Time perception

Time perception is typically categorized in three distinct ranges, because different ranges of duration are processed in different areas of the brain:{{cite journal | vauthors = Buhusi CV, Cordes S | title = Time and number: the privileged status of small values in the brain | journal = Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience | volume = 5 | pages = 67 | date = 2011 | pmid = 22065383 | pmc = 3204429 | doi = 10.3389/fnint.2011.00067| doi-access = free }}

• Sub-second timing or millisecond timing
• Interval timing or seconds-to-minutes timing
• Circadian timing

There are many theories and computational models for time perception mechanisms in the brain. William J. Friedman (1993) contrasted two theories of the sense of time:{{cite book| vauthors = Friedman W | title = About time: inventing the fourth dimension| year = 1990 | publisher = MIT Press | location = Cambridge, Mass. | isbn = 978-0-262-06133-9}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Friedman WJ | title = Memory for the time of past events | journal = Psychological Bulletin | year = 1992 | volume = 113 | issue = 1 | pages = 44–66 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.113.1.44}}

• The strength model of time memory. This posits a memory trace that persists over time, by which one might judge the age of a memory (and therefore how long ago the event remembered occurred) from the strength of the trace. This conflicts with the fact that memories of recent events may fade more quickly than more distant memories.
• The inference model suggests the time of an event is inferred from information about relations between the event in question and other events whose date or time is known.

Another hypothesis involves the brain's subconscious tallying of "pulses" during a specific interval, forming a biological stopwatch. This theory proposes that the brain can run multiple biological stopwatches independently depending on the type of tasks being tracked. The source and nature of the pulses is unclear.{{cite journal | last = Falk | first = Dan | name-list-style = vanc | title = Do Humans Have a Biological Stopwatch? | journal = Smithsonian Magazine | url = http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/do-humans-have-a-biological-stopwatch-164710819/?no-ist | date = Jan 2013 | access-date = May 1, 2014}} They are as yet a metaphor whose correspondence to brain anatomy or physiology is unknown.

{{Main|Specious present}}

The specious present is the time duration wherein a state of consciousness is experienced as being in the present. The term was first introduced by the philosopher E. R. Clay in 1882 (E. Robert Kelly), and was further developed by William James. James defined the specious present to be "the prototype of all conceived times... the short duration of which we are immediately and incessantly sensible". In "Scientific Thought" (1930), C. D. Broad further elaborated on the concept of the specious present and considered that the specious present may be considered as the temporal equivalent of a sensory datum. A version of the concept was used by Edmund Husserl in his works and discussed further by Francisco Varela based on the writings of Husserl, Heidegger, and Merleau-Ponty.

Although the perception of time is not associated with a specific sensory system, psychologists and neuroscientists suggest that humans do have a system, or several complementary systems, governing the perception of time.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rao SM, Meyer AR, Harrington DL | title = The evolution of brain activation during temporal processing | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 317–23 | date = March 2001 | pmid = 11224550 | doi = 10.1038/85191 | s2cid = 3570715| url = https://escholarship.org/uc/item/80c4d02m }}

• {{cite news |date=27 February 2001 |title=Brain Areas Critical To Human Time Sense Identified |work=UniSci: Daily University Science News |url=http://www.unisci.com/stories/20011/0227013.htm}} Time perception is handled by a highly distributed system involving the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and basal ganglia. One particular component, the suprachiasmatic nucleus, is responsible for the circadian (or daily) rhythm, while other cell clusters appear to be capable of shorter (ultradian) timekeeping. There is some evidence that very short (millisecond) durations are processed by dedicated neurons in early sensory parts of the brain.{{cite journal | vauthors = Heron J, Aaen-Stockdale C, Hotchkiss J, Roach NW, McGraw PV, Whitaker D | title = Duration channels mediate human time perception | journal = Proceedings. Biological Sciences | volume = 279 | issue = 1729 | pages = 690–8 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 21831897 | pmc = 3248727 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2011.1131}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Heron J, Hotchkiss J, Aaen-Stockdale C, Roach NW, Whitaker D | title = A neural hierarchy for illusions of time: duration adaptation precedes multisensory integration | journal = Journal of Vision | volume = 13 | issue = 14 | pages = 4 | date = December 2013 | pmid = 24306853 | pmc = 3852255 | doi = 10.1167/13.14.4}}

Warren Meck devised a physiological model for measuring the passage of time. He found the representation of time to be generated by the oscillatory activity of cells in the upper cortex. The frequency of these cells' activity is detected by cells in the dorsal striatum at the base of the forebrain. His model separated explicit timing and implicit timing. Explicit timing is used in estimating the duration of a stimulus. Implicit timing is used to gauge the amount of time separating one from an impending event that is expected to occur in the near future. These two estimations of time do not involve the same neuroanatomical areas. For example, implicit timing often occurs to achieve a motor task, involving the cerebellum, left parietal cortex, and left premotor cortex. Explicit timing often involves the supplementary motor area and the right prefrontal cortex.

Two visual stimuli, inside someone's field of view, can be successfully regarded as simultaneous up to five milliseconds.{{cite magazine | last1 = Eagleman | first1 = David M. | name-list-style = vanc | title = Brain Time | url = http://www.edge.org/conversation/brain-time | magazine = Edge | publisher = Edge Foundation | date = 23 June 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131221170926/http://www.edge.org/conversation/brain-time | archive-date = 21 December 2013}}{{cite book | last= Macey | first = Samuel L. | name-list-style =vanc | year = 1994 | title = Encyclopedia of Time | edition = 1st | publisher = Routledge Publishing | isbn = 978-0-8153-0615-3 | page=555}}{{cite book | last = Brockman | first = Max | name-list-style = vanc | year = 2009 | title = What's Next?: Dispatches on the Future of Science | publisher = Vintage Books | location = United States | isbn = 978-0-307-38931-2 | page = [https://archive.org/details/whatsnextdispatc0000unse/page/162 162] | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/whatsnextdispatc0000unse}}

In the popular essay "Brain Time", David Eagleman explains that different types of sensory information (auditory, tactile, visual, etc.) are processed at different speeds by different neural architectures. The brain must learn how to overcome these speed disparities if it is to create a temporally unified representation of the external world:

{{Blockquote|if the visual brain wants to get events correct timewise, it may have only one choice: wait for the slowest information to arrive. To accomplish this, it must wait about a tenth of a second. In the early days of television broadcasting, engineers worried about the problem of keeping audio and video signals synchronized. Then they accidentally discovered that they had around a hundred milliseconds of slop: As long as the signals arrived within this window, viewers' brains would automatically resynchronize the signals. He goes on to say, "This brief waiting period allows the visual system to discount the various delays imposed by the early stages; however, it has the disadvantage of pushing perception into the past. There is a distinct survival advantage to operating as close to the present as possible; an animal does not want to live too far in the past. Therefore, the tenth-of-a-second window may be the smallest delay that allows higher areas of the brain to account for the delays created in the first stages of the system while still operating near the border of the present. This window of delay means that awareness is retroactive, incorporating data from a window of time after an event and delivering a delayed interpretation of what happened."{{cite web | url = http://edge.org/conversation/brain-time | title = Brain Time | author = Eagleman DM | author-link = David Eagleman | date = 2009-06-23 | publisher = Edge Foundation | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130805000331/http://www.edge.org/conversation/brain-time | archive-date = 2013-08-05}}}}

Experiments have shown that rats can successfully estimate a time interval of approximately 40 seconds, despite having their cortex entirely removed. This suggests that time estimation may be a low-level process.

