monergism

Monergism derives from the Greek monos (sole) and ergon (work) and refers to a single source acting alone.{{sfn|Allison|2016|loc="Monergism"|ps=. "From the Greek (monos, "sole"; ergon, "work"), monergism refers to a sole source that works redemption".}}{{sfn|Sproul|2007|ps=. "“Monergistic” means that it is the work of one person who exercises his power."}} In Christian theology, it primarily denotes the belief that God is the sole agent in human salvation.{{sfn|Allison|2016|loc="Monergism"{{zwnj}}|ps=. "[In monergism] God is the single agent that operates the salvation of people".}}{{sfn|McKim|1996|p=177}} This view, known as "divine monergism," is characteristic of Calvinist and Augustinian soteriology.{{sfn|Barrett|2013|p=xxvii|ps=. "[D]ivine monergism is the view of Augustine and the Augustinians. [...] Calvinism appeals to Augustine for its view of efficacious grace."}} It describes a process in which God alone authors for every step of salvation, without human participation.{{sfn|Horton|2011b|loc=ch. Perseverance of the saints.|ps=. "The doctrine of the perseverance of the saints reflects a consistently monergistic view of salvation as entirely due to God's grace alone from beginning to the end".}}{{sfn|Barrett|2013|p=xx}}

Monergism can also refer the belief that humans are the sole agents of their salvation, a view known as "humanistic monergism" and associated with Pelagianism.{{sfn|Barrett|2013|p=xxvii{{zwnj}}{{zwnj}}|ps=. "[H]umanistic monergism is the view of Pelagius and Pelagianism".}}{{sfn|Peterson|Williams|2004|p=36|ps=. "[T]he humanistic monergism of Pelagius."}} Both perspectives contrast with synergism, which holds that divine and human cooperation is necessary in the conversion process.{{sfn|McKim|1996|p=177}}

File:Lidia.jpg presents Lydia of Thyatira as an example of monergistic salvation.{{sfn|Schaff|1893|loc=A Treatise on the Predestination of the Saints. (41)}}]]

Augustine of Hippo (354–430) was the first to articulated the concept of divine monergism within Christianity.{{sfn|Barrett|2013|p=xxvii{{zwnj}}|ps=. "[D]ivine monergism is the view of Augustine and the Augustinians."}}{{sfn|Schaff|1997|loc=§ 173|ps=. "In anthropology and soteriology [Lactantius] follows the synergism which, until Augustine, was almost universal."}} In response to the humanistic monergism of Pelagianism, he argued that prevenient grace is necessary to prepare the human will for conversion.{{sfn|McGrath|2001|p=356}} This view incorporated a compatibilist form of theological determinism,{{sfn|Crisp|2014|loc=ch. "Traditional Augustinianism"|ps=. "I take it that most traditional Augustinians [...] align themselves with the doctrines of election and theological determinism of a compatibilist variety."}} and implied a form of unconditional election.{{sfn|McGrath|2005|pp=107-110}}{{sfn|James|1998|p=103|ps=. "If one asks, whether double predestination is a logical implication or development of Augustine's doctrine, the answer must be in the affirmative."}} Divine monergism later became a foundational principle in Lutheran theology, most notably expressed in the Formula of Concord (1577).{{sfn|Horton|2011|loc=ch. 9.2, n. 11}}{{sfn|Jacobs|1911|loc=Formula of Concord : Solid declaration, part 4, ch. 2.2.8|p=569|ps=. "Man of himself, or from his natural powers, cannot do anything or help towards his conversion, and that conversion is not only in part, but altogether an operation, gift, and present, and work of the Holy Ghost alone, who accomplishes and effects it by His power and might, through the Word, in the intellect, will, and heart of man".}} It also played a central role in Calvinist theology,{{sfn|Barrett|2013|p=xxvii|ps=. "[D]ivine monergism is the view of Augustine and the Augustinians. [...] Calvinism appeals to Augustine for its view of efficacious grace."}} shaping Reformed confessions such as the Canons of Dort (1618–19){{sfn|CRC|2011|loc=III/IV.10|ps=. "The fact that others who are called through the ministry of the gospel do come and are brought to conversion must not be credited to human effort, as though one distinguishes oneself by free choice from others who are furnished with equal or sufficient grace for faith and conversion (as the proud heresy of Pelagius maintains). No, it must be credited to God: just as from eternity God chose his own in Christ, so within time God effectively calls them, grants them faith and repentance, and, having rescued them from the dominion of darkness, brings them into the kingdom of his Son [...]".}} and the Westminster Confession of Faith (1646).{{sfn|Westminster Assembly|1946|loc=ch. 7, art. 7.3b|ps=. "He freely offereth unto sinners life and salvation by Jesus Christ; requiring of them faith in Him, that they may be saved, and promising to give unto all those that are ordained unto eternal life His Holy Spirit, to make them willing, and able to believe."}}

