Treaty of Tientsin

The Xianfeng Emperor authorized negotiations for the treaty on May 29, 1858.Wang, Dong. China's Unequal Treaties: Narrating National History. Lexington Books, 2005, p. 16. His chief representatives were the Manchu {{ill|Guiliang|zh|桂良}} and the Mongol {{ill|Huashana|zh|花沙納}}. The Russian treaty was negotiated by Yevfimiy Putyatin and finalized on June 13;{{sfnp|Russian treaty|1858|loc=Art. 12}} the American treaty was negotiated by William Bradford Reed and finalized on June 18;{{sfnp|American treaty|1858|loc=Art. XXX}} the British treaty was negotiated by James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin, and finalized on June 26;{{sfnp|British treaty|1858|loc=Art. LVI}} and the French treaty was negotiated by Jean-Baptiste-Louis Gros and finalized on June 27.{{sfnp|French treaty|1858|loc=Art. 42}}

Following the pattern set by the great powers of Europe, the United States took on a protectionist stance, built up its navy, and tried to create a mercantile empire. The United States was one of the leading "treaty powers" in China, forcing open a total of 23 foreign concessions from the Chinese government. While it is often noted that the United States did not control any settlements in China, it shared British land grants and was actually invited to take land in Shanghai but refused because the land was thought to be disadvantageous.{{sfnb|Johnstone|1937|p=945}}

1. Russia, which had previously been limited to trading at designated border posts, received the right to trade with the treaty ports by sea. Most-favored nation clauses in each treaty{{harvp|Russian treaty|1858|loc=Art. 4 & 12}}.{{harvp|American treaty|1858|loc=Art. XV & XXX}}.{{harvp|British treaty|1858|loc=Art. XXIV & LIV}}.{{harvp|French treaty|1858|loc=Art. 2, 9, & 40}}. further ensured that all concessions were shared by the four powers.
2. Guangzhou{{efn|Then known as "Canton".{{harvp|Russian treaty|1858|loc=Art. 3}}.{{harvp|American treaty|1858|loc=Art. XIV}}.{{harvp|British treaty|1858|loc=Art. XI}}.{{harvp|French treaty|1858|loc=Art. 6}}.}} and the four treaty ports opened to foreign trade and residence by the Treaty of Nanjing were joined by Tainan,{{efn|Then known as "Taiwan-fu", "Tai-wan", "Taiwan", or "Taïwan".}} Haikou,{{efn|Then known as "Tsion-chou", "Kiungchow" or "Kiung-Tchau".}} Shantou,{{efn|Then known as "Chau-chau", "Swatow", "Chawchow", and "Chaou-Chaou".}} Haicheng,{{efn|Then known as "Newchwang".}} Penglai,{{efn|Then known as "Tǎngchow" or "Tan-Tchau".}} Tamsui,{{efn|Then known as "Taashwi".}} and (notionally) Nanjing.{{efn|Then known as "Nanking" or "Nankin".}} The ports at Haicheng and Penglai being found inadequate for European vessels, their status was later extended to nearby Yantai and Yingkou, effectively opening another two ports.
3. China was forbidden from considering Russian Orthodox,{{sfnp|Russian treaty|1858|loc=Art. 8}} Protestant,{{harvp|American treaty|1858|loc=Art. XXIX}}. and Roman Catholic Christianity, whether practiced by foreigners or Chinese converts, to be a harmful superstition. All laws, regulations, and practices limiting its observance became null and void everywhere in the country.{{sfnp|French treaty|1858|loc=Art. 13}}
4. The extraterritoriality of American citizens{{sfnp|American treaty|1858|loc=Art. XI}} and Russian,{{sfnp|Russian treaty|1858|loc=Art. 7}} British,{{sfnp|British treaty|1858|loc=Art. XV & XVI}} and French subjects{{sfnp|French treaty|1858|loc=Art. 38 & 39}} was reaffirmed. They further received the right to travel throughout the Qing Empire for pleasure or business so long as they possessed a valid passport,{{harvp|British treaty|1858|loc=Art. IX}}.{{sfnp|French treaty|1858|loc=Art. 7}} but the Qing Empire was able to prevent them from lawfully residing in the interior with extraterritoriality.{{sfnp|Cassel|2012|p=62}}
5. The Qing Empire permitted foreign vessels to navigate on the Yangtze River{{harvp|British treaty|1858|loc=Art. X}}. but established that no legal trade would be permitted with areas held by the Taiping Rebellion until their reconquest. Foreign trade was to be limited to Zhenjiang,{{efn|Then known as "Chinkiang".}} pledged to be opened within the year, and a further three ports to be opened after the suppression of the Taipings. This clause was later used to establish treaty ports at Wuhan{{efn|Specifically, the formerly separate city of Hankou north and west of the confluence of the Han and Yangtze Rivers.}} and Jiujiang.{{efn|The third port was Nanjing, which had been opened by the French treaty and the most-favored nation clauses of the others.}}
6. The four nations gained the right to station permanent diplomatic legations in Beijing,{{efn|Then known as "Peking" or "Pekin".{{sfnp|American treaty|1858|loc=Art. II}}{{sfnp|French treaty|1858|loc=Art. 2}}}}{{harvp|British treaty|1858|loc=Art. III}}. which had previously been a closed city. The Russians' ecclesiastical mission in Beijing was also exempted from its previous restrictions.{{sfnp|Russian treaty|1858|loc=Art. 10}}
7. China was forbidden from using the character {{lang|zh|{{linktext|夷}}}} (understood to mean "barbarian") in official documents to refer to officials, subjects, or citizens of the four nations.{{harvp|British treaty|1858|loc=Art. LI}}.
8. China was forbidden from establishing or permitting any further monopolies or cartels over its domestic trade.{{sfnp|French treaty|1858|loc=Art. 14}}
9. Addenda to the treaties settled China's duties and tariffs on terms advantageous to the victors and pledged the Qing Empire would pay an indemnity of 6,000,000 taels of silver: 2 million to France, 2 million to Britain for military expenses, and 2 million as compensation to British merchants.