In recent history, ecologists and psychologists have been interested in whether and how time is perceived by non-human animals, as well as which functional purposes are served by the ability to perceive time. Studies have demonstrated that many species of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates, have cognitive abilities that allow them to estimate and compare time intervals and durations in a similar way to humans.{{cite book |chapter=1.12 – Learning to Time Intervals |title=Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference |last1=Cheng |first1=Ken |last2=Crystal |first2=Jonathon D. | name-list-style = vanc |date=1 January 2017| edition = Second |publisher=Academic Press|pages=203–225|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.21013-4}}

There is empirical evidence that metabolic rate has an impact on animals' ability to perceive time.{{cite journal |last1=Alger |first1=Sarah Jane | name-list-style = vanc |title=Metabolism and Body Size Influence the Perception of Movement and Time {{!}} Accumulating Glitches {{!}} Learn Science at Scitable |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/blog/accumulating-glitches/metabolism_and_body_size_influence/ |journal=Nature|access-date=30 January 2020 |date=30 December 2013}} In general, it is true within and across taxa that animals of smaller size (such as flies), which have a fast metabolic rate, experience time more slowly than animals of larger size, which have a slow metabolic rate.{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/sep/16/time-passes-slowly-flies-study|title=Time passes more slowly for flies, study finds|agency=Press Association | name-list-style = vanc |date=16 September 2013|website=The Guardian}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Healy K, McNally L, Ruxton GD, Cooper N, Jackson AL | title = Metabolic rate and body size are linked with perception of temporal information | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 86 | issue = 4 | pages = 685–696 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 24109147 | pmc = 3791410 | doi = 10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.06.018}} Researchers suppose that this could be the reason why small-bodied animals are generally better at perceiving time on a small scale, and why they are more agile than larger animals.{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/09/130916102006.htm|title=Time is in the eye of the beholder: Time perception in animals depends on their pace of life|date=16 September 2013|website=ScienceDaily}}

In a lab experiment, goldfish were conditioned to receive a light stimulus followed shortly by an aversive electric shock, with a constant time interval between the two stimuli. Test subjects showed an increase in general activity around the time of the electric shock. This response persisted in further trials in which the light stimulus was kept but the electric shock was removed.{{cite journal | vauthors = Drew MR, Zupan B, Cooke A, Couvillon PA, Balsam PD | title = Temporal control of conditioned responding in goldfish | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes | volume = 31 | issue = 1 | pages = 31–9 | date = January 2005 | pmid = 15656725 | doi = 10.1037/0097-7403.31.1.31}} This suggests that goldfish are able to perceive time intervals and to initiate an avoidance response at the time when they expect the distressing stimulus to happen.

In two separate studies, golden shiners and dwarf inangas demonstrated the ability to associate the availability of food sources to specific locations and times of day, called time-place learning.{{cite journal | vauthors = Reebs SG | title = Time-place learning in golden shiners (Pisces: Cyprinidae) | journal = Behavioural Processes | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 253–62 | date = June 1996 | pmid = 24896874 | doi = 10.1016/0376-6357(96)88023-5 | s2cid = 12061959 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Reebs SG | title = Time–place learning based on food but not on predation risk in a fish, the inanga (Galaxias maculatus). | journal = Ethology | date = April 1999 | volume = 105 | issue = 4 | pages = 361–71 | doi = 10.1046/j.1439-0310.1999.00390.x| bibcode = 1999Ethol.105..361R }} In contrast, when tested for time-place learning based on predation risk, inangas were unable to associate spatiotemporal patterns to the presence or absence of predators.

In June 2022, researchers reported in Physical Review Letters that salamanders were demonstrating counter-intuitive responses to the arrow of time in how their eyes perceived different stimuli.{{Cite journal |last1=Lynn |first1=Christopher W. |last2=Holmes |first2=Caroline M. |last3=Bialek |first3=William |last4=Schwab |first4=David J. |date=2022-09-06 |title=Decomposing the Local Arrow of Time in Interacting Systems |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=129 |issue=11 |pages=118101 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.129.118101|pmid=36154397 |pmc=9751844 |arxiv=2112.14721 |bibcode=2022PhRvL.129k8101L }}

When presented with the choice between obtaining food at regular intervals (with a fixed delay between feedings) or at stochastic intervals (with a variable delay between feedings), starlings can discriminate between the two types of intervals and consistently prefer getting food at variable intervals. This is true whether the total amount of food is the same for both options or if the total amount of food is unpredictable in the variable option. This suggests that starlings have an inclination for risk-prone behavior.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bateson M, Kacelnik A | title = Starlings' preferences for predictable and unpredictable delays to food | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 53 | issue = 6 | pages = 1129–42 | date = June 1997 | pmid = 9236010 | doi = 10.1006/anbe.1996.0388 | s2cid = 1998063 }}

Pigeons are able to discriminate between different times of day and show time-place learning.{{cite journal | vauthors = Wilkie DM, Willson RJ | title = Time-place learning by pigeons, Columba livia | journal = Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior | volume = 57 | issue = 2 | pages = 145–58 | date = March 1992 | pmid = 16812650 | pmc = 1323118 | doi = 10.1901/jeab.1992.57-145}} After training, lab subjects were successfully able to peck specific keys at different times of day (morning or afternoon) in exchange for food, even after their sleep/wake cycle was artificially shifted. This suggests that to discriminate between different times of day, pigeons can use an internal timer (or circadian timer) that is independent of external cues.{{cite journal | vauthors = Saksida LM, Wilkie DM | title = Time-of-day discrimination by pigeons, Columba livia. | journal = Animal Learning & Behavior | date = June 1994 | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 143–54 | doi = 10.3758/BF03199914 | doi-access = free}} However, a more recent study on time-place learning in pigeons suggests that for a similar task, test subjects will switch to a non-circadian timing mechanism when possible to save energy resources.{{cite journal | vauthors = García-Gallardo D, Aguilar Guevara F, Moreno S, Hernández M, Carpio C | title = Evidence of non-circadian timing in a low response-cost daily Time-Place Learning task with pigeons Columba Livia | journal = Behavioural Processes | volume = 168 | pages = 103942 | date = November 2019 | pmid = 31470061 | doi = 10.1016/j.beproc.2019.103942 | s2cid = 201646652 }} Experimental tests revealed that pigeons are also able to discriminate between cues of various durations (on the order of seconds), but that they are less accurate when timing auditory cues than when timing visual cues.{{cite journal | vauthors = Roberts WA, Cheng K, Cohen JS | title = Timing light and tone signals in pigeons | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 23–35 | date = January 1989 | pmid = 2926333 | doi = 10.1037/0097-7403.15.1.23}}

A study on privately owned dogs revealed that dogs are able to perceive durations ranging from minutes to several hours differently. Dogs reacted with increasing intensity to the return of their owners when they were left alone for longer durations, regardless of the owners' behavior.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rehn T, Keeling LJ | title = The effect of time left alone at home on dog welfare. | journal = Applied Animal Behaviour Science | date = January 2011 | volume = 129 | issue = 2–4 | pages = 129–35 | doi = 10.1016/j.applanim.2010.11.015}}

After being trained with food reinforcement, female wild boars are able to correctly estimate time intervals of days by asking for food at the end of each interval, but they are unable to accurately estimate time intervals of minutes with the same training method.{{cite journal | vauthors = Fuhrer N, Gygax L | title = From minutes to days-The ability of sows (Sus scrofa) to estimate time intervals | journal = Behavioural Processes | volume = 142 | pages = 146–155 | date = September 2017 | pmid = 28735073 | doi = 10.1016/j.beproc.2017.07.006 | s2cid = 4934919 }}

When trained with positive reinforcement, rats can learn to respond to a signal of a certain duration, but not to signals of shorter or longer durations, which demonstrates that they can discriminate between different durations.{{cite journal | vauthors = Church RM, Gibbon J | title = Temporal generalization | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 165–86 | date = April 1982 | pmid = 7069377 | doi = 10.1037/0097-7403.8.2.165}} Rats have demonstrated time-place learning, and can also learn to infer correct timing for a specific task by following an order of events, suggesting that they might be able to use an ordinal timing mechanism.{{cite journal | vauthors = Carr JA, Wilkie DM | title = Rats use an ordinal timer in a daily time-place learning task | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 232–47 | date = April 1997 | pmid = 9095544 | doi = 10.1037/0097-7403.23.2.232 }} Like pigeons, rats are thought to have the ability to use a circadian timing mechanism for discriminating time of day.{{cite journal | vauthors = Mistlberger RE, de Groot MH, Bossert JM, Marchant EG | title = Discrimination of circadian phase in intact and suprachiasmatic nuclei-ablated rats | journal = Brain Research | volume = 739 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 12–8 | date = November 1996 | pmid = 8955919 | doi = 10.1016/s0006-8993(96)00466-0| s2cid = 37473154 }}