In orthodox Calvinism, the classical ordo salutis follows a sequence of effectual calling, then regeneration, and finally faith.{{sfn|Demarest|2006|pp=36–44}} Lutheranism largely mirrors this sequence.{{sfn|Demarest|2006|pp=36–44}} Some theologians argue that because the first steps of effectual calling and regeneration are passive, then the whole conversion must also be entirely passive and monergistic in nature.{{sfn|Kirkpatrick|2018|p=148|ps=. "Because regeneration (a passive aspect in [monergism]) is the work of God alone, such instrumental causation makes conversion (its effect) passive".}} However, certain Calvinists advocate for a revised ordo, still claimed to uphold monergism, while placing faith before regeneration.{{sfn|Barrett|2013|pp=xxiv-xxv|ps=. "Erickson, Lewis, and Demarest are defining monergism differently and more broadly than the Reformed tradition has defined it in the past, and the modified scheme, which places conversion between effectual calling and regeneration, is nothing short of a novelty as it is without precedent among Reformed theologians".}}{{sfn|Demarest|2006|pp=36–44}} A similar modification occurs in Molinist-influenced Calvinist revisions, which likewise reorder the sequence to place faith before regeneration.{{sfn|Lemke|2010|pp=76-77}}{{sfn|Keathley|2010|loc=ch. 3}}{{sfn|Ware|2004|pp=114-115}} Despite these differences, both orthodox and revised Calvinist perspectives affirm that the steps of salvation are ultimately determined by God.{{sfn|Robinson|2022|p=379|ps=. "[T]he heart of Calvinism is as monergism that effectively makes God the sole actor in human history [...]".}}{{sfn|Allison|2016|loc="Monergism"{{zwnj}}|ps=. "[In monergism] God is the single agent that operates the salvation of people".}}{{sfn|Horton|2011b|loc=ch. Perseverance of the saints.|ps=. "The doctrine of the perseverance of the saints reflects a consistently monergistic view of salvation as entirely due to God's grace alone from beginning to the end".}}

