfn|Salter|2018|ps=. "The code and creed of Anglicanism is richly Trinitarian (divine self-disclosure), soteriologically monergistic (grace alone), and warmly pastoral (godly care) in its approach to the people it serves within and beyond the bounds of its membership."}} Early Anglican leaders such as Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556) held Reformed views that significantly shaped the Church’s initial doctrinal direction.{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|p=617}} However, following the Stuart Restoration (1660) through the mid-18th century, Calvinist theology became less prominent within Anglicanism.{{sfn|Griffith|Radcliff|2022|p=1|ps=. "From the Restoration to the mid-eighteenth century Calvinist theology was hardly evident in Anglicanism."}} Afterward, the Evangelical movement within Anglicanism revived and emphasized its Reformed roots.{{Sfn|Chapman|2006|p=68}} Related groups like the Church Society tend to interpret Article 10 of the Thirty-nine Articles in a monergistic sense.{{sfn|Woolford|2017|ps=. "Article 10 underwrites monergistic (from mono — ‘one,’ and ergo — ‘to work’) doctrine of justification. [...] It teaches that our state of spiritual death — the utter inability of the bound human will — means that everything that goes into our coming to spiritual life has to belong to God. His is the whole initiative; his is the decisive, effective will."}}

Conversely, High church and Anglo-Catholic traditions have tended toward synergism, drawing on the theology of the early Church Fathers and emphasizing the sacramental life, human free will, and cooperation with divine grace. Proto-Arminian figures like Lancelot Andrewes (1555–1626) and Jeremy Taylor (1613–1667) upheld the importance of the human response to God’s call.{{sfn|McClintock|Strong|1880}} In the 18th and 19th centuries, theologians such as George Pretyman Tomline (1750–1827) and Harold Browne (1811–1891) also interpreted Article 10 in a synergistic light.{{sfn|Browne|1865|pp=280-281|ps=. "The doctrine of Scripture, however, is evidently expressed in the words of our Article [X]. God must give the will, must set the will free from its natural slavery, before it can turn to good; but then it moves in the freedom which He has bestowed upon it, and never so truly uses that freedom, as when it follows the motions of the Spirit. Yet clearly there remains some power to resist and to do evil. For, though “those that have no will to good things God maketh them to will; [...] Yet, nevertheless, He enforceth not the will.”"}}{{sfn|Tomline|1818|pp=251-255|ps=. "The joint agency of God and man, in the work of human salvation, is pointed out in the following passage: "Let us work out our own salvation with fear and trembling; for it is God that worketh in us both to will and to do of his good pleasure" [...] some sects contend for the irresistible impulses of grace [...] [this] opinion seems irreconcilable with the free agency of man [...] let the will of man be admitted to be its handmaid, but such an one as is free [...] when it is freely excited by the admonitions of preventing grace, when it is prepared as to its affections, strengthened and assisted as to its powers and faculties, a man freely and willingly co-operates with God".}}

{{Portal|Christianity}}

• Dyoenergism
• Dyothelitism
• Libertarianism (metaphysics)
• Monergism
• Monoenergism
• Prevenient grace
• Theosis

{{Reflist|30em}}

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{{Christian Soteriology}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Synergism (Theology)}}

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