File:Apis mellifera flying.jpg

When returning to the hive with nectar, forager honey bees need to know the current ratio of nectar-collecting to nectar-processing rates in the colony. To do so, they estimate the time it takes them to find a food-storer bee, which will unload the forage and store it. The longer it takes them to find one, the busier the food-storer bees are, and therefore the higher the nectar-collecting rate of the colony.{{cite journal | vauthors = Seeley TD, Tovey CA | title = Why search time to find a food-storer bee accurately indicates the relative rates of nectar collecting and nectar processing in honey bee colonies. | journal = Animal Behaviour | date = February 1994 | volume = 47 | issue = 2 | pages = 311–6 | doi = 10.1006/anbe.1994.1044 | s2cid = 53178166 | doi-access = free }} Forager bees also assess the quality of nectar by comparing the length of time it takes to unload the forage: a longer unloading time indicates higher quality nectar. They compare their own unloading time to the unloading time of other foragers present in the hive, and adjust their recruiting behavior accordingly. For instance, honey bees reduce the duration of their waggle dance if they judge their own yield to be inferior.{{cite book |last1=Seeley |first1=Thomas | name-list-style = vanc |title=The wisdom of the hive: the social physiology of honey bee colonies |date=1995 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674953765}} Scientists have demonstrated that anesthesia disrupts the circadian clock and impairs the time perception of honey bees, as observed in humans.{{cite journal | vauthors = Dispersyn G, Pain L, Challet E, Touitou Y | title = General anesthetics effects on circadian temporal structure: an update | journal = Chronobiology International | volume = 25 | issue = 6 | pages = 835–50 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 19005891 | doi = 10.1080/07420520802551386| s2cid = 24234839 }} Experiments revealed that a six-hour-long general anesthesia significantly delayed the start of the foraging behaviour of honeybees if induced during daytime, but not if induced during nighttime.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cheeseman JF, Winnebeck EC, Millar CD, Kirkland LS, Sleigh J, Goodwin M, Pawley MD, Bloch G, Lehmann K, Menzel R, Warman GR | title = General anesthesia alters time perception by phase shifting the circadian clock | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 109 | issue = 18 | pages = 7061–6 | date = May 2012 | pmid = 22509009 | pmc = 3344952 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1201734109 | bibcode = 2012PNAS..109.7061C| doi-access = free }}

Bumble bees can be successfully trained to respond to a stimulus after a certain time interval has elapsed (usually several seconds after the start signal). Studies have shown that they can also learn to simultaneously time multiple interval durations.{{cite journal | vauthors = Boisvert MJ, Sherry DF | title = Interval timing by an invertebrate, the bumble bee Bombus impatiens | journal = Current Biology | volume = 16 | issue = 16 | pages = 1636–40 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16920625 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2006.06.064 | doi-access = free| bibcode = 2006CBio...16.1636B }}

In a single study, colonies from three species of ants from the genus Myrmica were trained to associate feeding sessions with different times. The trainings lasted several days, where each day the feeding time was delayed by 20 minutes compared to the previous day. In all three species, at the end of the training, most individuals were present at the feeding spot at the correct expected times, suggesting that ants are able to estimate the time running, keep in memory the expected feeding time and to act anticipatively.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cammaerts MC, Cammaerts R | title = Ants Can Expect the Time of an Event on Basis of Previous Experiences | journal = International Scholarly Research Notices | volume = 2016 | pages = 9473128 | date = 2016 | pmid = 27403457 | pmc = 4923595 | doi = 10.1155/2016/9473128| doi-access = free }}

A temporal illusion is a distortion in the perception of time. For example:

• estimating time intervals, e.g., "When did you last see your primary care physician?";
• estimating time duration, e.g., "How long were you waiting at the doctor's office?"; and
• judging the simultaneity of events (see below for examples).

Some main types of temporal illusions are as follows:

• Telescoping effect: People tend to recall recent events as occurring further back in time than they actually did (backward telescoping) and distant events as occurring more recently than they actually did (forward telescoping).
• Vierordt's law: Shorter intervals tend to be overestimated while longer intervals tend to be underestimated
• Time intervals associated with more changes may be perceived as longer than intervals with fewer changes
• Perceived temporal length of a given task may shorten with greater motivation
• Perceived temporal length of a given task may stretch when broken up or interrupted
• Auditory stimuli may appear to last longer than visual stimuli{{cite journal | vauthors = Wearden JH, Todd NP, Jones LA | title = When do auditory/visual differences in duration judgements occur? | journal = Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology | volume = 59 | issue = 10 | pages = 1709–24 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 16945856 | doi = 10.1080/17470210500314729 | s2cid = 16487453 | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/cd1766e3ad87de3a43917e74933e5787472071c4}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Goldstone S, Lhamon WT | title = Studies of auditory-visual differences in human time judgment. 1. Sounds are judged longer than lights | journal = Perceptual and Motor Skills | volume = 39 | issue = 1 | pages = 63–82 | date = August 1974 | pmid = 4415924 | doi = 10.2466/pms.1974.39.1.63| s2cid = 27186061 }}{{cite book |vauthors=Penney TB |chapter=Modality differences in interval timing: Attention, clock speed, and memory |pages=209–233 |doi=10.1201/9780203009574.ch8 |title=Functional and neural mechanisms of interval timing |volume=19 |editor-last=Meck | editor-first = Warren H. | date = 2003 | publisher = CRC Press |place=Boca Raton, FL |chapter-url=http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2003-00556-008 |series=Frontiers in Neuroscience |doi-broken-date=2024-11-11 | isbn = 978-0-8493-1109-3}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Wearden JH, Edwards H, Fakhri M, Percival A | title = Why "sounds are judged longer than lights": application of a model of the internal clock in humans | journal = The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. B, Comparative and Physiological Psychology | volume = 51 | issue = 2 | pages = 97–120 | date = May 1998 | pmid = 9621837 | doi = 10.1080/713932672 | url = http://www.keele.ac.uk/media/keeleuniversity/facnatsci/schpsych/weardenpublications/weardenetal1998.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130421045901/http://www.keele.ac.uk/media/keeleuniversity/facnatsci/schpsych/weardenpublications/weardenetal1998.pdf | archive-date = 2013-04-21 | doi-broken-date = 1 November 2024}}
• Time durations may appear longer with greater stimulus intensity (e.g., auditory loudness or pitch)
• Simultaneity judgments can be manipulated by repeated exposure to non-simultaneous stimuli

The Kappa effect or perceptual time dilation{{cite journal|last1=Goldreich|first1=Daniel | name-list-style = vanc |title=A Bayesian Perceptual Model Replicates the Cutaneous Rabbit and Other Tactile Spatiotemporal Illusions|journal=PLOS ONE|date=28 March 2007|volume=2|issue=3|pages=e333|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000333|pmid=17389923|pmc=1828626|bibcode=2007PLoSO...2..333G|doi-access=free }} is a form of temporal illusion verifiable by experiment. The temporal duration between a sequence of consecutive stimuli is thought to be relatively longer or shorter than its actual elapsed time, due to the spatial/auditory/tactile separation between each consecutive stimuli. The kappa effect can be displayed when considering a journey made in two parts that each take an equal amount of time. When mentally comparing these two sub-journeys, the part that covers more distance may appear to take longer than the part covering less distance, even though they take an equal amount of time.

