Tertiary education in Australia#Domestic

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• Types of Students:

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• Domestic Student (DS): Must be Australian or New Zealand citizen, or an Australian permanent resident status, or on a long-term Australian humanitarian refugee visa.[https://www.anu.edu.au/study/apply/domestic-applications-anu-undergraduate/definition-of-a-domestic-student "Domestic Student" (DS)], ANU, accessed on 2 August 2023. Australian citizens or permanent residence living overseas (out of Australia) who completed their pre-university education overseas are still considered domestic students for the purpose of tertiary education in Australia e.g. for gaining admission in CSP and for obtaining social security benefits. Domestic students are of following two types:
• CSP Domestic Students
• Full-fee paying Domestic Students

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• International Student (IS): All others are considered the International Student, including those living in Australia on other types of visa. International students pay full fee, though there are certain scholarships for them which are highly competitive to obtain.

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• For both Domestic and International students:

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• Combined Rank (CR) for International Baccalaureate (IB) students: both domestic and international students with IB, must apply to the "Australasian Conference of Tertiary Admission Centres" (ACTAC) which calculates an Australia-wide ATAR-like national rank called "Combined Rank" (CR) which combines results from across all states, thus enabling IB students to "apply in any Australian state or territory with confidence about how their results compare to their peers who have completed state curricula and received an ATAR", also "when completing your final year of schooling, ensure that you provide permission via your school for your IB results to be released to Australian tertiary admissions centres. As long as you identify yourself as an IB student and provide your IB candidate number when applying for courses, your IB scores and subject results will be received electronically and automatically converted for the purposes of selection and meeting prerequisites."

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• Selection Rank (SR): a rank assigned by the university for granting admission.
• Domestic students must apply to the Tertiary Admission Centre (TAC) of the relevant state which will calculate the ATAR and their selection rank is determined by the university based on the ATAR and some other additional criteria assigned by the university.
• International students must apply directly to the university, which will calculate their SR based on their high school qualifications.

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• USI (Unique Student Identifier): An individual student's identification number for life for tertiary education across all institutes. Without one, a student cannot receive their final qualification testimonial (degree certificate), online access, or Commonwealth government financial assistance such as CSP, etc.[https://www.usi.gov.au USI (Unique Student Identifier)], usi.gov.au, accessed on 2 August 2023.

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• EFTSL (Equivalent Full Time Student Load): A year of full-time study calculated based on number of units (subjects) undertaken by the student.[https://www.education.gov.au/higher-education-publications/higher-education-administrative-information-providers-october-2021/8-equivalent-EFTSL EFTSL], education.gov.au, accessed on 2 August 2023.

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• Fee for "CSP Domestic Students: "Commonwealth Supported Place" (CSP) subsidised students.

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• SLE (Student Learning Entitlement): During their lifetime a student can avail at least 7 years of EFTSL full-time subsidised study in Commonwealth Supported Places (CSP) across degrees, with additional SLE gained for Postgraduate courses, and 3 EFTSL gained after 10 years .[https://studyassist.gov.au/help-loans-commonwealth-supported-places-csps/student-learning-entitlement SLE (Student Learning Entitlement)], studyassist.gov.au, accessed on 2 August 2023.

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• LCR (Low Completion Rate): Fail rate of more than 50 per cent of the units of study a student has attempted. LCR results in termination of CSP subsidised fee. To continue to receive the CSP subsidy, the students must pass at least 50% of all units (subjects) attempted.[https://studyassist.gov.au/help-loans-commonwealth-supported-places-csps/low-completion-rate LCR (Low Completion Rate)], studyassist.gov.au, accessed on 2 August 2023.

{{anchor | CSP }}

• CSP (Commonwealth Supported Place) students: The study fee is partially subsidised by the government, most domestic students are the CSP students. Those domestic students who fail to secure a CSP must pay the full fee.[https://studyassist.gov.au/help-loans/commonwealth-supported-places-csps CSP(Commonwealth Supported Place) students], studyassist.gov.au, accessed on 2 August 2023.

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• SCA (Student Contribution Amounts): CSP student's share of the fee, can be covered with the HECS-HELP and/or OS-HELP.[https://studyassist.gov.au/help-loans-commonwealth-supported-places-csps/student-contribution-amounts SCA (Student Contribution Amounts)], studyassist.gov.au, accessed on 2 August 2023.

{{anchor | HECS }}

• HECS-HELP loan: to pay for SCA portion of CSP students. Does not cover the cost of accommodation, food living, and laptop etc.[https://studyassist.gov.au/help-loans/hecs-help HECS-HELP loan], studyassist.gov.au, accessed on 2 August 2023.

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• OS-HELP loan: For the CSP students undertaking part of their course overseas, students cannot get OS-HELP if qualification will be awarded by an overseas university or higher education provider.[https://studyassist.gov.au/help-loans/os-help-loans-and-overseas-study OS-HELP loan], studyassist.gov.au, accessed on 2 August 2023.

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• SA-HELP loan: For covering the SSAF (Student Services and Amenities Fee) for all domestic students including CSP and full-fee paying students. The maximum SSAF institutes can charge a student was A$326 in 2023.

[https://studyassist.gov.au/help-loans/sa-help SA-HELP], studyassist.gov.au, accessed on 2 August 2023.

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• Fee for "Full-fee paying Domestic Students" only.

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• FEE-HELP loan: For full fee paying domestic students. While HECS-HELP is loan for subsidised CSP students, whereas FEE-HELP is a loan for domestic full fee paying students to cover their fee only but it does not cover the cost of accommodation, food living, and laptop etc.[https://studyassist.gov.au/help-loans/fee-help FEE-HELP], studyassist.gov.au, accessed on 2 August 2023.
• SA-HELP loan: For covering the SSAF (Student Services and Amenities Fee) for all domestic students including CSP and full-fee paying students, the maximum SSAF institutes can charge a student was A$326 in 2023.
• Living expenses assistance for the domestic students - Social Security welfare payments & benefits: Only domestic students, both CSP & Full-fee paying students, are entitled, e.g. Austudy Payment, Youth Allowance, etc.. Domestic students are entitled to 30-35% discount on train and bus public transport fares in all states,[https://www.idp.com/australia/about-australia/transport/ Transport in Australia for students], idp.com, accessed 4 aug 2023. free medical insurance called Medicare, Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS), etc. International students are not eligible for the social security benefits or medicare.
• Scholarship: A large range of scholarships are available for both domestic and international students.[https://www.scholarshipportal.com/scholarships/australia Study portal scholarships in Australia list], scholarshipportal.com, accessed 2 aug 2023.

The first university established in Australia was the University of Sydney in 1850, followed in 1853 by the University of Melbourne. Prior to federation in 1901 two more universities were established: the University of Adelaide (1874) and the University of Tasmania (1890). At the time of federation, Australia's population was 3,788,100 and there were fewer than 2,652 university students. Two other universities were established soon after federation: the University of Queensland (1909) and the University of Western Australia (1911). All of these universities were controlled by State governments and were largely modelled on the traditional British university system and adopted both architectural and educational features in line with the (then) strongly influential 'mother' country. In his paper Higher Education in Australia: Structure, Policy and Debate{{cite web|last=Breen|first=Jim|date=December 2002|title=Higher Education in Australia: Structure, Policy & Debate|url=http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~jwb/aused/aused.html|publisher=Monash University}} Jim Breen observed that in 1914 only 3,300 students (or 0.1% of the Australian population) were enrolled in universities. In 1920 the Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee (AVCC) was formed to represent the interests of these six universities.

The 'non-university' institutions originally issued only trade/technical certificates, diplomas and professional bachelor's degrees. Although universities were differentiated from technical colleges and institutes of technology through their participation in research, Australian universities were initially not established with research as a significant component of their overall activities. For this reason, the Australian Government established the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) in 1926 as a backbone for Australian scientific research, which still exists today.

Two university colleges and no new universities were established before World War II. On the eve of the war, Australia's population reached seven million. The university participation level was relatively low. Australia had six universities and two university colleges with combined student numbers of 14,236. 10,354 were degree students (including only 81 higher degree students) and almost 4,000 sub-degree or non-award students.