Within a Christian worldview affirming divine monergism, such as that of the Reformed or the Augustinian traditions, God can theoretically elect whom He wills based on His sovereignty.{{sfn|McCall|2008|p=207}} If He chose to elect all humans, their past and future sins would be forgiven, and all would irresistibly come to faith during their lifetime. This scenario constitutes a necessary form of Christian universalism, which is rejected by Reformed or Augustinian theologians.{{sfn|McCall|2008|p=207}}{{sfn|Talbott|1999|loc=ch. 4|ps=. "[T]he Augustinians [...] believe strongly in both the sovereignty of God’s will (proposition (2)) and the doctrine of eternal punishment (proposition (3)), and finally reject the idea that God sincerely wills the salvation of all human sinners (proposition (1));"}} They commonly argue that the greatest good occurs when God is maximally glorified, and they believe this does not happen in a world where everyone is saved.{{sfn|McCall|2008|p=. "God's will to save all people is restrained by his commitment to the glorification of his sovereign grace (Eph 1:6, 12, 14; Ro. 9:22-23)" [John Piper, Are There Two Wills in God? p. 130] [...] Piper's final answer to the question of "why these occasions of sin and suffering?" is that this is the best possible world, and it is further that this is the best possible world because it is the world in which God is the most glorified. The greatest good then, is this: it is God being maximally glorified in the possible world that glorifies him the most".}}{{sfn|Crisp|2014|loc=ch. "The Problem of Arbitrariness"}} Nevertheless, some Protestant thinkers, such as Thomas Talbott, have proposed an alternative form of monergistic universalism. According to this view, God’s irresistible grace will ultimately extend to every individual—even beyond death—thus explaining why not all are brought to faith within their lifetimes.{{sfn|Talbott|1999|loc=ch. 12|ps=. "[T]he New Testament picture nonetheless warrants, I believe, a stronger view, what some have called necessary universalism: the view that, given the nature of God’s love, wisdom, and power, it is logically impossible that his grace should fail to reconcile all sinners to himself."}} A further development of this idea is found in an unconditional model of monergistic universalism, as articulated for example by Hosea Ballou.{{sfn|Crisp|2014|loc=ch. "Augustinian Universalism Expounded"|ps=. "Augustinian universalism is perfectly compatible with the principles that make up the restricted-elect view. [...] consider the following argument [...] : 1. God decrees to create and elect all human agents. 2. God decrees that the mechanism by which the sin of all human agents is atoned for is the death of Christ. 2. The sin and guilt accruing to all sinful human agents is transferred to Christ, who is punished on their account on the cross. Thus, All human agents are saved; none are lost, and none are in hell. This is a version of necessary universalism, the view that it is necessarily the case that all human agents are saved, in this particular case because of a divine decree to that effect.}}{{sfn|Ballou|1834|p=155-156}} In this framework, salvation is granted independently of personal faith and remains accessible to all at any point in time.{{sfn|Bird|2013|loc=ch. 5.5.1.1|ps=. "Truth be told, the only true monergism is universalism, since God alone does everything for salvation and no response, not even faith, is required; [...]".}}

File:AugsburgConfessionArticle18FreeWill.jpg.{{sfn|Jacobs|1911|loc=Formula of Concord : Solid declaration, part 4,{{zwnj}}}}]]Martin Luther (1483-1546) limited monergism strictly to soteriological aspects.{{sfn|Straton|2020|p=159|ps=. "Luther: A person's will is in bondage to sin and cannot, without the grace of God, respond to the gospel. However, apart from salvation-related issues, people can choose freely".}} He asserted that monergism applied to both election (to salvation) and reprobation.{{sfn|Horton|2011|loc=ch. 9.2|ps=. "In fact, Luther affirmed both election and reprobation in the strongest terms."}}{{sfn|Sammons|2020|p=60|ps=. "Luther presents double predestination clearly, basing it on his understanding of God."}} Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560), however, rejected monergism after Luther's death in favor of synergism.{{sfn|Bente|1921|loc=ch. 14.154|ps=. "Melanchthon repudiated the monergism of Luther, espoused and defended the powers of free will in spiritual matters, and thought, argued, spoke, and wrote in terms of synergism. Indeed, Melanchthon must be regarded as the father of both synergism and the rationalistic methods employed in its defense, and as the true father also of the modern rationalistico-synergistic theology represented by such distinguished men as Von Hofmann, Thomasius, Kahnis, Luthardt."}} Melanchthon's stance influenced many Lutherans of his time throughout Europe to adopt synergism.{{sfn|Olson|2009|p=14|ps=. "Because of Melanchthon's influence on post-Luther Lutheranism, many Lutherans throughout Europe adopted a synergistic outlook on salvation, eschewing unconditional predestination and affirming that grace is resistible".}} The "synergistic controversy" arose when Gnesio-Lutherans, citing Luther's monergistic stance, opposed John Pfeffinger's synergistic views on the role of human will in conversion.{{sfn|Kolb|1973|p=263}}