The perception of space and time undergoes distortions during rapid saccadic eye movements.{{cite journal|author=Cicchini G, Binda P and Morrone M |title=A model for the distortions of space and time perception during saccades|journal=Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience|volume=3|doi=10.3389/conf.neuro.06.2009.03.349|year=2009|doi-access=free}}

Chronostasis is a type of temporal illusion in which the first impression following the introduction of a new event or task demand to the brain appears to be extended in time. For example, chronostasis temporarily occurs when fixating on a target stimulus, immediately following a saccade (e.g., quick eye movement). This elicits an overestimation in the temporal duration for which that target stimulus (i.e., postsaccadic stimulus) was perceived. This effect can extend apparent durations by up to 500 ms and is consistent with the idea that the visual system models events prior to perception.{{cite journal | vauthors = Yarrow K, Whiteley L, Rothwell JC, Haggard P | title = Spatial consequences of bridging the saccadic gap | journal = Vision Research | volume = 46 | issue = 4 | pages = 545–55 | date = February 2006 | pmid = 16005489 | doi = 10.1016/j.visres.2005.04.019 | pmc=1343538}} The most well-known version of this illusion is known as the stopped-clock illusion, wherein a subject's first impression of the second-hand movement of an analog clock, subsequent to one's directed attention (i.e., saccade) to the clock, is the perception of a slower-than-normal second-hand movement rate (the second-hand of the clock may seemingly temporarily freeze in place after initially looking at it).{{cite journal | vauthors = Knöll J, Morrone MC, Bremmer F | title = Spatio-temporal topography of saccadic overestimation of time | journal = Vision Research | volume = 83 | pages = 56–65 | date = May 2013 | pmid = 23458677 | doi = 10.1016/j.visres.2013.02.013 | doi-access = free}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Yarrow K, Rothwell JC | title = Manual chronostasis: tactile perception precedes physical contact | journal = Current Biology | volume = 13 | issue = 13 | pages = 1134–9 | date = July 2003 | pmid = 12842013 | doi = 10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00413-5 | bibcode = 2003CBio...13.1134Y | s2cid = 11426392 | url = http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/335/2/Manual_chronostasis.pdf}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Yarrow K, Johnson H, Haggard P, Rothwell JC | title = Consistent chronostasis effects across saccade categories imply a subcortical efferent trigger | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience | volume = 16 | issue = 5 | pages = 839–47 | date = June 2004 | pmid = 15200711 | doi = 10.1162/089892904970780 | pmc=1266050}}{{cite news | url=http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20120827-how-to-make-time-stand-still | title=The mystery of the stopped clock illusion | work=BBC - Future - Health - | date=2012-08-27 | access-date=2012-12-09 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120100128/http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20120827-how-to-make-time-stand-still | archive-date=2013-01-20}}

The occurrence of chronostasis extends beyond the visual domain into the auditory and tactile domains.{{cite book | last = Nijhawan | first = Romi | name-list-style = vanc | title=Space and Time in Perception and Action|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, UK|isbn=978-0-521-86318-6}} In the auditory domain, chronostasis and duration overestimation occur when observing auditory stimuli. One common example is a frequent occurrence when making telephone calls. If, while listening to the phone's dial tone, research subjects move the phone from one ear to the other, the length of time between rings appears longer.{{cite journal | vauthors = Hodinott-Hill I, Thilo KV, Cowey A, Walsh V | title = Auditory chronostasis: hanging on the telephone | journal = Current Biology | volume = 12 | issue = 20 | pages = 1779–81 | date = October 2002 | pmid = 12401174 | doi = 10.1016/S0960-9822(02)01219-8 | doi-access = free| bibcode = 2002CBio...12.1779H }} In the tactile domain, chronostasis has persisted in research subjects as they reach for and grasp objects. After grasping a new object, subjects overestimate the time in which their hand has been in contact with this object.

{{Main|Flash lag illusion}}

In an experiment, participants were told to stare at an "x" symbol on a computer screen whereby a moving blue doughnut-like ring repeatedly circled the fixed "x" point.{{cite web | last1 = Kotler | first1 = Steven | name-list-style = vanc | title = When Life Flashes Before Your Eyes: A 15-Story Drop to Study the Brain's Internal Timewarp | url = http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2010-03/how-time-flies | website = Popular Science | publisher = Bonnier Corporation | date = 12 April 2010 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141011234410/http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2010-03/how-time-flies | archive-date = 11 October 2014}}{{cite web | vauthors = Eagleman DM, Sejnowski TJ | title = Flash-Lag Effect | url = http://www.eaglemanlab.net/flashlag | website = Eagleman Laboratory for Perception and Action | date = 2007 | url-status = usurped | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140801091656/http://eaglemanlab.net/flashlag/ | archive-date = 2014-08-01}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Patel SS, Ogmen H, Bedell HE, Sampath V | title = Flash-lag effect: differential latency, not postdiction | journal = Science | volume = 290 | issue = 5494 | pages = 1051a–1051 | date = November 2000 | pmid = 11184992 | doi = 10.1126/science.290.5494.1051a| url = http://eaglemanlab.net/papers/EagleSejScience3.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140808055953/http://eaglemanlab.net/papers/EagleSejScience3.pdf | url-status = usurped | archive-date = 2014-08-08}} Occasionally, the ring would display a white flash for a split second that physically overlapped the ring's interior. However, when asked what was perceived, participants responded that they saw the white flash lagging behind the center of the moving ring. In other words, despite the reality that the two retinal images were actually spatially aligned, the flashed object was usually observed to trail a continuously moving object in space — a phenomenon referred to as the flash-lag effect.

The first proposed explanation, called the "motion extrapolation" hypothesis, is that the visual system extrapolates the position of moving objects but not flashing objects when accounting for neural delays (i.e., the lag time between the retinal image and the observer's perception of the flashing object). The second proposed explanation by David Eagleman and Sejnowski, called the "latency difference" hypothesis, is that the visual system processes moving objects at a faster rate than flashed objects. In the attempt to disprove the first hypothesis, David Eagleman conducted an experiment in which the moving ring suddenly reverses direction to spin in the other way as the flashed object briefly appears. If the first hypothesis were correct, we would expect that, immediately following reversal, the moving object would be observed as lagging behind the flashed object. However, the experiment revealed the opposite — immediately following reversal, the flashed object was observed as lagging behind the moving object. This experimental result supports the "latency difference" hypothesis. A recent study tries to reconcile these different approaches by treating perception as an inference mechanism aiming at describing what is happening at the present time.{{cite journal | vauthors = Khoei MA, Masson GS, Perrinet LU | title = The flash-lag effect as a motion-based predictive shift | journal = PLOS Computational Biology | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = e1005068 | date = January 2017 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005068 | pmid = 28125585 | pmc = 5268412 | bibcode = 2017PLSCB..13E5068K | doi-access = free }}

Humans typically overestimate the perceived duration of the initial and final event in a stream of identical events.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rose D, Summers J | title = Duration illusions in a train of visual stimuli | journal = Perception | volume = 24 | issue = 10 | pages = 1177–87 | year = 1995 | pmid = 8577576 | doi = 10.1068/p241177| s2cid = 42515881 }}

This oddball effect may serve an evolutionarily adapted "alerting" function and is consistent with reports of time slowing down in threatening situations. The effect seems to be strongest for images that are expanding in size on the retina, {{em|i.e.}}, that are "looming" or approaching the viewer,{{cite journal | vauthors = Tse PU, Intriligator J, Rivest J, Cavanagh P | title = Attention and the subjective expansion of time | journal = Perception & Psychophysics | volume = 66 | issue = 7 | pages = 1171–89 | date = October 2004 | pmid = 15751474 | doi = 10.3758/BF03196844 | doi-access = free}}{{cite journal | vauthors = New JJ, Scholl BJ | title = Subjective time dilation: spatially local, object-based, or a global visual experience? | journal = Journal of Vision | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = 4.1–11 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19271914 | doi = 10.1167/9.2.4 | doi-access = free}}{{cite journal | vauthors = van Wassenhove V, Buonomano DV, Shimojo S, Shams L | title = Distortions of subjective time perception within and across senses | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = e1437 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 18197248 | pmc = 2174530 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0001437 | bibcode = 2008PLoSO...3.1437V| doi-access = free }} and the effect can be eradicated for oddballs that are contracting or perceived to be receding from the viewer. The effect is also reduced or reversed with a static oddball presented among a stream of expanding stimuli.

