Urine#pH

{{Main|Renal physiology}}

File:Harnstoff.svg

Most animals have excretory systems for elimination of soluble toxic wastes. In humans, soluble wastes are excreted primarily by the urinary system and, to a lesser extent in terms of urea, removed by perspiration.{{cite book|author1=Arthur C. Guyton|author2=John Edward Hall|title=Textbook of medical physiology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTZHAQAAIAAJ|access-date=26 September 2011|year=2006|publisher=Elsevier Saunders|edition=11|isbn=978-0-8089-2317-6|chapter=25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526111029/http://books.google.com/books?id=sTZHAQAAIAAJ|archive-date=26 May 2013|url-status=live}} In placental mammals, the urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The system produces urine by a process of filtration, reabsorption, and tubular secretion. The kidneys extract the soluble wastes from the bloodstream, as well as excess water, sugars, and a variety of other compounds. The resulting urine contains high concentrations of urea and other substances, including toxins. Urine flows from the kidneys through the ureter, bladder, and finally the urethra before passing through the urinary meatus.

Research looking at the duration of urination in a range of mammal species found that nine larger species urinated for 21 ± 13 seconds irrespective of body size.{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=P. J.|last2=Pham|first2=J.|last3=Choo|first3=J.|last4=Hu|first4=D. L.|title=Duration of urination does not change with body size|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|date=26 June 2014|volume=111|issue=33|pages=11932–11937|doi=10.1073/pnas.1402289111|pmc=4143032|pmid=24969420|bibcode=2014PNAS..11111932Y|doi-access=free| issn=0027-8424 }} Smaller species, including rodents and bats, cannot produce steady streams of urine and instead urinate with a series of drops.

Average urine production in adult humans is around {{cvt|1.4|L}} of urine per person per day with a normal range of {{cvt|0.6 to 2.6|L}} per person per day, produced in around 6 to 8 urinations per day depending on state of hydration, activity level, environmental factors, weight, and the individual's health.{{cite journal|last1=Rose|first1=C.|last2=Parker|first2=A.|last3=Jefferson|first3=B.|last4=Cartmell|first4=E.|year=2015|title=The Characterization of Feces and Urine: A Review of the Literature to Inform Advanced Treatment Technology|journal=Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology|volume=45|issue=17|pages=1827–1879|doi=10.1080/10643389.2014.1000761|issn=1064-3389|pmc=4500995|pmid=26246784|bibcode=2015CREST..45.1827R |doi-access=free}} 50px Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ |date=2017-10-16 }}. Producing too much or too little urine needs medical attention. Polyuria is a condition of excessive production of urine (> 2.5 L/day), oliguria when < 400 mL are produced, and anuria being < 100 mL per day.

{{Further|Urinalysis}}

File:Urine under the microscope.jpg

About 91–96% of urine consists of water. The remainder can be broadly characterized into inorganic salts, urea, organic compounds, and organic ammonium salts.{{Cite journal |date=1872 |title=Composition Of The Urine |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25231362 |journal=The British Medical Journal |volume=1 |issue=579 |pages=133 |jstor=25231362 |issn=0007-1447}} Urine also contains proteins, hormones, and a wide range of metabolites,{{Cite web |title=What Is in Your Urine? Take a Look at the Chemical Composition |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/the-chemical-composition-of-urine-603883 |access-date=2024-05-08 |website=ThoughtCo |language=en}} varying by what is introduced into the body.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}

The total solids in urine are on average {{cvt|59|g}} per day per person. Urea is the largest constituent of the solids, constituting more than 50% of the total. The daily volume and composition of urine varies per person based on the amount of physical exertion, environmental conditions, as well as water, salt, and protein intakes. In healthy persons, urine contains very little protein and an excess is suggestive of illness, as with sugar. Organic matter, in healthy persons, also is reported to at most 1.7 times more matter than minerals. However, any more than that is suggestive of illness.

However, it is important to note that lesser amounts and concentrations of other compounds and ions are often present in urination of humans.