By 1580, Melanchthon's view had lost prominence, and the Book of Concord (1580) affirmed soteriological monergism in relation to election (to salvation), but explicitly rejected its application to reprobation.{{sfn|Horton|2011|loc=[https://archive.org/details/michael-horton-the-christian-faith-a-systematic-theology-for-pilgrims-on-the-way/page/n465/mode/2up ch. 9.2]|ps=. "In fact, Luther affirmed both election and reprobation in the strongest terms. The Lutheran confessions, however, affirm God's unconditional election of those on Whom he will mercy but deny his reprobation of the rest as an actual decreee. The confessional Lutheran and Reformed theologies differ with respect to the decree of reprobation, the extent of atonement, and the resistibility of God´s grace, they are united in their defense of soteriological monergism (i.e., God alone working in salvation), grounded in his unconditional election of sinners in Jesus Christ." [emphasis in original].}} Accordingly, the contemporary Lutheran Church continues to uphold this view.{{sfn|Horton|2011|loc=ch. 9.2, n. 11}}{{sfn|Sammons|2020|p=62|ps=. "While there are some in the Lutheran tradition who adhere to single predestination, it is apparent that Luther himself did not."}} While monergism remains the official stance, Lutheran history includes both monergist and synergist views.{{sfn|Pinson|2022|p=147|ps=. "Despite the fact that many scholars neatly divide Lutherans into "monergistic" and "synergistic" camps, no good Lutheran ever wanted to be known as a synergist. This include famous scholastic Lutherans such as Aegidius Hunnius, Johann Gerhard, and Johannes Andreas Quendstedt. Most Lutherans throughout history have believed like Melanchthon, that [...] God personally elects individuals in eternity past intuitu Christi meriti fide apprehendi. This is precisely what Arminius believed."}}{{sfn|Horton|2011|loc=ch. 9.2, n. 11}}

In orthodox Reformed theology, divine monergism is understood as operating through an exhaustive divine providence.{{sfn|Robinson|2022|p=379|ps=. "[T]he heart of Calvinism is as monergism that effectively makes God the sole actor in human history [...]".}} For example, Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) viewed that everything, including human salvation and reprobation, was determined by God.{{sfn|James|1998b|ps=. "Zwingli attributes both to the divine will in the same way, constructing an absolutely symmetrical doctrine of double predestination. The cause and means of both election and reprobation are precisely the same. For Zwingli, God is the exclusive and immediate cause of all things."}} In contrast, "libertarian Calvinism", a revision described by Oliver D. Crisp in his book Deviant Calvinism (2014), is a soteriological monergism.{{sfn|Olson|2015|ps=. "Crisp’s “libertarian Calvinism” is not consistent with the vast majority of modern and contemporary Calvinisms in the U.S., [...] And it is not acceptable to Arminians because of its soteriological monergism [...]".}} Historically, this perspective has remained a minority view within Calvinism.{{sfn|Moreland|2001|p=155|ps=. "Indeed, throughout history there have been Calvinists who have accepted libertarian freedom for non-moral or non-salvific decisions".}}

Anglicanism originally inclined toward monergism due to its Lutheran and Calvinist heritage, but it eventually accommodated both monergistic and synergistic interpretations.{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|p=617}}{{sfn|Olson|1999|p=535|ps=. "Many Anglicans follow Richard Hooker's brand of synergism{{nbsp}}[...]".}} The Thirty-nine Articles of Religion, finalized in 1571, serve as the confession of faith for the Anglican tradition.{{sfn|EncyclopaediaE|2021}} They reflect a complex interplay of Calvinist influence, Catholic practice, and intentional ambiguity within individual articles.{{sfn|Milton|2002|p=396}}{{sfn|McClintock|Strong|1880}} Today, in some Anglican denominations, clergy are required to acknowledge the Articles, while in others, they are not.{{sfn|EncyclopaediaE|2021}}