Initial studies suggested that this oddball-induced "subjective time dilation" expanded the perceived duration of oddball stimuli by 30–50% but subsequent research has reported more modest expansion of around 10%{{cite journal | vauthors = Ulrich R, Nitschke J, Rammsayer T | title = Perceived duration of expected and unexpected stimuli | journal = Psychological Research | volume = 70 | issue = 2 | pages = 77–87 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 15609031 | doi = 10.1007/s00426-004-0195-4 | s2cid = 30907517 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen KM, Yeh SL | title = Asymmetric cross-modal effects in time perception | journal = Acta Psychologica | volume = 130 | issue = 3 | pages = 225–34 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19195633 | doi = 10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.12.008| url = http://ntur.lib.ntu.edu.tw/bitstream/246246/173010/1/20.pdf }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Seifried T, Ulrich R | title = Does the asymmetry effect inflate the temporal expansion of odd stimuli? | journal = Psychological Research | volume = 74 | issue = 1 | pages = 90–8 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 19034503 | doi = 10.1007/s00426-008-0187-x | s2cid = 21596966 }} or less.{{cite journal | vauthors = Aaen-Stockdale C, Hotchkiss J, Heron J, Whitaker D | title = Perceived time is spatial frequency dependent | journal = Vision Research | volume = 51 | issue = 11 | pages = 1232–8 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21477613 | pmc = 3121949 | doi = 10.1016/j.visres.2011.03.019}} The direction of the effect, whether the viewer perceives an increase or a decrease in duration, also seems to be dependent upon the stimulus used.

Numerous experimental findings suggest that temporal order judgments of actions preceding effects can be reversed under special circumstances. Experiments have shown that sensory simultaneity judgments can be manipulated by repeated exposure to non-simultaneous stimuli. In an experiment conducted by David Eagleman, a temporal order judgment reversal was induced in subjects by exposing them to delayed motor consequences. In the experiment, subjects played various forms of video games. Unknown to the subjects, the experimenters introduced a fixed delay between the mouse movements and the subsequent sensory feedback. For example, a subject may not see a movement register on the screen until 150 milliseconds after they had moved the mouse. Participants playing the game quickly adapted to the delay and felt as though there was less delay between their mouse movement and the sensory feedback. Shortly after the experimenters removed the delay, the subjects commonly felt as though the effect on the screen happened just before they commanded it. This work addresses how the perceived timing of effects is modulated by expectations, and the extent to which such predictions are quickly modifiable.{{cite journal | vauthors = Stetson C, Cui X, Montague PR, Eagleman DM | title = Motor-sensory recalibration leads to an illusory reversal of action and sensation | journal = Neuron | volume = 51 | issue = 5 | pages = 651–9 | date = September 2006 | pmid = 16950162 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuron.2006.08.006 | s2cid = 8179689 | url = http://www.eaglemanlab.net/papers/StetsonetalNeuron2006.pdf | url-status = usurped | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130928021519/http://www.eaglemanlab.net/papers/StetsonetalNeuron2006.pdf | archive-date = 2013-09-28}}

In an experiment conducted by Haggard and colleagues in 2002, participants pressed a button that triggered a flash of light at a distance, after a slight delay of 100 milliseconds.{{cite journal | vauthors = Eagleman DM | title = Human time perception and its illusions | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 18 | issue = 2 | pages = 131–6 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18639634 | pmc = 2866156 | doi = 10.1016/j.conb.2008.06.002}} By repeatedly engaging in this act, participants had adapted to the delay (i.e., they experienced a gradual shortening in the perceived time interval between pressing the button and seeing the flash of light). The experimenters then showed the flash of light instantly after the button was pressed. In response, subjects often thought that the flash (the effect) had occurred before the button was pressed (the cause). Additionally, when the experimenters slightly reduced the delay, and shortened the spatial distance between the button and the flash of light, participants had often claimed again to have experienced the effect before the cause.

Several experiments also suggest that temporal order judgment of a pair of tactile stimuli delivered in rapid succession, one to each hand, is noticeably impaired (i.e., misreported) by crossing the hands over the midline. However, congenitally blind subjects showed no trace of temporal order judgment reversal after crossing the arms. These results suggest that tactile signals taken in by the congenitally blind are ordered in time without being referred to a visuospatial representation. Unlike the congenitally blind subjects, the temporal order judgments of the late-onset blind subjects were impaired when crossing the arms to a similar extent as non-blind subjects. These results suggest that the associations between tactile signals and visuospatial representation is maintained once it is accomplished during infancy. Some research studies have also found that the subjects showed reduced deficit in tactile temporal order judgments when the arms were crossed behind their back than when they were crossed in front.{{cite journal | vauthors = Yamamoto S, Kitazawa S | title = Reversal of subjective temporal order due to arm crossing | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 4 | issue = 7 | pages = 759–65 | date = July 2001 | pmid = 11426234 | doi = 10.1038/89559 | s2cid = 2667556 | url = http://wexler.free.fr/library/files/yamamoto%20(2001)%20reversal%20of%20subjective%20temporal%20order%20due%20to%20arm%20crossing.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142713/http://wexler.free.fr/library/files/yamamoto%20(2001)%20reversal%20of%20subjective%20temporal%20order%20due%20to%20arm%20crossing.pdf | archive-date = 2015-04-02}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Sambo CF, Torta DM, Gallace A, Liang M, Moseley GL, Iannetti GD | title = The temporal order judgement of tactile and nociceptive stimuli is impaired by crossing the hands over the body midline | journal = Pain | volume = 154 | issue = 2 | pages = 242–7 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 23200703 | doi = 10.1016/j.pain.2012.10.010 | s2cid = 17657371 | url = http://www.bodyinmind.org/wp-content/uploads/1-s2.0-S0304395912005611-main.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130928081457/http://www.bodyinmind.org/wp-content/uploads/1-s2.0-S0304395912005611-main.pdf | archive-date = 2013-09-28}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Takahashi T, Kansaku K, Wada M, Shibuya S, Kitazawa S | title = Neural correlates of tactile temporal-order judgment in humans: an fMRI study | journal = Cerebral Cortex | volume = 23 | issue = 8 | pages = 1952–64 | date = August 2013 | pmid = 22761307 | doi = 10.1093/cercor/bhs179 | doi-access = free}}

Tachypsychia is a neurological condition that alters the perception of time, usually induced by physical exertion, drug use, or a traumatic event. For someone affected by tachypsychia, time perceived by the individual either lengthens, making events appear to slow down,{{cite web |title=Ready, steady, slow! Why top sportsmen might have 'more time' on the ball |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/2012/sep/ready-steady-slow-why-top-sportsmen-might-have-more-time-ball |website=ucl.ac.uk |date=6 September 2012 |publisher=University College London}} or possibly the reverse, with objects appearing as moving in a speeding blur.{{cite news |last1=Amato |first1=Ivan |name-list-style=vanc |title=When Bad Things Happen in Slow Motion |url=http://nautil.us/issue/61/coordinates/when-bad-things-happen-in-slow-motion-rp |access-date=7 June 2018 |work=Nautilus (science magazine) |date=7 June 2018 |archive-date=7 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180607171619/http://nautil.us/issue/61/coordinates/when-bad-things-happen-in-slow-motion-rp |url-status=dead }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Marinho V, Oliveira T, Rocha K, Ribeiro J, Magalhães F, Bento T, Pinto GR, Velasques B, Ribeiro P, Di Giorgio L, Orsini M, Gupta DS, Bittencourt J, Bastos VH, Teixeira S | display-authors = 6 | title = The dopaminergic system dynamic in the time perception: a review of the evidence | journal = The International Journal of Neuroscience | volume = 128 | issue = 3 | pages = 262–282 | date = March 2018 | pmid = 28950734 | doi = 10.1080/00207454.2017.1385614| s2cid = 8176967 }}