In 1942, the Universities Commission was created to regulate university enrolments and the implementation of the Commonwealth Reconstruction Training Scheme (CRTS).

After the war, in recognition of the increased demand for teachers for the "baby boom" generation and the importance of higher education in national economic growth, the Commonwealth Government took an increased role in the financing of higher education from the States. In 1946 the Australian National University was created by an Act of Federal Parliament as a national research only institution (research and postgraduate research training for national purposes). By 1948 there were 32,000 students enrolled, under the impetus of CRTS.

In 1949, the University of New South Wales was established.

During the 1950s, enrolments increased by 30,000 and participation rates doubled.

In 1950, the Mills Committee Inquiry into university finances, focusing on short-term rather than long-term issues, resulted in the State Grants (Universities) Act 1951 being enacted (retrospective to 1 July 1950). It was a short-term scheme under which the Commonwealth contributed one quarter of the recurrent costs of "State" universities.

In 1954, the University of New England was established. In that year, Robert Menzies established the Committee on Australian Universities. The Murray Committee Inquiry of 1957 found that financial stringency was the root cause of the shortcomings across universities: short staffing, poor infrastructure, high failure rates, weak honours and postgraduate schools. It also accepted the financial recommendations in full, which led to increased funds to the sector and establishment of Australian Universities Commission (AUC) and the conclusion that the Commonwealth Government should accept greater responsibility for the States' universities.

In 1958, Monash University was established. States Grants (Universities) Act 1958 allocated funding to States for capital and recurrent expenditure in universities for the triennial 1958 to 1960. In 1959, Australian Universities Commission Act of 1959 was established the AUC as a statutory body to advise the Commonwealth Government on university matters. Between 1958 and 1960 there was more than a 13% annual increase in university enrolments. By 1960, there were 53,000 students in ten universities. There was a spate of universities established in the 1960s and 70s: Macquarie University (1964), La Trobe University (1964), the University of Newcastle (1965), Flinders University (1966), James Cook University (1970), Griffith University (1971), Deakin University (1974), Murdoch University (1975), and the University of Wollongong (1975). By 1960, the number of students enrolled in Australian Universities had reached 53,000. By 1975 there were 148,000 students in 19 universities.

Until 1973, university tuition was funded either through Commonwealth scholarships, which were based on merit, or through fees. Tertiary education in Australia was structured into three sectors:

• Universities
• Institutes of technology (a hybrid between a university and a technical college)
• Technical colleges

During the early 1970s, there was a significant push to make tertiary education in Australia more accessible to working and middle-class people. In 1973, the Whitlam Labor Government abolished university fees. This increased the university participation rate.

In 1974, the Commonwealth assumed full responsibility for funding higher education (i.e., universities and Colleges of Advanced Education (CAEs)) and established the Commonwealth Tertiary Education Commission (CTEC), which had an advisory role and responsibility for allocating government funding among universities. However, in 1975, in the context of federal political crisis and economic recession, triennial funding of universities was suspended. Demand remained with growth directed to CAEs and State-controlled TAFE colleges.

By the mid-1980s, the method by which fees were re-introduced proved to be a system accepted by both Federal political parties and consequently is still in place today. The system is known as the Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS) and enables students to defer payment of fees until after they commence professional employment, and after their income exceeds a threshold level – at that point, the fees are automatically deducted through income tax.

By the late 1980s, the Australian tertiary education system was still a three-tier system, composed of:

• All tertiary institutions established as universities by acts of parliament (e.g. Sydney, Monash, La Trobe, Griffith)
• A collection of institutes of technology (such as the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT))
• A collection of colleges of Technical and Further Education (TAFE)

However, by this point, the roles of the universities, institutes of technology and the CSIRO had also become blurred.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} Institutes of technology had moved from their traditional role of undergraduate teaching and industry-consulting towards conducting pure and applied research. They also had the ability to award degrees through to Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) level.

For a number of reasons, including clarifying the role of institutes of technology, the Federal Minister for Education of the time (John Dawkins) created the unified national system, which compressed the former three-tier tertiary education system into a two-tier system. This required a number of amalgamations and mergers between smaller tertiary institutions, and the option for institutes of technology to become universities. As a result of these reforms, institutes of technology disappeared and were replaced by a collection of new universities. By the early 1990s, the two-tier tertiary education was in place in Australia – university education and Technical and Further Education (TAFE). By the early years of the new millennium, even TAFE colleges were permitted to offer degrees up to bachelor's level.

The 1980s also saw the establishment of Australia's first private university, Bond University. Founded by businessman Alan Bond, this Gold Coast institution was granted its university status by the Queensland government in 1987.

For the most part, up until the 1990s, the traditional Australian universities had focused upon pure, fundamental, and basic research rather than industry or applied research – a proportion of which had been well supported by the CSIRO which had been set up for this function.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} Australians had performed well internationally in pure research, having scored almost a dozen Nobel Prizes{{cite web|date=1 January 2014|title=The White Hat Guide to Australian Nobel Prize Winners|url=http://whitehat.com.au/Australia/People/NobelPrize.asp|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041214021608/http://www.whitehat.com.au/Australia/People/NobelPrize.asp|archive-date=14 December 2004|access-date=5 July 2014|publisher=White Hat}} as a result of their participation in pure research.

In the 1990s, the Hawke/Keating Federal Government sought to redress the shortcoming in applied research by creating a cultural shift in the national research profile.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} This was achieved{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} by introducing university scholarships and research grants for postgraduate research in collaboration with industry, and by introducing a national system of Cooperative Research Centres (CRCs). These new centres were focused on a narrow band of research themes (e.g., photonics, cast metals, etc.) and were intended to foster cooperation between universities and industry. A typical CRC would be composed of a number of industry partners, university partners and CSIRO. Each CRC would be funded by the Federal Government for an initial period of several years. The total budget of a CRC, composed of the Federal Government monies combined with industry and university funds, was used to fund industry-driven projects with a high potential for commercialisation. It was perceived that this would lead to CRCs becoming self-sustaining (self-funding) entities in the long-term, although this has not eventuated.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} Most Australian universities have some involvement as partners in CRCs, and CSIRO is also significantly represented across the spectrum of these centres.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} This has led to a further blurring of the role of CSIRO and how it fits in with research in Australian universities.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}}

File:Australian Census 2011 demographic map - Australia by SLA - BCP field 2865 University or other Tertiary Institution Total Persons.svg

File:ABS-6291.0.55.003-LabourForceAustraliaDetailedQuarterly-EmployedPersonsByIndustrySubdivisionSex-EmployedTotal-TertiaryEducation-Persons-A2545751F.svg

From 1989 to 1999, there was an increase of 28% in adults studying in post-compulsory courses, most of which whom were studying in the tertiary sector.

{{cite web|last=ABS|title=Participation in Education: Beyond compulsory schooling|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/2f762f95845417aeca25706c00834efa/6ca07444d2673d02ca2570ec000e3632!OpenDocument|access-date=6 September 2021|website=ABS|date=4 July 2000 }}

In 2006, Campion College was opened in Sydney as a Roman Catholic liberal arts tertiary college, with an original intake of 16 students, growing to 30-40 per year.

In 2008, Canberra lifted restrictions on university enrolments, in order to make tertiary education more accessible to students from socioeconomic groups which had previously had relatively low levels of participation in higher education.