Anglicanism has historically leaned more toward monergism, particularly in its early phases.{{sfn|Salter|2018|ps=. "The code and creed of Anglicanism is richly Trinitarian (divine self-disclosure), soteriologically monergistic (grace alone), and warmly pastoral (godly care) in its approach to the people it serves within and beyond the bounds of its membership."}} Early Anglican leaders such as Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556) held Reformed views that significantly shaped the Church’s initial doctrinal direction.{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|p=617}} However, following the Stuart Restoration (1660) through the mid-18th century, Calvinist theology became less prominent within Anglicanism.{{sfn|Griffith|Radcliff|2022|p=1|ps=. "From the Restoration to the mid-eighteenth century Calvinist theology was hardly evident in Anglicanism."}} Afterward, the Evangelical movement within Anglicanism revived and emphasized its Reformed roots.{{Sfn|Chapman|2006|p=68}} Related groups like the Church Society tend to interpret Article 10 of the Thirty-nine Articles in a monergistic sense.{{sfn|Woolford|2017|ps=. "Article 10 underwrites monergistic (from mono — ‘one,’ and ergo — ‘to work’) doctrine of justification. [...] It teaches that our state of spiritual death — the utter inability of the bound human will — means that everything that goes into our coming to spiritual life has to belong to God. His is the whole initiative; his is the decisive, effective will."}}

Conversely, High church and Anglo-Catholic traditions have tended toward synergism, drawing on the theology of the early Church Fathers and emphasizing the sacramental life, human free will, and cooperation with divine grace. Proto-Arminian figures like Lancelot Andrewes (1555–1626) and Jeremy Taylor (1613–1667) upheld the importance of the human response to God’s call.{{sfn|McClintock|Strong|1880}} In the 18th and 19th centuries, theologians such as George Pretyman Tomline (1750–1827) and Harold Browne (1811–1891) also interpreted Article 10 in a synergistic light.{{sfn|Browne|1865|pp=280-281|ps=. "The doctrine of Scripture, however, is evidently expressed in the words of our Article [X]. God must give the will, must set the will free from its natural slavery, before it can turn to good; but then it moves in the freedom which He has bestowed upon it, and never so truly uses that freedom, as when it follows the motions of the Spirit. Yet clearly there remains some power to resist and to do evil. For, though “those that have no will to good things God maketh them to will; [...] Yet, nevertheless, He enforceth not the will.”"}}{{sfn|Tomline|1818|pp=251-255|ps=. "The joint agency of God and man, in the work of human salvation, is pointed out in the following passage: "Let us work out our own salvation with fear and trembling; for it is God that worketh in us both to will and to do of his good pleasure" [...] some sects contend for the irresistible impulses of grace [...] [this] opinion seems irreconcilable with the free agency of man [...] let the will of man be admitted to be its handmaid, but such an one as is free [...] when it is freely excited by the admonitions of preventing grace, when it is prepared as to its affections, strengthened and assisted as to its powers and faculties, a man freely and willingly co-operates with God".}}

Since all forms of divine monergism (both soteriological and exhaustive) rely on unconditional election, God determines the fate of individuals, whether felicity or reprobation, either directly or indirectly. When divine monergism permits the existence of some reprobates, it can give the impression that God's love is both restricted and arbitrary.{{sfn|Olson|2009|pp=35, 41, 66}}