Research has suggested the feeling of awe has the ability to expand one's perceptions of time availability. Awe can be characterized as an experience of immense perceptual vastness that coincides with an increase in focus. Consequently, it is conceivable that one's temporal perception would slow down when experiencing awe.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rudd M, Vohs KD, Aaker J | title = Awe expands people's perception of time, alters decision making, and enhances well-being | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 23 | issue = 10 | pages = 1130–6 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 22886132 | doi = 10.1177/0956797612438731 | url = http://www.carlsonschool.umn.edu/assets/lib/assets/AssetLibrary/2012/Rudd_Vohs_Aaker_2012_psych%20science.pdf | citeseerx = 10.1.1.650.9416 | s2cid = 9159218 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} The perception of time can differ as people choose between savoring moments and deferring gratification.{{cite journal |author1=Radford, Benjamin |author2=Frazier, Kendrick |title=Felt Time: The Psychology of How We Perceive Time |journal=Skeptical Inquirer |date=January 2017 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=60–61}}

Possibly related to the oddball effect, research suggests that time seems to slow down for a person during dangerous events (such as a car accident, a robbery, or when a person perceives a potential predator or mate), or when a person skydives or bungee jumps, where they are capable of complex thoughts in what would normally be the blink of an eye (See Fight-or-flight response). This reported slowing in temporal perception may have been evolutionarily advantageous because it may have enhanced one's ability to intelligibly make quick decisions in moments that were of critical importance to our survival.{{cite news|last1=Geoghagen|first1=Tom| name-list-style = vanc |title=Turn back the clock|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/6926500.stm|publisher=BBC News Magazine|date=2007-08-02}} However, even though observers commonly report that time seems to have moved in slow motion during these events, it is unclear whether this is a function of increased time resolution during the event, or instead an illusion created by the remembering of an emotionally salient event.[https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-19477623 Why top sport stars might have 'more time' on the ball] by Jonathan Amos Science correspondent, BBC News

A strong time dilation effect has been reported for perception of objects that were looming, but not of those retreating, from the viewer, suggesting that the expanding discs — which mimic an approaching object — elicit self-referential processes which act to signal the presence of a possible danger.{{cite journal | vauthors = Eagleman D, Pariyadath V | year = 2009 | title = Is subjective duration a signature of coding efficiency? |journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences| volume = 364 | issue = 1525| pages = 1841–1851 | doi=10.1098/rstb.2009.0026| pmid = 19487187 | pmc = 2685825}} Anxious people, or those in great fear, experience greater "time dilation" in response to the same threat stimuli due to higher levels of epinephrine, which increases brain activity (an adrenaline rush).{{cite journal | vauthors = Bar-Haim Y, Kerem A, Lamy D, Zakay D | year = 2010 | title = When time slows down: The influence of threat on time perception in anxiety | journal = Cognition and Emotion | volume = 24 | issue = 2| pages = 255–263 | doi = 10.1080/02699930903387603| s2cid = 43861351 }} In such circumstances, an illusion of time dilation could assist an effective escape.{{cite journal | vauthors = Tse PU, Intriligator J, Rivest J, Cavanagh P | title = Attention and the subjective expansion of time | journal = Perception & Psychophysics | volume = 66 | issue = 7 | pages = 1171–89 | date = October 2004 | pmid = 15751474 | doi = 10.3758/bf03196844 | doi-access = free}}{{cite web | url = https://www.livescience.com/2117-time-slow-emergencies.html | title = Why Time Seems to Slow Down in Emergencies | first = Charles Q. | last = Choi | name-list-style = vanc | work = Live Science| date = 11 December 2007 }} When exposed to a threat, three-year-old children were observed to exhibit a similar tendency to overestimate elapsed time.{{cite web |url= https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/jan/01/psychology-time-perception-awareness-research |title= A stopwatch on the brain's perception of time |last1= Gozlan |first1= Marc |date= 2 Jan 2013 |website= theguardian.com |publisher= Guardian News and Media Limited |access-date= 4 January 2014 |name-list-style= vanc |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140104205501/http://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/jan/01/psychology-time-perception-awareness-research |archive-date= 4 January 2014}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Gil S, Droit-Volet S | title = Time perception, depression and sadness | journal = Behavioural Processes | volume = 80 | issue = 2 | pages = 169–76 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19073237 | doi = 10.1016/j.beproc.2008.11.012 | s2cid = 15412640 | url = http://cerca.labo.univ-poitiers.fr/IMG/pdf_BP09-GilColl.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140104031908/http://cerca.labo.univ-poitiers.fr/IMG/pdf_BP09-GilColl.pdf | archive-date = 2014-01-04}}

Research suggests that the effect appears only at the point of retrospective assessment, rather than occurring simultaneously with events as they happened.{{cite journal | vauthors = Stetson C, Fiesta MP, Eagleman DM | title = Does time really slow down during a frightening event? | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 2 | issue = 12 | pages = e1295 | date = December 2007 | pmid = 18074019 | pmc = 2110887 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0001295 | bibcode = 2007PLoSO...2.1295S| doi-access = free }} Perceptual abilities were tested during a frightening experience — a free fall — by measuring people's sensitivity to flickering stimuli. The results showed that the subjects' temporal resolution was not improved as the frightening event was occurring. Events appear to have taken longer only in retrospect, possibly because memories were being more densely packed during the frightening situation.

Other researchers{{cite journal |last1=Arstila |first1=Valtteri |title=Time Slows Down during Accidents |year=2012 |volume=3 |pages=196 |journal=Frontiers in Psychology|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00196 |pmid=22754544 |pmc=3384265|doi-access=free }}{{cite web |last1=Taylor |first1=Steve |title=Why accidents and emergencies seem to dramatically slow down time |url=https://theconversation.com/why-accidents-and-emergencies-seem-to-dramatically-slow-down-time-122569 |website=theconversation.com |date=6 September 2019 |publisher=The Conversation US, Inc.}} suggest that additional variables could lead to a different state of consciousness in which altered time perception does occur during an event. Research does demonstrate that visual sensory processing{{cite journal |last1=Hagura |first1=N |last2=Kanai |first2=R |last3=Orgs |first3=G |last4=Haggard |first4=P |title=Ready steady slow: action preparation slows the subjective passage of time. |journal=Proceedings. Biological Sciences |year=2012 |volume=279 |issue=1746 |pages=4399–406 |publisher=Proceedings of the Royal Society B|doi=10.1098/rspb.2012.1339 |pmid=22951740 |pmc=3479796}} increases in scenarios involving action preparation. Participants demonstrated a higher detection rate of rapidly presented symbols when preparing to move, as compared to a control without movement.

People shown extracts from films known to induce fear often overestimated the elapsed time of a subsequently presented visual stimulus, whereas people shown emotionally neutral clips (weather forecasts and stock market updates) or those known to evoke feelings of sadness showed no difference. It is argued that fear prompts a state of arousal in the amygdala, which increases the rate of a hypothesized "internal clock". This could be the result of an evolved defensive mechanism triggered by a threatening situation.{{cite journal | vauthors = Droit-Volet S, Fayolle SL, Gil S | title = Emotion and time perception: effects of film-induced mood | journal = Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience | volume = 5 | pages = 33 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21886610 | pmc = 3152725 | doi = 10.3389/fnint.2011.00033| doi-access = free }} Individuals experiencing sudden or surprising events, real or imagined (e.g., witnessing a crime, or believing one is seeing a ghost), may overestimate the duration of the event.