The Rural and Regional Enterprise Scholarships (RRES) programme, inaugurated by the Liberal-National Coalition government in 2016, was a strategic initiative aimed at ameliorating educational disparities between metropolitan and non-metropolitan regions. This programme was meticulously designed to enhance access to, and completion of, tertiary education for students hailing from regional and remote areas, thereby promoting equitable academic opportunities across the nation.{{Cite web |date=2014-08-27 |title=Indications Pyne sympathetic to assistance package for regional unis, campuses, students |url=https://www.abc.net.au/listen/programs/worldtoday/indications-pyne-sympathetic-to-assistance-package/5700346 |access-date=2025-02-09 |website=ABC listen |language=en-AU}}{{cite news

|title=Government reconsiders adjusting regional loading for university

|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-06-09/government-reconsiders-adjusting-regional-loading-university/7495286

|date=9 June 2016

|publisher=ABC News

|access-date=2025-02-09

}}

The RRES programme encompassed support for a diverse array of academic pursuits, spanning from Certificate IV to PhD qualifications, thereby accommodating a wide spectrum of educational aspirations and professional trajectories. By alleviating financial barriers and fostering skill development through internships, the RRES programme endeavoured to cultivate a more inclusive and proficient workforce, attuned to the evolving demands of a technologically advanced economy.{{Cite web |date=2014-08-27 |title=Indications Pyne sympathetic to assistance package for regional unis, campuses, students |url=https://www.abc.net.au/listen/programs/worldtoday/indications-pyne-sympathetic-to-assistance-package/5700346 |access-date=2025-02-09 |website=ABC listen |language=en-AU}}

In essence, the RRES programme stood as a testament to the government's commitment to educational equity, striving to dismantle locational barriers and engender a more balanced distribution of educational attainment across Australia's diverse regions.{{Cite web |date=2014-08-27 |title=Indications Pyne sympathetic to assistance package for regional unis, campuses, students |url=https://www.abc.net.au/listen/programs/worldtoday/indications-pyne-sympathetic-to-assistance-package/5700346 |access-date=2025-02-09 |website=ABC listen |language=en-AU}}{{cite news

|title=Government reconsiders adjusting regional loading for university

|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-06-09/government-reconsiders-adjusting-regional-loading-university/7495286

|date=9 June 2016

|publisher=ABC News

|access-date=2025-02-09

}}

The programme's objectives were multifaceted, aiming to increase the number of regional and remote students engaging in tertiary study at qualification levels from Certificate IV and above, enabling them to undertake their preferred course of study irrespective of their location, and ensuring they complete their course of study relative to their peers. Through tertiary study and internship opportunities, scholarship recipients could obtain important job-related skills, as well as strengthening their foundational literacies, socio-emotional skills, and higher-order cognitive skills. They would be better equipped to adapt to the changing nature of work in a technologically advanced economy.{{Cite web |date=2014-08-27 |title=Indications Pyne sympathetic to assistance package for regional unis, campuses, students |url=https://www.abc.net.au/listen/programs/worldtoday/indications-pyne-sympathetic-to-assistance-package/5700346 |access-date=2025-02-09 |website=ABC listen |language=en-AU}}

The RRES programme has been instrumental in helping Australians in regional and remote areas access higher education, offering life-changing opportunities for students pursuing qualifications from Certificate IV to PhD level.{{Cite web |date=2014-08-27 |title=Indications Pyne sympathetic to assistance package for regional unis, campuses, students |url=https://www.abc.net.au/listen/programs/worldtoday/indications-pyne-sympathetic-to-assistance-package/5700346 |access-date=2025-02-09 |website=ABC listen |language=en-AU}}{{cite news

|title=Government reconsiders adjusting regional loading for university

|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-06-09/government-reconsiders-adjusting-regional-loading-university/7495286

|date=9 June 2016

|publisher=ABC News

|access-date=2025-02-09

}}{{cite web |url=https://www.education.gov.au/rres |title=RRES |publisher=Australian Government Department of Education and Training |accessdate=2025-02-09}}

In 2017 the government introduced a freeze on the demand led funding structure, such that admitting more students did not result in a higher funding for institutions, in order to control spending.{{cite news

|title=Government reconsiders adjusting regional loading for university

|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-06-09/government-reconsiders-adjusting-regional-loading-university/7495286

|date=9 June 2016

|publisher=ABC News

|access-date=2025-02-09

}}

Between 2017 and 2020, the Liberal-National Coalition government in Australia continued to implement initiatives to enhance the tertiary education system, aligning it with emerging industries and workforce demands.{{Cite web |title=Good outcomes for science in Budget 2018 {{!}} Australian Academy of Science |url=https://www.science.org.au/news-and-events/news-and-media-releases/good-outcomes-science-budget-2018-0 |access-date=2025-01-12 |website=www.science.org.au |language=en}}

In 2017, building upon the foundations laid by the Rural and Regional Enterprise Scholarships (RRES), the government inaugurated the Regional University Centres (RUCs) programme, marking a seminal milestone in Australian higher education policy. Endowed with a substantial allocation, this initiative was designed to ameliorate longstanding disparities between metropolitan and rural educational opportunities. By establishing a network of strategically located regional study hubs, the programme was conceived as a vehicle for fostering equitable access to tertiary education, particularly for communities in remote locales.{{cite web

|title=Regional and Remote Higher Education

|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_departments/Parliamentary_Library/Research/Quick_Guides/2021-22/RegionalRemoteHigherEducation

|publisher=Parliamentary Library, Parliament of Australia

|access-date=2025-02-09

}}

This integrative model combined state-of-the-art digital learning technologies with on-site academic resources, thus ensuring that students, regardless of their location, could engage in a broad spectrum of educational activities. Such a pioneering approach was aimed at fostering a dynamic and inclusive educational environment, reflective of both modern pedagogical practices and the unique requirements of regional communities.{{cite web

|title=Regional and Remote Higher Education

|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_departments/Parliamentary_Library/Research/Quick_Guides/2021-22/RegionalRemoteHigherEducation

|publisher=Parliamentary Library, Parliament of Australia

|access-date=2025-02-09

}}

Challenges remained in fully bridging the gap between regional and metropolitan student enrollments. The Australian National Audit Office (ANAO) conducted a performance audit titled "Access and Participation Programs for Regional and Remote Students," assessing the effectiveness of the Department of Education's design and implementation of programmes and initiatives to improve the access and participation of regional and remote students in higher education. The audit highlighted areas for improvement, including the need for better targeting of resources and more effective monitoring and evaluation of programmes outcomes.{{cite report

|title=Access and Participation Programs for Regional and Remote Students

|url=https://www.anao.gov.au/work/performance-audit/access-and-participation-programs-regional-and-remote-students

|publisher=Australian National Audit Office

|access-date=2025-02-09

}}

The 2017 reforms to the Higher Education Participation and Partnerships Program (HEPPP) signalled a major shift in the Australian Government’s approach to enhancing the accessibility and success of disadvantaged students in higher education. By merging the previously separate Participation and Partnerships components into a single Access and Participation Fund, the reforms aimed at simplifying the funding structure while increasing its impact. This restructuring facilitated a more targeted allocation of resources, with an emphasis on creating sustained support systems for students from low socio-economic backgrounds, Indigenous communities, and other underrepresented groups in higher education.{{Cite web |last=juicebox |date=2017-05-02 |title=Reforms to the HEPPP under the Government's Higher Education Reform Package |url=https://www.acses.edu.au/reforms-heppp-governments-higher-education-reform-package/ |access-date=2025-02-09 |website=ACSES |language=en}}

The government’s decision to focus on data-driven outcomes and performance metrics was an important aspect of the reforms. By enhancing data collection and evaluation processes, the government sought not only to improve access but also to monitor the long-term success and academic achievements of students benefiting from HEPPP funding. This evaluation-driven approach was aligned with the broader goals of educational reform under the Liberal National Party’s policy framework, which placed a premium on both equitable access to education and measurable outcomes. In this sense, the HEPPP reforms reflected the government’s belief that long-term success in higher education for disadvantaged students depends not just on access, but on performance and retention, requiring an integrated and robust support system.{{Cite web |last=juicebox |date=2017-05-02 |title=Reforms to the HEPPP under the Government's Higher Education Reform Package |url=https://www.acses.edu.au/reforms-heppp-governments-higher-education-reform-package/ |access-date=2025-02-09 |website=ACSES |language=en}}

Furthermore, these reforms were a response to ongoing conversations about the need for targeted interventions that could ensure that higher education remained within reach for students who might otherwise face barriers due to socio-economic or cultural factors. The LNP government’s focus on expanding the scope of the HEPPP programme, while also driving efficiencies through streamlined processes, reinforced its commitment to maintaining the accessibility of higher education without compromising on the quality of the education system. In this context, the policy shift emphasised a balance between ensuring equity of opportunity and maintaining rigorous academic standards, a core feature of the government’s broader educational reforms.{{Cite web |last=juicebox |date=2017-05-02 |title=Reforms to the HEPPP under the Government's Higher Education Reform Package |url=https://www.acses.edu.au/reforms-heppp-governments-higher-education-reform-package/ |access-date=2025-02-09 |website=ACSES |language=en}}