{{see also|Abnormal urine color}}

File:P. 28 a chart showing urine colours and their meaning.jpg

Urine varies in appearance, depending principally upon a body's level of hydration, interactions with drugs, compounds and pigments or dyes found in food, or diseases. Normally, urine is a transparent solution ranging from colorless to amber, but is usually a pale yellow. Usually urination color comes primarily from the presence of urobilin.{{cite book |author1=John E. Hall |title=Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 13th edition |publisher=Elsevier |year=2016 |isbn=978-1455770052 |page=885 |chapter=The liver as an organ |author1-link=John E. Hall (science writer)}} Urobilin is a final waste product resulting from the breakdown of heme from hemoglobin during the destruction of aging blood cells.{{Cite journal |last1=Hall |first1=Brantley |last2=Levy |first2=Sophia |last3=Dufault-Thompson |first3=Keith |last4=Arp |first4=Gabriela |last5=Zhong |first5=Aoshu |last6=Ndjite |first6=Glory Minabou |last7=Weiss |first7=Ashley |last8=Braccia |first8=Domenick |last9=Jenkins |first9=Conor |last10=Grant |first10=Maggie R. |last11=Abeysinghe |first11=Stephenie |last12=Yang |first12=Yiyan |last13=Jermain |first13=Madison D. |last14=Wu |first14=Chih Hao |last15=Ma |first15=Bing |date=January 2024 |title=BilR is a gut microbial enzyme that reduces bilirubin to urobilinogen |journal=Nature Microbiology |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=173–184 |doi=10.1038/s41564-023-01549-x |pmid=38172624 |issn=2058-5276 |pmc=10769871}}{{Cite web |last=Rayne |first=Elizabeth |date=2024-01-27 |title=Gotta go? We've finally found out what makes urine yellow |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2024/01/gotta-go-weve-finally-found-out-what-makes-urine-yellow/ |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us}}

Colorless urine indicates over-hydration. Colorless urine in drug tests can suggest an attempt to avoid detection of illicit drugs in the bloodstream through over-hydration.

• Bloody urine is termed hematuria, a symptom of a wide variety of medical conditions.
• Reddish or brown urine may be caused by porphyria (not to be confused with the harmless, temporary pink or reddish tint caused by beeturia).
• Pinkish urine can result from the consumption of beets (beeturia)
• Dark yellow urine is often indicative of dehydration.
• Orange urine due to certain medications such as rifampin and phenazopyridine
• Dark orange to brown urine can be a symptom of jaundice, rhabdomyolysis, or Gilbert's syndrome.
• Greenish urine can result from the consumption of asparagus or foods,{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} beverages with green pigments, or from a urinary tract infection.
• Blue urine can be caused by the ingestion of methylene blue (e.g., in medications) or foods or beverages with blue dyes.
• Blue urine stains can be caused by blue diaper syndrome.
• Purple urine may be due to purple urine bag syndrome.
• Black or dark-colored urine is referred to as melanuria and may be caused by a melanoma or non-melanin acute intermittent porphyria.

File:Dark urine due low fluid intake.jpg|Dark urine due to low fluid intake.

File:HematuriaGross.jpg|Dark red urine due to blood (hematuria).

File:Choluria.svg|Dark red urine due to choluria.

File:Pinkish urine beetroots 1.jpg|Pinkish urine due to consumption of beetroots.

File:IMAG0466.jpg|Green urine during long term infusion of the sedative propofol.

File:Urinating dog (7768361246).jpg using olfactory signals in urine.{{Cite book |last=Miklósi |first=Ádám |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_6BIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 |title=The Dog: A Natural History |date=2018-04-03 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-8999-0 |language=en}}]]

Sometime after leaving the body, urine may acquire a strong "fish-like" odor because of contamination with bacteria that break down urea into ammonia.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} This odor is not present in fresh urine of healthy individuals; its presence may be a sign of a urinary tract infection.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}

The odor of normal human urine can reflect what has been consumed or specific diseases. For example, an individual with diabetes mellitus may present a sweetened urine odor. This can be due to kidney diseases as well, such as kidney stones.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} Additionally, the presence of amino acids in urine (diagnosed as maple syrup urine disease) can cause it to smell of maple syrup.{{Cite web |title=Maple syrup urine disease |url=https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/maple-syrup-urine-disease/ |access-date=2022-06-10 |website=National Library of Medicine |language=en}}

Eating asparagus can cause a strong odor reminiscent of the vegetable caused by the body's breakdown of asparagusic acid.{{cite journal |vauthors=Lison M, Blondheim SH, Melmed RN | title = A polymorphism of the ability to smell urinary metabolites of asparagus | journal = Br Med J | volume = 281 | issue = 6256 | pages = 1676–8 | year = 1980 | pmid = 7448566 | pmc = 1715705 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.281.6256.1676 }} Likewise consumption of saffron, alcohol, coffee, tuna fish, and onion can result in telltale scents.{{cite web |url=https://s-space.snu.ac.kr/bitstream/10371/124274/1/000000024821.pdf |title=Fate of Nitrogen in Urine Separated Toilet Systems |last=Hashemi |first=Shervin |date= |website=s-space.snu.ac.kr |publisher= |access-date=March 15, 2021 |quote="Likewise consumption of saffron, alcohol, coffee, tuna fish, and onion can result in telltale scents." |archive-date=July 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210727175010/https://s-space.snu.ac.kr/bitstream/10371/124274/1/000000024821.pdf |url-status=live }} Particularly spicy foods can have a similar effect, as their compounds pass through the kidneys without being fully broken down before exiting the body.{{cite book|author1=Stefan Gates|author2=Max La Riviere-Hedrick|title=Gastronaut: adventures in food for the romantic, the foolhardy, and the brave|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dlSXXguGw9UC&pg=PA87|access-date=27 April 2011|date=15 March 2006|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-15-603097-7|pages=87–|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526060911/http://books.google.com/books?id=dlSXXguGw9UC&pg=PA87|archive-date=26 May 2013|url-status=live}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20110713222322/http://www.livestrong.com/article/248141-foods-that-affect-the-odor-of-urine/ Foods that Affect the Odor of Urine]. livestrong.com. December 27, 2010.