Psychologists have found that the subjective perception of the passing of time tends to speed up with increasing age in humans. This often causes people to increasingly underestimate a given interval of time as they age. This fact can likely be attributed to a variety of age-related changes in the aging brain, such as the lowering in dopaminergic levels with older age; however, the details are still being debated.{{cite journal | vauthors = Dreher JC, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Kohn P, Berman KF | title = Age-related changes in midbrain dopaminergic regulation of the human reward system | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 105 | issue = 39 | pages = 15106–11 | date = September 2008 | pmid = 18794529 | pmc = 2567500 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0802127105| doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Bäckman L, Nyberg L, Lindenberger U, Li SC, Farde L | title = The correlative triad among aging, dopamine, and cognition: current status and future prospects | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 30 | issue = 6 | pages = 791–807 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16901542 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.06.005 | hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0024-FF03-0 | s2cid = 16772959 | url = http://edoc.mpg.de/288522 | hdl-access = free}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Meck WH | title = Neuropharmacology of timing and time perception | journal = Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research | volume = 3 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 227–42 | date = June 1996 | pmid = 8806025 | doi = 10.1016/0926-6410(96)00009-2 | url = http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homePage/Class/Psy355/Gilden/meck.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131029135616/http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/class/Psy355/Gilden/meck.pdf | archive-date = 2013-10-29}}

Very young children will first experience the passing of time when they can subjectively perceive and reflect on the unfolding of a collection of events. A child's awareness of time develops during childhood, when the child's attention and short-term memory capacities form — this developmental process is thought to be dependent on the slow maturation of the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kolb B, Mychasiuk R, Muhammad A, Li Y, Frost DO, Gibb R | title = Experience and the developing prefrontal cortex | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 109 | pages = 17186–93 | date = October 2012 | issue = Suppl 2 | pmid = 23045653 | pmc = 3477383 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1121251109| bibcode = 2012PNAS..10917186K | doi-access = free }}

The common explanation is that most external and internal experiences are new for young children but repetitive for adults. Children have to be extremely engaged (i.e. dedicate many neural resources or significant brain power) in the present moment because they must constantly reconfigure their mental models of the world to assimilate it and manage behaviour properly.{{cn|date=December 2024}}

Adults, however, may rarely need to step outside mental habits and external routines. When an adult frequently experiences the same stimuli, such stimuli may seem "invisible" as a result of having already been sufficiently mapped by the brain. This phenomenon is known as neural adaptation. According to this picture, the rate of new stimuli and new experiences may decrease with age as does the number of new memories created to record them. If one then assumes that the perceived duration of a given interval of time is linked to how many new memories are formed during it, the aging adult may underestimate long stretches of time because, in their recollection, these now contain fewer memory-creating events. {{cite web | url = http://blog.bufferapp.com/the-science-of-time-perception-how-to-make-your-days-longer | title = The science of time perception: stop it slipping away by doing new things | author = Cooper BB | date = 2013-07-02 | publisher = The Buffer Blog | url-status = live | archive-url = http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20130816194820/http://blog.bufferapp.com/the-science-of-time-perception-how-to-make-your-days-longer | archive-date = 2013-08-16}} Consequently, the subjective perception is often that time passes by at a faster rate with age.

Let {{Var|S}} be subjective time, {{Var|R}} be real time, and define both to be zero at birth.

One model proposes that the passage of subjective time relative to actual time is inversely proportional to real time:{{cite journal |last1=Lemlich |first1=Robert |date=1975-08-01 |title=Subjective acceleration of time with aging |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.1975.41.1.235 |journal=Perceptual and Motor Skills |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=235–238 |doi=10.2466/pms.1975.41.1.235 |pmid=1178414 |s2cid=20017140 |access-date=2020-12-24 |url-access=subscription }}

:$\backslash frac\{dS\}\{dR\}\; =\; \backslash frac\{K\}R$

When solved, $S\_2\; -\; S\_1\; =\; K(\backslash log\{R\_2\}\; -\; \backslash log\{R\_1\})\; =\; K\; \backslash log\{\backslash left(\{R\_2\}/\{R\_1\}\backslash right)\}$.

One day would be approximately 1/4,000 of the life of an 11-year-old, but approximately 1/20,000 of the life of a 55-year-old. This helps to explain why a random, ordinary day may therefore appear longer for a young child than an adult. So a year would be experienced by a 55-year-old as passing approximately five times more quickly than a year experienced by an 11-year-old. If long-term time perception is based solely on the proportionality of a person's age, then the following four periods in life would appear to be quantitatively equal: ages 5–10 (1x), ages 10–20 (2x), ages 20–40 (4x), age 40–80 (8x), as the end age is twice the start age. However, this does not work for ages 0–10, which corresponds to ages 10–∞.{{cite magazine | url = https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg16422180.900-look-how-time-flies | title = Look how time flies . . . | author = Adler R | date = 1999-12-25 | magazine = New Scientist | access-date = 2009-10-22 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110614233936/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg16422180.900-look-how-time-flies | archive-date = 2011-06-14}}

Lemlich posits that the passage of subjective time relative to actual time is inversely proportional to total subjective time, rather than the total real time:

:$\backslash frac\{dS\}\{dR\}\; =\; \backslash frac\{K\}S$

When mathematically solved,

:$S^2\; =\; 2KR\; +\; C$

It avoids the issue of infinite subjective time passing from real age 0 to 1 year, as the asymptote can be integrated in an improper integral. Using the boundary conditions S = 0 when R = 0 and K > 0,

:$S\; =\; \backslash sqrt\{2KR\}$

:$\backslash frac\{dS\}\{dR\}\; =\; \backslash sqrt\{\backslash frac\{K\}\{2R\}\}$

This means that time appears to pass in proportion to the square root of the perceiver's real age, rather than directly proportional. Under this model, a 55-year-old would subjectively experience time passing {{sfrac|2|1|4}} times more quickly than an 11-year-old, rather than five times under the previous. This means the following periods in life would appear to be quantitatively equal: ages 0–1, 1–4, 4–9, 9–16, 16–25, 25–36, 36–49, 49–64, 64–81, 81–100, 100–121.{{cite news | last1 = Jo DiLonardo | first1 = Mary | name-list-style = vanc | title = Time Does Fly As We Grow Older | url = https://www.chicagotribune.com/1994/02/06/time-does-fly-as-we-grow-older/ | work = Chicago Tribune | date = 1994-02-06 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160425120403/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1994-02-06/features/9402060210_1_psychology-professor-adult-school-year | archive-date = 2016-04-25}}

In a study, participants consistently provided answers that fit this model when asked about time perception at 1/4 of their age, but were less consistent for 1/2 of their age. Their answers suggest that this model is more accurate than the previous one.

A consequence of this model is that the fraction of subjective life remaining is always less than the fraction of real life remaining, but it is always more than one half of real life remaining. This can be seen for and :

:

Stimulants such as thyroxine, caffeine, and amphetamines lead to overestimation of time intervals by both humans and rats, while depressants and anesthetics such as barbiturates and nitrous oxide can have the opposite effect and lead to underestimation of time intervals.{{Cite web|title=Time perception - Personality traits|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/time-perception|access-date=2020-06-06|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}} The level of activity in the brain of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and norepinephrine may be the reason for this.{{cite web|last1=Gozlan|first1=Marc|date=2 Jan 2013|title=A stopwatch on the brain's perception of time|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/jan/01/psychology-time-perception-awareness-research|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104205501/http://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/jan/01/psychology-time-perception-awareness-research|archive-date=4 January 2014|access-date=4 January 2014|website=theguardian.com|publisher=Guardian News and Media Limited|name-list-style=vanc}}{{cite journal|display-authors=6|vauthors=Marinho V, Oliveira T, Rocha K, Ribeiro J, Magalhães F, Bento T, Pinto GR, Velasques B, Ribeiro P, Di Giorgio L, Orsini M, Gupta DS, Bittencourt J, Bastos VH, Teixeira S|date=March 2018|title=The dopaminergic system dynamic in the time perception: a review of the evidence|journal=The International Journal of Neuroscience|volume=128|issue=3|pages=262–282|doi=10.1080/00207454.2017.1385614|pmid=28950734|s2cid=8176967}}{{cite journal|vauthors=Rammsayer T|year=1989|title=Is there a common dopaminergic basis of time perception and reaction time?|journal=Neuropsychobiology|volume=21|issue=1|pages=37–42|doi=10.1159/000118549|pmid=2573003}} A research on stimulant-dependent individuals (SDI) showed several abnormal time processing characteristics including larger time differences for effective duration discrimination, and overestimating the duration of a relatively long time interval. Altered time processing and perception in SDI could explain the difficulty SDI have with delaying gratification.{{Cite journal|last1=Wittmann|first1=Marc|last2=Leland|first2=David S.|last3=Churan|first3=Jan|last4=Paulus|first4=Martin P.|date=2007-10-08|title=Impaired time perception and motor timing in stimulant-dependent subjects|journal=Drug and Alcohol Dependence|volume=90|issue=2–3|pages=183–192|doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.03.005|issn=0376-8716|pmc=1997301|pmid=17434690}} Another research studied the dose-dependent effect in methamphetamine dependents with short term abstinence and its effects on time perception. Results shows that motor timing but not perceptual timing, was altered in meth dependents, which persisted for at least three months of abstinence. Dose-dependent effects on time perception were only observed when short-term abstinent meth abusers processed long time intervals. The study concluded that time perception alteration in meth dependents is task specific and dose dependent.{{Cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Mingming|last2=Zhao|first2=Di|last3=Zhang|first3=Zhao|last4=Cao|first4=Xinyu|last5=Yin|first5=Lu|last6=Liu|first6=Yi|last7=Yuan|first7=Ti-Fei|last8=Luo|first8=Wenbo|date=2019-10-01|title=Time perception deficits and its dose-dependent effect in methamphetamine dependents with short-term abstinence|journal=Science Advances|language=en|volume=5|issue=10|pages=eaax6916|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aax6916|pmid=31692967|pmc=6821467|bibcode=2019SciA....5.6916Z|issn=2375-2548|doi-access=free}}