Additionally, the funding arrangements within the restructured HEPPP allowed for more tailored partnerships between universities and local communities, ensuring that initiatives were not only nationally consistent but also responsive to the specific needs of diverse groups. By supporting both institutional collaborations and community-based projects, the reforms aimed to foster long-term relationships between higher education providers and disadvantaged communities, thereby contributing to the broader social and economic inclusion agenda supported by the government.{{Cite web |last=juicebox |date=2017-05-02 |title=Reforms to the HEPPP under the Government's Higher Education Reform Package |url=https://www.acses.edu.au/reforms-heppp-governments-higher-education-reform-package/ |access-date=2025-02-09 |website=ACSES |language=en}}

In 2018, the government introduced a $1.9 billion National Research Infrastructure Investment Plan, focusing on critical national research infrastructure, including upgrades to major computing facilities.{{Cite web |title=Good outcomes for science in Budget 2018 {{!}} Australian Academy of Science |url=https://www.science.org.au/news-and-events/news-and-media-releases/good-outcomes-science-budget-2018-0 |access-date=2025-01-12 |website=www.science.org.au |language=en}}

Efforts were made to foster collaboration between academia and industry, aiming to translate academic research into real-world applications. The National Innovation and Science Agenda was a key policy in this regard.{{Cite web |title=Good outcomes for science in Budget 2018 {{!}} Australian Academy of Science |url=https://www.science.org.au/news-and-events/news-and-media-releases/good-outcomes-science-budget-2018-0 |access-date=2025-01-12 |website=www.science.org.au |language=en}}

The government also backed schemes aimed at boosting diversity and fairness in higher education, including efforts to encourage participation from underrepresented groups. A particular focus was placed on STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) subjects, where a significant gender gap and lack of representation from diverse communities were recognised.{{Cite web |title=Good outcomes for science in Budget 2018 {{!}} Australian Academy of Science |url=https://www.science.org.au/news-and-events/news-and-media-releases/good-outcomes-science-budget-2018-0 |access-date=2025-01-12 |website=www.science.org.au |language=en}}

To tackle this, funding and initiatives were introduced to inspire women and girls to pursue studies and careers in STEM. These included mentorship programmes, bursaries, and outreach efforts in schools and universities designed to break down barriers that have historically hindered women’s involvement in these fields. Moreover, partnerships were developed between industry and educational institutions to create clear pathways linking STEM education to job opportunities. By fostering a more inclusive environment and promoting diverse role models, the government aimed to build a more varied and innovative workforce in science and technology.{{Cite web |title=Good outcomes for science in Budget 2018 {{!}} Australian Academy of Science |url=https://www.science.org.au/news-and-events/news-and-media-releases/good-outcomes-science-budget-2018-0 |access-date=2025-01-12 |website=www.science.org.au |language=en}}

The Job-ready Graduates Package, introduced by the LNP Australian Government in 2020, aimed to reform higher education funding to better align with national labour market needs. The policy sought to incentivise students to enroll in courses with strong employment prospects by adjusting student contribution amounts and government subsidies. This policy sought to balance equitable access with financial sustainability, ensuring that all students, regardless of background, could pursue education in fields with strong employment prospects.{{cite web |last=Norton |first=Andrew |title=Job-ready Graduates Price Effects: An Update with 2022 Enrolment Data |url=https://andrewnorton.net.au/2024/07/18/job-ready-graduates-price-effects-an-update-with-2022-enrolment-data/ |date=18 July 2024 |accessdate=13 January 2025}}

{{cite journal |last=Australian Journal of Labour Economics |title=The Impact of the Job-Ready Graduates Package on Student Choices |journal=Australian Journal of Labour Economics |year=2020 |url=https://ajle.org/index.php/ajle_home/article/view/39 |accessdate=13 January 2025}}{{cite web |title=University funding to be tied to graduate jobs as freeze lifts |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/university-funding-to-be-tied-to-graduate-jobs-as-freeze-lifts/gnpggqdn1 |publisher=SBS News |date=2020-10-07 |access-date=2025-01-13}}

The introduction of the Job-ready Graduates Package in 2020 prompted discussions about the value of different fields within the context of higher education reforms. The initiative aimed to align university funding with national economic priorities, focusing on areas expected to meet labour market demands, such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), as well as health and education.{{cite web |title=University funding to be tied to graduate jobs as freeze lifts |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/university-funding-to-be-tied-to-graduate-jobs-as-freeze-lifts/gnpggqdn1 |publisher=SBS News |date=2020-10-07 |access-date=2025-01-13}}{{cite web |last=Norton |first=Andrew |title=Job-ready Graduates Price Effects: An Update with 2022 Enrolment Data |url=https://andrewnorton.net.au/2024/07/18/job-ready-graduates-price-effects-an-update-with-2022-enrolment-data/ |date=18 July 2024 |accessdate=13 January 2025}}

{{cite journal |last=Australian Journal of Labour Economics |title=The Impact of the Job-Ready Graduates Package on Student Choices |journal=Australian Journal of Labour Economics |year=2020 |url=https://ajle.org/index.php/ajle_home/article/view/39 |accessdate=13 January 2025}}

Without the Job-Ready Graduates Package’s differential pricing to steer enrolments, universities would lack the financial incentives needed to discourage over-subscription to less job-relevant disciplines. This would likely lead institutions to chase revenue by offering an increased number of low-value courses—particularly in the humanities and arts—where student contributions could be raised without regard to labour-market needs.{{Cite web |last=Moore |first=Ian |date=2023-11-15 |title=Job-ready Graduates 2.0: The Universities Accord and centralised control of universities and courses |url=https://www.cis.org.au/publication/job-ready-graduates-2-0-the-universities-accord-and-centralised-control-of-universities-and-courses/ |access-date=2025-05-09 |website=The Centre for Independent Studies |language=en-US}}

In the absence of these demand-side incentives, institutions have historically responded by expanding courses in lower-cost, lower-return fields, such the arts, to bolster revenue, leading to a proliferation of low-value offerings that exacerbate graduate underemployment and strain university budgets.{{Cite web |last=Moore |first=Ian |date=2023-11-15 |title=Job-ready Graduates 2.0: The Universities Accord and centralised control of universities and courses |url=https://www.cis.org.au/publication/job-ready-graduates-2-0-the-universities-accord-and-centralised-control-of-universities-and-courses/ |access-date=2025-05-09 |website=The Centre for Independent Studies |language=en-US}}

The calibrated pricing of the JRG package bands discourage enrolment in lower-return fields, such as certain humanities and arts courses, thereby preventing the proliferation of low-value offerings, preventing disruption on campuses, and protecting university budgets from under-performing programs/programmes.{{Cite web |last=Amanda |date=2024-12-06 |title=Stop top fee band to start unwinding JRG |url=https://futurecampus.com.au/2024/12/06/stop-top-fee-band-to-start-unwinding-jrg/ |access-date=2025-05-09 |website=Future Campus |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |title=Job-Ready Graduates package passes the Senate |url=https://universitiesaustralia.edu.au/media-item/job-ready-graduates-package-passes-parliament/ |access-date=2025-05-09 |website=Universities Australia |language=en}}

In between January 2020 and September 2022, COVID-19 pandemic and Deltacron hybrid variant has both impacted Australian tertiary/higher education sector by reducing revenue by A$3 – 4.6 billion.{{cite web|last=Duffy|first=national education reporter Conor|date=2020-04-12|title=Relief for universities will 'unashamedly' prioritise domestic students|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-04-12/government-announces-coronavirus-higher-education-relief-package/12142752|access-date=2020-04-18|website=ABC News|language=en-AU}} Australian universities depend on overseas students for their revenue. Federal Education Minister Dan Tehan announced $252 million to support the sector by allowing universities and colleges to offer short courses of 6 months duration with at least 50% reduction in fees, as well as guaranteeing the sector's existing $18 billion funding regardless of changes in domestic enrolment.{{cite web|date=12 April 2020 |title=Higher Education Relief Package|url=https://ministers.dese.gov.au/tehan/higher-education-relief-package|access-date=2020-04-18|website=Ministers' Media Centre|language=en}} Tehan announced that 20,000 places short-term courses in nursing, teaching, health, IT, and science. An estimated 17,000 jobs had been lost in the sector by mid-2021.{{cite web|date=16 August 2021|title=Unis face more jobs cuts, closure threats as revenue loss tipped to pass $5b|url=https://www.smh.com.au/education/unis-face-more-jobs-cuts-closure-threats-as-revenue-loss-tipped-to-pass-5b-20210813-p58in0.html|access-date=2021-09-06|website=Sydney Morning Herald|language=en}}

{{ anchor | AQFL }}

File:Aerial photo of Deakin University's Building C.jpg's Building C in Burwood in Victoria state.]]