The Treaties of Tientsin use several words that have somewhat ambiguous meanings. For example, the words "settlement" and "concession" can often be confused. The term "settlement" refers to a parcel of land, leased to a foreign power, which is composed of both foreign and national peoples, and governed by locally elected foreigners. The term "concession" refers to a long-term lease of land to a foreign power, under which the foreign nation has complete control of the land, which is governed by consular representatives.{{sfnb|Johnstone|1937|p=942}}

{{wikisourcepar2|Treaty of Tien-Tsin|Treaty of Tien-Tsin}}

• Unequal treaty
• Imperialism in Asia
• 19th-century Protestant missions in China
• William Bradford Reed

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{{refbegin}}

• Chan, Mitchell. "Rule of Law and China's Unequal Treaties: Conceptions of the Rule of Law and Its Role in Chinese International Law and Diplomatic Relations in the Early Twentieth Century." Penn History Review 25.2 (2018): 2. [https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1109&context=phr online]
• {{cite journal |last1=Bloch |first1=Kurt |title=The Basic Conflict over Foreign Concessions in China |journal=Far Eastern Survey |date=May 1939 |volume=8 |issue=10 |pages=111–116 |jstor=3023092 |doi=10.2307/3023092 }}
• {{citation |last=Cassel |first=Pär |date=2012 |title=Grounds of Judgment |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press }}.
• {{cite journal |last1=Johnstone |first1=William C. |title=International Relations: The Status of Foreign Concessions and Settlements in the Treaty Ports of China |journal=The American Political Science Review |date=October 1937 |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=942–8 |jstor=1947920 |doi=10.2307/1947920 |s2cid=147155580 }}

{{refend}}

• {{citation |last=Bruce |first=James |author-link=James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin |author2=Guiliang (桂良) |author3=Huashana (花沙納) |display-authors=1 |title=Peace Treaty between the Queen of Great Britain and the Emperor of China |location=Tianjin |date=26 June 1858 |ref={{harvid|British treaty|1858}} |title-link=:s:Treaty of Tien-Tsin between the Queen of Great Britain and the Emperor of China }}.
• {{citation |contribution=Treaties of Tianjin, 1858 and 1860 |title=600 Years of Urban Planning in and around Tianjin |publisher=Cornell University |contribution-url=http://wason.library.cornell.edu/Tianjin/treaties.html |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621170125/http://wason.library.cornell.edu/Tianjin/treaties.html |archive-date=2010-06-21 }}.
• {{citation |last=Reed |first=William Bradford |author-link=William Bradford Reed |author2=Guiliang (桂良) |author3=Huashana (花沙納) |display-authors=1 |title=Treaty of Peace, Amity, and Commerce between the United States of America and China |date=18 June 1858 |location=Tianjin |ref={{harvid|American treaty|1858}} |title-link=:s:Treaty of Tien-Tsin between the United States of America and the Empire of China }}.
• {{citation |url=http://www.chinaforeignrelations.net/node/162 |title=France: Treaty of Tientsin [Tianjin], 1858 |ref={{sfnref|French treaty|1858}} |access-date=2019-11-27 |archive-date=2016-03-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305022918/http://www.chinaforeignrelations.net/node/162 |url-status=usurped }}
• {{citation |url=http://chinaforeignrelations.net/node/233 |title=Russia: Treaty of Tientsin [Tianjin], 1858 |ref={{sfnref|Russian treaty|1858}} |access-date=2023-09-08 |archive-date=2016-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306012334/http://chinaforeignrelations.net/node/233 |url-status=usurped }}

• {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160305022918/http://www.chinaforeignrelations.net/node/206 American]}}, {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160305022918/http://www.chinaforeignrelations.net/node/144 British]}}, {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160305022918/http://www.chinaforeignrelations.net/node/162 French]}}, and {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160305022918/http://www.chinaforeignrelations.net/node/233 Russian treaties]}} at China Foreign Relations {{in lang|en}}
• [https://books.google.com/books?id=soz2uJjn7BUC&lpg=PA925-IA5 American treaty in United States Statutes at Large, Vol. XII] (1863)
• [https://books.google.com/books?id=matbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA347 British treaty in Accounts and Papers of the House of Commons, Vol. XXXIII: Correspondence Relative to the Earl of Elgin's Special Missions to China and Japan...] (1859)

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Tientsin

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