The effect of cannabis on time perception has been studied with inconclusive results mainly due to methodological variations and the paucity of research. Even though 70% of time estimation studies report over-estimation, the findings of time production and time reproduction studies remain inconclusive.{{cite journal|vauthors=Atakan Z, Morrison P, Bossong MG, Martin-Santos R, Crippa JA|date=January 2012|title=The effect of cannabis on perception of time: a critical review|journal=Current Pharmaceutical Design|volume=18|issue=32|pages=4915–22|doi=10.2174/138161212802884852|pmid=22716134|s2cid=44522992}}{{Cite journal|last1=Atakan|first1=Zerrin|last2=Morrison|first2=Paul|last3=Bossong|first3=Matthijs G.|last4=Crippa|first4=Rocio Martin-Santos and Jose A.|date=2012-10-31|title=The Effect of Cannabis on Perception of Time: A Critical Review|url=https://www.eurekaselect.com/102824/article|access-date=2020-06-28|journal=Current Pharmaceutical Design|volume=18|issue=32|pages=4915–22|doi=10.2174/138161212802884852|pmid=22716134|language=en|url-access=subscription}} Studies show consistently throughout the literature that most cannabis users self-report the experience of a slowed perception of time. In the laboratory, researchers have confirmed the effect of cannabis on the perception of time in both humans and animals.{{Cite book|last=Stolick|first=Matt|title=Otherwise Law-Abiding Citizens: A Scientific and Moral Assessment of Cannabis Use|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2008|pages=39–41}} Using PET scans it was observed that participants who showed a decrease in cerebellar blood flow (CBF) also had a significant alteration in time sense. The relationship between decreased CBF and impaired time sense is of interest as the cerebellum is linked to an internal timing system.{{Cite journal|last1=Mathew|first1=Roy J|last2=Wilson|first2=William H|last3=G. Turkington|first3=Timothy|last4=Coleman|first4=R. Edward|date=1998-06-29|title=Cerebellar activity and disturbed time sense after THC|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006899398003758|journal=Brain Research|language=en|volume=797|issue=2|pages=183–189|doi=10.1016/S0006-8993(98)00375-8|pmid=9666122|s2cid=40578680|issn=0006-8993|url-access=subscription}}{{Cite journal|last=Stella|first=Nephi|date=2013-08-01|title=Chronic THC intake modifies fundamental cerebellar functions|url= |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|language=en|volume=123|issue=8|pages=3208–3210|doi=10.1172/JCI70226|pmid=23863631|pmc=3967658|issn=0021-9738|doi-access=free}}

The chemical clock hypothesis implies a causal link between body temperature and the perception of time.{{Cite journal|last1=Wearden|first1=J.H.|last2=Penton-Voak|first2=I.S.|date=1995-05-01|title=Feeling the Heat: Body Temperature and the Rate of Subjective Time, Revisited|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14640749508401443|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section B|language=en|volume=48|issue=2b|pages=129–141|doi=10.1080/14640749508401443|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024|pmid=7597195|issn=0272-4995}}

Past work show that increasing body temperature tends to make individuals experience a dilated perception of time and they perceive durations as shorter than they actually were, ultimately leading them to underestimate time durations. While decreasing body temperature has the opposite effect – causing participants to experience a condensed perception of time leading them to over-estimate time duration – observations of the latter type were rare.{{Cite journal|last1=J.H.|first1=Wearden|last2=I.S.|first2=Penton-Voak|date=1995|title=Feeling the heat: Body temperature and the rate of subjective time, revisited.|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=Section B|issue=2|pages=48(2b): 129–141|doi=10.1080/14640749508401443 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |pmid=7597195}} Research establishes a parametric effect of body temperature on time perception with higher temperatures generally producing faster subjective time and vice versa. This is especially seen to be true under changes in arousal levels and stressful events.{{Cite journal|last1=Wearden|first1=J. H.|last2=Penton-Voak|first2=I. S.|date=1995|title=Feeling the heat: body temperature and the rate of subjective time, revisited|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. B, Comparative and Physiological Psychology|volume=48|issue=2|pages=129–141|doi=10.1080/14640749508401443 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |issn=0272-4995|pmid=7597195}}

Time perception can be used as a tool in social networks to define the subjective experiences of each node within a system. This method can be used to study characters' psychology in dramas, both film and literature, analyzed by social networks. Each character's subjective time may be calculated, with methods as simple as word counting, and compared to the real time of the story to shed light on their internal states.Lotker, Z. (2016, August). The tale of two clocks. In 2016 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining (ASONAM) (pp. 768–776). IEEE Computer Society.{{Citation |last=Lotker |first=Zvi |title=Machine Narrative |date=2021 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68299-6_18 |work=Analyzing Narratives in Social Networks |pages=283–298 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-68299-6_18 |isbn=978-3-030-68298-9 |s2cid=241976819 |access-date=2022-03-21|url-access=subscription }}

• Arrow of time
• Benjamin Libet
• Time dilation
• Déjà vu
• Dyschronometria
• Temporal resolution
• Time perspective (Wikiversity)

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{{cite journal | vauthors = Jaldow EJ, Oakley DA, Davey GC | title = Performance of Decorticated Rats on Fixed Interval and Fixed Time Schedules | journal = The European Journal of Neuroscience | volume = 1 | issue = 5 | pages = 461–470 | date = September 1989 | pmid = 12106131 | doi = 10.1111/j.1460-9568.1989.tb00352.x| s2cid = 19254667 }}

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{{Refend}}

{{Wikibooks}}

{{Wiktionary|chronoception}}

• [http://www.manchestertiming.co.uk Time perception research at the University of Manchester]
• [http://www.harley.com/writing/time-sense.html Time Sense: Polychronicity and Monochronicity]
• [http://www.rotman.utoronto.ca/bicpapers/pdf/memoryfortime.pdf "A Cognitive Model of Retrospective Duration Estimations", Hee-Kyung Ahn, et al., March 7, 2006.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230945/http://www.rotman.utoronto.ca/bicpapers/pdf/memoryfortime.pdf |date=March 3, 2016 }}
• [http://www.fb10.uni-bremen.de/homepages/wildgen/pdf/antwerpen_time.pdf "Time, Force, Motion, and the Semantics of Natural Languages", Wolfgang Wildgen, Antwerp Papers in Linguistics, 2003/2004.]
• [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RjlpamhrId8 Can Time Slow Down?]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20080122145356/http://www.pjonline.com/Editorial/20051119/comment/onlooker.html "Interactions emerge between biological clocks", The Pharmaceutical Journal, Vol 275 No 7376 p644, 19 November 2005] Registration required.
• [http://sourceforge.net/projects/picturespacetime/ Picture Space Time helps to add Time Perception to Photographs using sound]

{{Time Topics}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Time Perception}}

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