{{Main|Australian Qualifications Framework}}

Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) is the national Education policy of Australia. It integrates all levels of tertiary education (both vocational and higher education), from trade certificates to higher doctorates, into a single unified classification system based on the following 10 levels.

• Definitions:
• Tertiary education: Level 1 to 10.
• Higher education: Level 5 to 10.
• Higher education by research: only research degrees in the Level 8–10.
• Postgraduate qualifications: all qualifications in Level 8-10 excluding "Honors bachelor's degree".
• Undergraduate qualifications: all up to & below the "Honor's bachelor degree" in Level1-7.
• AQF qualification levels:
• Level-10: Higher Doctorate
• Level-10: PhD
• Level-10: Professional doctorate
• Level-9: Master's degree by research.
• Level-9: Master's degree by coursework.
• Level-9: Extended master's degree.
• Level-8: Graduate diploma.
• Level-8: Graduate certificate.
• Level-8: Honours bachelor's degree.
• Level-7: Bachelor degree.
• Level-6: Associate degree.
• Level-6: Advanced diploma.
• Level-5: Diploma.
• Level-4: Certificate IV.
• Level-3: Certificate III.
• Level-2: Certificate II.
• Level-1: Certificate I.

file:Female_Orphan_School_UWS_Parramatta.jpg in New South Wales state.]]

{{anchor | Ranking | Reputation }}

Australian universities consistently feature well in the top 150 international universities as ranked by the Academic Ranking of World Universities, the QS World University Rankings, and the Times Higher Education World University Rankings. From 2012 through 2016, eight Australian universities have featured in the top 150 universities of these three lists.{{cite news | last =Dodd| first =Tim| title =Sydney Uni drops out of top 100; Melbourne Uni rises| newspaper =Financial Review| publisher = Fairfax Media| date =16 August 2014| url =http://www.afr.com/p/national/sydney_uni_drops_out_of_top_melbourne_A85LV1uGrXj6mixJbvF9FN| access-date = 17 August 2014}}{{cite web|title=Academic Ranking of World Universities 2016|url=http://www.shanghairanking.com/ARWU2016.html|publisher=Shanghai Ranking Consultancy|access-date=17 December 2016|archive-date=1 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601014730/http://www.shanghairanking.com/ARWU2016.html|url-status=dead}}{{cite web|title=QS World University Rankings|url=http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2016|publisher=QS Quacquarelli Symonds Limited|access-date=17 December 2016}}{{cite web|title=Top Universities in Australia 2017|url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/student/best-universities/best-universities-australia|publisher=Times Higher Education|access-date=17 December 2016}} The eight universities which are regularly ranked highly are Australian National University, the University of Melbourne, the University of Queensland, the University of Adelaide, Monash University, the University of Western Australia, the University of New South Wales, and the University of Sydney. These universities comprise Australia's Group of Eight, a coalition of research-intensive Australian universities.{{cite journal|last1=Williams|first1=R|last2=Van Dyke|first2=N|title=Measuring the international standing of universities with an application to Australian universities|journal=Higher Education|date=2007|volume=53|issue=6|pages=819–841|doi=10.1007/s10734-005-7516-4|s2cid=144289796}}

• Private providers:
  Usually established under the corporations law.
• Universities:
  In Australia, most universities are recognised & established under state and territory legislation. TEQSA only maintains the register of Australian universities, but university are self-accrediting and largely self-regulating institutions. The exceptional cases, where universities were not established under the state or territory legislation, are as follows:
• Established under Commonwealth legislation, e.g. Australian National University, Australian Film, Television and Radio School and Australian Maritime College.
• Established under the corporations law, e.g. Australian Catholic University.

Tertiary education providers are often established or recognised by or under the law of the Australian Government, a state, or the Department of Education, Skills and Employment.{{cite web|date=2021-02-05|title=Higher Education|url=https://www.dese.gov.au/higher-education|access-date=2021-05-19|website=Department of Education, Skills and Employment}}{{cite web|last=Agency|first=Tertiary Education Quality and Standards|date=2017-10-06|title=What we do|url=https://www.teqsa.gov.au/what-we-do|access-date=2021-05-19|website=www.teqsa.gov.au|language=en}} Following government entities maintain the official register of the approved tertiary education providers:

• TEQSA for HEP ("Higher Education Providers"), such as universities, TAFE & RTO: All institutes which provide qualifications from level 5 to 10. All higher education providers must be registered by TEQSA; registrations and decisions on regulatory activity is searchable on the National Register.{{cite web|last=Agency|first=Tertiary Education Quality and Standards|date=2016-11-23|title=National Register|url=https://www.teqsa.gov.au/national-register|access-date=2021-07-07|website=www.teqsa.gov.au|language=en}} Student can verify the registration status of an institute or university by checking the national register for HEP maintained by TEQSA.[https://www.teqsa.gov.au/national-register TEQSA National Register], teqsa.gov.au, accessed 4 aug 2023.
• ASQA for VET, such as TAFE & RTO: All VET (Vocational Education and Training) providers are registered and regulated by the Australian Skills Quality Agency (ASQA).{{cite web|title=About ASQA|url=https://www.asqa.gov.au/about|access-date=2021-05-19|website=Australian Skills Quality Authority (ASQA)|language=en}} ASQA publishes decisions about registrations and regulatory activity on a national register, providing information about VET providers to students and employers.{{cite web|title=Skills: training.gov.au|url=https://training.gov.au/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=training.gov.au}}

• Universities are self regulated: In Australia, most universities are recognised & established under state and territory legislation. TEQSA only maintains the register of Australian universities, but university are self-accrediting and largely self-regulating institutions. As self-accrediting institutions, Australia's universities have a reasonably high level of autonomy to operate within the legislative requirements associated with their Australian Government funding.{{cite web|title=Overview|url=http://www.deewr.gov.au/HigherEducation/Pages/Overview.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100906093838/http://www.deewr.gov.au/highereducation/pages/overview.aspx|archive-date=6 September 2010|access-date=13 July 2010|publisher=Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations}}
• Two national regulators for the non-university tertiary education: Responsible for recognition and quality assurance of both the provider institute as well as the individual specific courses provided by the providers.
• Australian Skills Quality Authority (ASQA) - regulator for Level-1-6: regulates institutes VETs, such as TAFE & RTO.
• Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA) - regulator for Level-5-10: regulates Higher Education Providers (HEP) institutes such as TAFE & RTO. TEQSA is the regulator for accrediting the courses of non-self-accrediting higher education providers, e.g. government-owned TAFE & private education providers called RTOs. All TAFE institutes and private RTOs are required to maintain compliance with a set of national quality assurance standards called the Australian Quality Training Framework (AQTF), monitored by regular internal and external audits by the federal government.{{cite web|url=https://www.teqsa.gov.au/what-we-do|title=What we do|last=Agency|first=Tertiary Education Quality and Standards|date=2017-10-06|website=www.teqsa.gov.au|language=en|access-date=2020-04-19}} All trainers and assessors delivering VET programs are required to hold a qualification known as the "Certificate IV in Training and Assessment" (TAA40104) or the more current TAE40110,{{cite web|url=http://training.gov.au/Training/Details/TAE40110 |title=TAE40110 - Certificate IV in Training and Assessment |publisher=training.gov.au |date= |accessdate=2022-08-21}} or demonstrate equivalent competency.