Monoenergism, the heretical belief that Christ had only one "energy" (energeia), was propagated during the first half of the 7th century.{{sfn|Gifford|2022|p=180}} In historical soteriological forms of divine monergism, Jesus was seen as being predetermined to obey the Father's will.{{sfn|Gifford|2022|p=180}} Consequently, the Father alone was the commanding energy, to which Christ's energy was entirely subjected. Some have suggested that monergism logically entails monoenergism.{{sfn|Gifford|2022|p=180{{zwnj}}|ps=. "The Augustinian doctrine of predestination, followed closely by the magisterial Reformed, holds that the human will is opposed to the divine (even in Jesus!) and that the paradigm of the relationship of the two natural wills is one of domination rather than cooperation. Thus, Monoernergism results, primarily because Jesus is subject to predestination in that tradition".}} Conversely, if Christ was not predetermined, this would allow for the possibility of a non-monoenergistic synergy.{{sfn|Phillips|2014|ps=. "If we say that Christ’s human will was exempt from divine predestination, then it is hard to avoid the implication that there must have been true non-monergistic synergy and co-operation between the divine and the human wills of Christ. But if so, then it is equally hard to see why it would be problematic to assert a similar non-monergistic synergy and co-operation between the divine and the human wills when dealing with the rest of humanity, especially since Christ typified the appropriate relation between humanity and divinity."}}

{{Portal|Christianity}}

• Augustinian soteriology
• Jansenism
• Monoenergism
• Synergism
• Theological determinism

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• {{cite book |language=en |last=Pinson |first=J. Matthew |title=40 Questions about Arminianism |location=Grand Rapids, MI |publisher=Kregel Publications |year=2022}}
• {{cite book |language=en |last=Robinson |first=Geoffrey D. |title=Saved by Grace through Faith or Saved by Decree? |location=Eugene, OR |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |date=2022}}
• {{cite web |language=en |last=Salter |first=Roger |title=The Martyrs' Stake: The Ensign of Reformational Anglicanism |website=VirtueOnline |access-date=23 June 2019 |date=2018 |url=https://virtueonline.org/martyrs-stake-ensign-reformational-anglicanism}}
• {{cite book |language=en |last=Sammons |first=Peter |title=Reprobation: from Augustine to the Synod of Dort: The Historical Development of the Reformed Doctrine of Reprobation |location=Gottingen |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |date=2020}}
• {{cite book |language=en |last=Schaff |first=Philip |title=St. Augustine: Anti-Pelagian Writings |volume=5 |place=Edimburgh |publisher=T&T Clark |year=1893 |url=https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf105/npnf105.html}}
• {{cite book |language=en |last=Schaff |first=Philip |title=History of the Christian Church |volume=3 |place=Oak Harbor, WA |publisher=Logos Research Systems |year=1997 |url=https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc3/hcc3.i.html}}
• {{cite web |language=en |last=Sproul |first=R. C. |title=The New Birth |website=Ligonier |date=2007-03-01 |access-date=2025-02-03|url=https://www.ligonier.org/learn/articles/new-birth}}
• {{cite book |language=en |last=Straton |first=Timothy A. |title=Human Freedom, Divine Knowledge, and Mere Molinism: A Biblical, Historical, Theological, and Philosophical Analysis |location=Eugene, OR |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |date=2020}}
• {{cite book |language=en |last=Talbott |first=Thomas |title=The Inescapable Love of God |publisher=Universal Publishers |location=Parkland, Fla |year=1999 |isbn=1-58112-831-2}}
• {{cite book |language=en |last=Tomline |first=George |title=Elements of Christian theology |location=London |publisher=Luke Hansard & sons |date=1818 |volume=2}}
• {{cite book |language=en |last=Ware |first=Bruce A. |title=God's Greater Glory: The Exalted God of Scripture and the Christian Faith |location=Wheaton, IL |publisher=Crossway Books |date=2004 |isbn= 9781581344431 |oclc=56334001}}
• {{cite book |language=en |last=Westminster Assembly |editor-last=S. W. |editor-first=Carruthers |title=The Confession of Faith of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster |location=London |publisher=Presbyterian Church of England |date=1946 |orig-year=1646 |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Confession_of_Faith_of_the_Assembly_of_Divines_at_Westminster}}
• {{cite web |language=en |last=Woolford |first=Tom |title=Article 10 — Of Free-Will |publisher=Church Society |url=https://www.churchsociety.org/resource/article-10-of-free-will/ |access-date=12 March 2025 |date=10 March 2017}}

• [https://www.monergism.com/ Monergism] – Contains articles explaining and defending Calvinistic monergism.

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