{{See also|Tertiary education fees in Australia}}

Most Australian universities are established by the government and hence they receive the vast majority of their public funding from the Australian Government, through the Higher Education Support Act 2003. The Department of Education, Skills and Employment has responsibility for administering this funding, and for developing and administering higher education policy and programs. Government funding is provided largely through:

• Commonwealth Grant Scheme which provides for a specified number of Commonwealth supported places each year
• Higher Education Loan Programme (HELP) arrangements providing financial assistance to students
• Commonwealth Scholarships and
• a range of grants for specific purposes including quality, learning and teaching, research and research training programmes.

{{See also|List of universities in Australia}}

File:Deakin University Burwood Campus.jpg, one of Australia's 43 universities.]]

Universities Australia is the Association of Australian universities which acts as a lobby group. Various universities have formed the subgroups as follows, some universities are part of more than one group:

• Group of Eight (Go8): Oldest 8 universities of Australia usually having the highest standing.
• Australian Technology Network
• Innovative Research Universities.

{{Main|Technical and further education|Registered training organisation}}

Vocational Education and Training (VET) in Australia, is provided by following two types of institutes.

1. Technical And Further Education (TAFE): state-government-owned & spread across the country, offer short courses, Certificates I, II, III, and IV, diplomas, and advanced diplomas in a wide range of vocational topics. The Grattan Institute has found that, for low-ATAR male students, TAFE training often results in a more stable and lucrative career than a university degree. Low-ATAR female students, however, are usually better off acquiring a degree in a profession such as teaching or nursing.{{Citation

| last1 =Norton

| first1 =Andrew

| last2 =Cherastidtham

| first2 =Ittima

| title =Risks and rewards: when is vocational education a good alternative to higher education?

| publisher =Grattan Institute

| date =11 August 2019

| url =https://grattan.edu.au/report/risks-and-rewards-when-is-vocational-education-a-good-alternative-to-higher-education/

| access-date =14 August 2019 }}

1. Registered Training Organisation (RTO) which are privately operated, e.g. in Victoria state alone there are approximately 1100. In size these RTOs vary from single-person operations delivering training and assessment in a narrow specialisation, to large organisations offering a wide range of programs. Many of them receive government funding to deliver programs to apprentices or trainees, to disadvantaged groups, or in fields which governments see as priority areas. They include:

• Commercial Training Providers (CTP).
• Community Learning Centres (CLC) and neighbourhood houses.
• Group training companies.
• Industry Associations' Training Department, e.g. training department of Professionals Australia (trade union of professionals formerly known as APESMA).
• Secondary Colleges (SC-VET) providing VET programs.
• Training Department (TD) of manufacturing or service enterprises.

{{anchor | Domestic }}

Admission for domestic students to undergraduate degrees are done on the basis of ATAR-based selection rank.{{Cite web|title=Australian Tertiary Admission Rank|url=https://www.uac.edu.au/future-applicants/atar|access-date=2020-10-19|website=University Admissions Centre|language=en}} Admission to universities is granted based on the "selection rank" calculated by each university based on its own unique criteria. Selection ranks are a combination of ATAR, additional points based on universities' own criteria used for selecting students such as a "personal statement, a questionnaire, a portfolio of work, an audition, an interview or a test", as well as special considerations.{{Cite web|url=https://www.qtac.edu.au/atar-2020|title=ATAR 2020 - QTAC|website=www.qtac.edu.au|language=en|access-date=2017-08-12|archive-date=12 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170812144145/https://www.qtac.edu.au/atar-2020|url-status=dead}}{{Cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-08-25/op-score-to-go-by-2018-external-exams/6721702 |title=OP score to go in Queensland in 2018; replaced by Australian Tertiary Admission Rank system |date=25 August 2015 |access-date=20 May 2016}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.uac.edu.au/future-applicants/atar |title=Know ATAR|access-date=20 Feb 2020}}

{{anchor | TAC | UAC | SUAC }}

The ATAR is used by all Australian public universities via their respective state-level Tertiary Admissions Centres (TAC), each of these act as single point of application for all universities & post-secondary education institutes within that state or territory, i.e. domestic students do not have to apply for each university or institute separately within that state.

There are 6 SUAC covering 6 states and 2 territories of Australia:

• ACT & NSW: Universities Admissions Centre (UAC).
• NT & SA: South Australian Tertiary Admissions Centre (SATAC).
• QLD: Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre (QTAC).
• TAS: University of Tasmania.
  It is sole University in Tasmania State, hence apply direct to the university.
• VIC: Victorian Tertiary Admissions Centre (VTAC).
• WA: Tertiary Institutions Service Centre (TISC).

Those students who have completed their pre-university education within the state and wish to apply for university within the state, will have to apply to the state level University admissions center.

{{anchor | Interstate}}

Domestic students who wish to apply interstate, must apply to state-level admissions centres of the respective target states.[https://www.uac.edu.au/future-applicants/how-to-apply-for-uni/apply-to-interstate-unis Apply to interstate universities], UAC, accessed 14 May 2023. All ATARs are treated as equivalent between the states, though there are slight variations in the way each states calculates the ATAR. For example, an ATAR of 75 in New South Wales is the same as an ATAR of 75.00 in South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia.[https://www.courseseeker.edu.au/admissions-information/atar#:~:text=All%20ATARs%20are%20treated%20as,way%20the%20ATAR%20is%20calculated ATAR equivalency], CourseSeeker, 18 May 2023.

{{anchor | Interstate}}

Domestic students, who completed their pre-university studies overseas and wish to undertake university education in Australia in one or more states, must apply to state-level university admission centers of those respective states. For example, a domestic student (e.g. Australian citizen) who completed his A-Level exams from Singapore wants to apply to several universities spread across all 6 states and 2 territories of Australia, will have to apply to all 6 state-level admission centers.

For graduate courses, both domestic and international students must apply directly to the respective universities.

{{main | Tertiary education fees in Australia| l1= Tertiary education fees in Australia for Domestic Students | Social security in Australia#Students | l2= Social security payments & benefits in Australia for Domestic Students }}

Domestic Australian students can obtain Youth Allowance (24 years of age or younger, paid fortnightly e.g. ~$A1,200 per month as of 2023) or Austudy Payment (above 24 years) to support their studies and living expenses.[https://www.servicesaustralia.gov.au/youth-allowance cute allowance], servicesaustralia.gov.au, accessed 18 may 2023.[https://www.servicesaustralia.gov.au/austudy Austudy], servicesaustralia.gov.au, accessed 18 may 2023.

Domestic students are either full fee paying students or they are CSP (Commonwealth Supported Places).[https://studyassist.gov.au/help-loans/commonwealth-supported-places-csps#:~:text=A%20Commonwealth%20supported%20place%20(CSP,entire%20cost%20of%20your%20study CSP], StudyAssist, accessed 18 may 2023. The CSP students pay significantly subsidised fee, usually between ~A$0 to ~A$9000 per year for full time study load for most undergraduate courses. The component of fee to be paid the by CSP student is called the student contribution (CS). To cover the CS, the CSP students can also apply for HELP loan (to cover the fee only, excludes laptop, books and living expenses), OS-HELP for studying overseas (total ~A$15,000 for maximum 2 semesters) and SA-HELP to cover for SSAF (student services and amenities fee which is max A$336).[https://studyassist.gov.au/help-loans/sa-help SA-HELP], StudyAssist, accessed 18 may 2023. Students can also avail Relocation Scholarship (~A$5,100 in the first year & ~A$1,300 per year thereafter are those studying in remote areas or overseas),[https://www.servicesaustralia.gov.au/relocation-scholarship Relocation scholarship], Services Australia, accessed 18 may 2023. and Student Startup Loan twice a year (A$1,200 each time x 2 per year of study).[https://www.servicesaustralia.gov.au/student-start-up-loan student startup loan], Services Australia, accessed 18 may 2023.

University and other organisations also provides several scholarships which can be applied through the university.

Graduate exercise students can also apply for 2 types of Research Training Program (RTP) Domestic scholarships, the RTP Fee Offset Scholarship to %100 offset the fee and the RTP Stipend Scholarship to cover for the living expenses.[https://www.sydney.edu.au/scholarships/domestic/postgraduate-research/australian-government-research-training-program.html#domestic RTP Scholarships], Sydney Uni, accessed 18th May 2023.

{{anchor | International}}

{{anchor | IntAd | Intad | International admissions}}

Admission for international students for undergraduate and graduate studies are done by directly applying to individual universities, there's no centralized place to apply.[https://www.timeshighereducation.com/student/advice/everything-you-need-know-about-applying-university-australia everything you need to know about applying to University in Australia.], Times Higher Education, accessed 18 May 2023. However, there are third party entities in various countries that help students to simultaneously apply for multiple universities in Australia.

{{anchor | Intfee | IntFee }}

Most international students are self-financed.

Research graduate students can apply for Australian government's Research Training Program (RTP) International scholarships.

{{anchor | IntStat | Intstat }}

Of the 956,773 international students in Australia in 2019, 442,219 were enrolled in Higher Education, and 283,893 in vocational institutions, with the remainder enrolled in schools, language courses, and non-award courses.{{cite web | url=https://internationaleducation.gov.au/research/international-student-data/Pages/InternationalStudentData2019.aspx | title=International Student Data 2019 }} Accordingly, in 2018, international students represented 26.5% of the student Australian university cohort.{{cite web | url=http://data.uis.unesco.org/index.aspx?queryid=3809 | title=Other policy relevant indicators : Inbound mobility rate }} Per head of population, Australia has the highest number of inbound international students (427,660 in 2018, representing a 1:31 ratio of students:Australian adult population, over double that of the UK (452,079 students, 1:78), or US (987,314, 1:172) which have the largest number of inbound students.{{cite web | url=http://data.uis.unesco.org/index.aspx?queryid=3804# | title=Other policy relevant indicators : Inbound internationally mobile students by continent of origin }}

{{anchor | Impact }}

International higher education therefore represents one of the country's largest exports, contributing $25.4 billion to the economy in 2018–19 through their economic activity (including university fees, living costs, tourism, etc.).{{cite web | url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp2021/Quick_Guides/OverseasStudents | title=Overseas students in Australian higher education: A quick guide }} Of those granted visas between 2001 and 2014 as international students across all sectors, approximately 16% were granted permanent residency at some stage, with 16,588 granted permanent residency in 2019–20.

There are concerns that Australian universities are too dependent on international student revenue, particularly from the largest inbound cohort of China.{{cite news| url = https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-03-21/stop-relying-chinese-international-students-asean-to-australia/9568462| title = Stop relying on Chinese international students, ASEAN countries say to Australia - ABC News| website = Australian Broadcasting Corporation| date = 20 March 2018}} Similarly, concerns have been raised regarding some international student's English language capability, with calls to tighten admissions standards and provide more support for developing these skills.{{cite news| url = https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-11-25/poor-english-no-jobs-little-support-international-students/10513590| title = Poor English, few jobs: Are Australian universities using international students as 'cash cows'? - ABC News| website = Australian Broadcasting Corporation| date = 24 November 2018}}

{{excerpt|For-profit education|Australia}}

Problems with the new mass marketing of academic degrees include declining academic standards,{{cite web| last =Foster| first =Gigi| title =The slide of academic standards in Australia: A cautionary tale| website =The Conversation| date =20 April 2015| url =https://theconversation.com/the-slide-of-academic-standards-in-australia-a-cautionary-tale-40464| access-date = 24 September 2015}}{{cite web

| url =http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education/the-pressure-of-inclusion-has-diminished-the-quality-of-higher-education-frank-furedi/news-story/76c847fe1a818e89682419c025350c25

| title ='The pressure of inclusion has diminished the quality of higher education': Frank Furedi

| last =Lane

| first =Bernard

| date =4 October 2017

| website =The Australian

| publisher =News Limited

| access-date =10 October 2017

}} increased teaching by sessional lecturers, large class sizes, 20% of graduates working part-time, 26% of graduates working full-time but considering themselves to be underemployed, 26% of students not graduating at all, and 17% of employers losing confidence in the quality of instruction at a university.{{cite book

| title =Shifting the Dial: 5-Year Productivity Review

| publisher =Productivity Commission

| volume =Inquiry Report 84

| date =3 August 2017

| location =Canberra

| page =102

| url =https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/productivity-review/report/productivity-review.pdf

| isbn =9781740376235

}}{{cite web

| url =http://www.afr.com/opinion/columnists/why-university-degree-explosion-is-keeping-wages-growth-low-20171121-gzpn91

| title =Why university degree explosion is keeping wages growth low

| last =Redican

| first =Brian

| date =21 November 2017

| website =Financial Review

| publisher =Fairfax

| access-date =21 November 2017

| quote =With so many highly qualified graduates after the same job, employers have less incentive to compete by offering higher starting salaries. Those graduates who miss out on the best jobs will find work, but this might be a teaching graduate working in a childcare centre, or a law graduate driving an Uber. }}

Students' rate of return on their large investment in time and money depends to a great extent on their study area. A longitudinal study by the Department of Education and Training found that median full-time salaries for undergraduates four years into their careers ranged from $55,000 in the creative arts to $120,000 in dentistry. For those with a master's degree or higher, the figures range from $68,800 in communication studies to $122,100 in medicine. Rates of graduate unemployment and underemployment also vary widely between study areas.{{cite web

| url =https://www.qilt.edu.au/docs/default-source/gos-reports/2017-gos-l/2017-gos-l-national-reportbb518791b1e86477b58fff00006709da.pdf?sfvrsn=2bb9e33c_2

| title =2017 Graduate Outcomes Survey – Longitudinal

| last =Whiteley

| first =Sonia

| date =October 2017

| website =Quality Indicators for Learning and Teaching

| publisher =Department of Education and Training

| access-date =15 January 2018 }} For comparison, the average taxable income for the top ten trades range from $68,000 for landscapers to $109,000 for boilermakers.{{cite web

| url =https://www.traderisk.com.au/how-much-do-tradies-earn

| title =How Much Do Tradies Really Earn?

| last =Moore

| first =Shane

| date =24 October 2019

| website =Trade Risk

| publisher =Trade Risk Insurance Pty Ltd

| access-date =8 January 2020

| quote =We are using the taxable incomes provided to us by thousands of self-employed tradies from around Australia. }}

A 2018 study from the Grattan Institute found that the gender gap in career earnings has continued to shrink, and that the proportion of foreign students is growing rapidly. Although the graduate labour market has partly recovered from the Great Recession, only the education, nursing and medical sectors have seen significant earnings growth.{{Citation

| last1 =Norton

| first1 =Andrew

| last2 =Cherastidtham

| first2 =Ittima

| title =Mapping Australian higher education 2018

| publisher =Grattan Institute

| date =16 September 2018

| url =https://grattan.edu.au/report/mapping-australian-higher-education-2018/

| access-date =16 September 2018 }}

There is a concern that Australian Universities have "lacked the incentives, encouragement and resources" to "bring about the transformation in which high-growth, technology-based businesses become a driving force behind Australia's economy" and demonstrated there is no Australian universities placed in the Reuters top 100 ranking for lack of innovation and competitiveness.{{cite web|url=http://www.chiefscientist.gov.au/2015/10/new-report-boosting-high-impact-entrepreneurship-in-australia/|title = Report: Boosting high-impact entrepreneurship in Australia | Chief Scientist}} Only 10.4% of Australian higher education students study ICT and Engineering/Technologies related courses.{{cite web|url=https://docs.education.gov.au/node/43231 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517102736/https://docs.education.gov.au/node/43231|archive-date=17 May 2017|title=2016 First Half Year student summary infographic File|date=1 March 2017|publisher=

Australian Department of Education and Training}}

With a larger proportion of university turnover derived from non-Government funds,Marginson, S. [http://www.cshe.unimelb.edu.au/people/marginson_docs/CNUFM%20Tokyo%2026%20January%202009.pdf National system reform in global context: The case of Australia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318184847/http://www.cshe.unimelb.edu.au/people/marginson_docs/CNUFM%20Tokyo%2026%20January%202009.pdf |date=18 March 2012 }}. Reforms and consequences in higher education system: An international symposium, National Centre of Sciences, Hitotubashi Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 2009.{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1080/713678133|title = Rethinking Academic Work in the Global Era|journal = Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management|volume = 22|pages = 23–35|year = 2000|last1 = Marginson|first1 = Simon|s2cid = 155064248}} the role of university vice chancellors has moved from one of academic administration to strategic management. Accompanying this shift has been a massive rise in the remuneration of these officials to as much as $1.5 million per year.{{cite web

| url =https://www.theage.com.au/education/university-vice-chancellor-salaries-soaring-past-1-5-million-and-set-to-keep-going-20190620-p51zq3.html

| title =University vice-chancellor salaries soaring past $1.5 million - and set to keep going

| last =Singhal

| first =Pallavi

| date =21 June 2019

| website =The Age

| access-date =14 November 2019

| quote =The top vice-chancellors are making three times as much as the prime minister. }} However, university governance structures remained largely unchanged from their 19th-century origins. All Australian universities have a governance system composed of a chancellor (ceremonial officer), vice-chancellor (chief executive officer), and a university council (governing body). However, unlike a corporate entity board, the university council members have neither financial nor vested specific interests in the performance of the organisation (although the state government is represented in each university council, representing the state government legislative role in the system).

The late 1990s and early years of the new millennium therefore witnessed a collection of financial, managerial and academic failures across the university system {{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} – the most notable of these being the Melbourne University Private venture, which saw hundreds of millions of dollars invested in non-productive assets, in search of a 'Harvard style' private university that never delivered on planned outcomes. This was detailed in a book (Off Course){{Citation

| last1 =Cain

| first1 =John

| last2 =Hewitt

| first2 =John

| title =Off course: From public place to marketplace at Melbourne University

| publisher =Scribe

| year =2004

| url =http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/03/10/1078594424714.html?from=storyrhs

}} written by former Victorian State Premier John Cain (junior) and co-author John Hewitt who explored problems with governance at the University of Melbourne, arguably one of the nation's most prestigious universities.

There are two main quality systems established by the Commonwealth Government for monitoring and assessing university performance. The Higher Education Standards Framework,{{cite web|last=Commonwealth of Australia|title=Higher Education Standards Framework (Threshold Standards) 2021|url=http://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2021L00488/Html/Text|access-date=2021-07-03|website=www.legislation.gov.au|language=en}} enforced by the Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA), sets out minimum quality standards for all higher education providers including standards for governance structures, academic review and monitoring, and student support services. The Excellence in Research for Australia (ERA) program, administered by the Australian Research Council (ARC), conducts periodic assessments of universities' research against international benchmarks and standards.{{cite web|last=Smith|first=Derek R.|title=Explainer: how and why is research assessed?|url=http://theconversation.com/explainer-how-and-why-is-research-assessed-36895|access-date=2021-07-03|website=The Conversation|date=19 February 2015 |language=en}}

The TEQSA reviews of universities essentially look at processes, procedures and their documentation. TEQSA's implementation reflects a move away from the 'fitness-for-purpose' approach employed by its predecessor, the Australian Universities Quality Agency (AUQA), to an approach premised on regulation and risk.{{cite book |last1=Palmer |first1=Nigel |title=External Quality Audit: Has it improved quality assurance in universities? |date=2013 |publisher=Chandos Learning and Teaching Series |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-84334-676-0 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781843346760500157}} TEQSA is currently moving towards its second round of assessments, with all Australian universities having seemingly received mixed (but generally positive) results in the first round.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} TEQSA's shortcoming is that it does not specifically address issues of governance or strategic planning in anything other than a bureaucratic sense.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} In the April 2007 edition of Campus Review,[http://www.campusreview.com.au Campus Review] the Vice Chancellor of the University of New South Wales, Fred Hilmer, criticised both AUQA (the agency before it became TEQSA) and the Research Quality Framework (a precursor to the ERA that was discarded before rollout):

"... singling out AUQA, Hilmer notes that while complex quality processes are in place, not one institution has lost its accreditation – 'there's never been a consequence – so it's just red tape...'"

"...The RQF is not a good thing – it's an expensive way to measure something that could be measured relatively simply. If we wanted to add impacts as one of the factors, then let's add impact. That can be achieved simply without having to go through what looks like a $90 million dollar exercise with huge implementation issues."

The RQF (scrapped with the change in government in 2007) was modelled on the British Research Assessment Exercise (RAE) system, and was intended to assess the quality and impact of research undertaken at universities through panel-based evaluation of individual research groups within university disciplines. Its objective was to provide government, industry, business and the wider community with an assurance that research quality within Australian universities had been rigorously assessed against international standards. Assessment was expected to allow research groups to be benchmarked against national and international standards across discipline areas. If successfully implemented, this would have been a departure from the Australian Government's traditional approach to measuring research performance exclusively through bibliometrics. The RQF was fraught with controversy,{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} particularly because the cost of such an undertaking (using international panels) and the difficulty in having agreed definitions of research quality and impact. The Labor government which scrapped the RQF has yet to outline any system which will replace it, stating however that it will enter into discussions with higher education providers, to gain consensus on a streamlined, metrics-driven approach.

Australian universities have been accused of accepting massive donations from individuals and groups acting on behalf of the Chinese Communist Party. In return for such donations, they have allowed Confucius Institutes and the Chinese Students and Scholars Association to stifle academic debate on Chinese issues such as human rights violations, allowed the Thousand Talents Plan to assist China's espionage and intellectual property infringement goals, and have waived English-language requirements for many students from China.{{cite web

| url =https://spectator.com.au/2021/04/exposed-the-chinese-communist-party-and-australias-universities/

| title =Exposed: The Chinese Communist Party and Australia's Universities

| last =Jeffrey

| first =James

| date =19 April 2021

| website =Spectator

| access-date =13 June 2021

| quote =Over the past few years, there has been a looming suspicion that the Chinese Communist Party is in bed with Australian universities. This suspicion is now substantiated by large swathes of evidence, most of which has been ignored by the mainstream media. }} This financial dependence has resulted in a failure to protect pro-democracy Chinese students in Australia from CCP-led intimidation campaigns.

{{cite web

| last = Human Rights Watch

| title = "They Don't Understand the Fear We Have"

| work = Human Rights Watch

| accessdate = 2021-07-04

| date = 2021-06-30

| url = https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/06/30/they-dont-understand-fear-we-have/how-chinas-long-reach-repression-undermines

| quote = In 2020, nearly 160,000 students from China were enrolled in Australian universities. Despite the Chinese government in Beijing being thousands of kilometers away, many Chinese pro-democracy students in Australia say they alter their behavior and self-censor to avoid threats and harassment from fellow classmates and being “reported on” by them to authorities back home.}}

• Admission in university in Australia
• ATAR
• Academic grading in Australia
• Academic ranks (Australia and New Zealand)
• Tertiary education fees in Australia
• IDP Education, consortium of universities which guides International students get admission in Australian universities.
• What Degree? Which University?, a student-run university website
• Living expenses
• Austudy Payment (for above 25 years old)
• Youth Allowance (for below 25 years old)
• Medicare (Australia), access by obtaining Medicare card (Australia)
• Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS), supplements the Medicare
• Institutes
• Australian Research Council
• List of universities in Australia
• Business schools in Australia
• Medical schools in Australia
• Schools in Australia
• Universities in Australia by enrolment
• Technical and Further Education (TAFE)
• Universities by country

{{reflist|30em}}

• [https://www.dese.gov.au/skills-and-training/ Skills and Training Guide from the Department of Education, Skills and Employment]
• [https://www.qilt.edu.au/ Quality Indicators for Learning and Teaching]
• [http://www.abdc.edu.au/ Australian Business Deans Council]

{{anchor | Sship }}

• [https://www.scholarshipportal.com/scholarships/australia Study portal list of 1400+ scholarships in Australia]

{{Education in Australia}}

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Category:Universities in Australia

Category:Higher education in Australia