===pH===

The pH normally is within the range of 5.5 to 7 with an average of 6.2. In persons with hyperuricosuria, acidic urine can contribute to the formation of stones of uric acid in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder.{{cite journal | vauthors = Martín Hernández E, Aparicio López C, Alvarez Calatayud G, García Herrera MA | title = [Vesical uric acid lithiasis in a child with renal hypouricemia] | language = es | journal = An. Esp. Pediatr. | volume = 55 | issue = 3 | pages = 273–6 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11676906 | url = http://db.doyma.es/cgi-bin/wdbcgi.exe/doyma/mrevista.pubmed_full?inctrl=05ZI0103&rev=37&vol=55&num=3&pag=273 | access-date = 2008-12-25 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090327023934/http://db.doyma.es/cgi-bin/wdbcgi.exe/doyma/mrevista.pubmed_full?inctrl=05ZI0103&rev=37&vol=55&num=3&pag=273 | archive-date = 2009-03-27 | url-status = dead }} Urine pH can be monitored by a physician or at home.

{{cite web

|title=Urine pH

|publisher=MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia

|access-date=December 26, 2008

|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/MEDLINEPLUS/ency/article/003583.htm

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217080951/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003583.htm

|archive-date=December 17, 2008

|url-status=live

}}

A diet which is high in protein from meat and dairy, as well as alcohol consumption can reduce urine pH, whilst potassium and organic acids, such as from diets high in fruit and vegetables, can increase the pH and make it more alkaline.

Cranberries, popularly thought to decrease the pH of urine, have actually been shown not to acidify urine.{{cite journal |vauthors=Avorn J, Monane M, Gurwitz JH, Glynn RJ, Choodnovskiy I, Lipsitz LA | title = Reduction of bacteriuria and pyuria after ingestion of cranberry juice | journal = JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association | volume = 271 | issue = 10 | pages = 751–4 | year = 1994 | pmid = 8093138 | quote = We did not find evidence that urinary acidification was responsible for the observed effect, since the median pH of urine samples in the cranberry group (6.0) was actually higher than that in the experimental group (5.5). While cranberry juice has been advocated as a urinary acidifier to prevent urinary tract infections, not all studies have shown a reduction in urine pH with cranberry juice ingestion, even with consumption of 2000 mL per day. | doi=10.1001/jama.1994.03510340041031}} Drugs that can decrease urine pH include ammonium chloride, chlorothiazide diuretics, and methenamine mandelate.[https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003583.htm Urine pH: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609191020/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003583.htm |date=2016-06-09 }}. Nlm.nih.gov (2011-03-28). Retrieved on 2011-04-27.[http://healthguide.howstuffworks.com/urine-ph-dictionary.htm Discovery Health "Urine PH – Medical Dictionary"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330053350/http://healthguide.howstuffworks.com/urine-ph-dictionary.htm |date=2010-03-30 }}. Healthguide.howstuffworks.com (2007-05-16). Retrieved on 2011-04-27.

Human urine has a specific gravity of 1.003–1.035.

Urine is not sterile, not even in the bladder.{{cite journal|last=Hilt|first=Evann E.|author2=Kathleen McKinley|author3=Meghan M. Pearce|author4=Amy B. Rosenfeld|author5=Michael J. Zilliox|author6=Elizabeth R. Mueller|author7=Linda Brubaker|author8=Xiaowu Gai|author9=Alan J. Wolfe|date=26 December 2013|title=Urine Is Not Sterile: Use of Enhanced Urine Culture Techniques To Detect Resident Bacterial Flora in the Adult Female Bladder|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=52|issue=3|pages=871–876|doi=10.1128/JCM.02876-13|pmc=3957746|author10=Paul C. Schreckenberger|pmid=24371246}}{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/blog/gory-details/urine-not-sterile-and-neither-rest-you|title=Urine is not sterile, and neither is the rest of you|last1=Engelhaupt|first1=Erika|date=22 May 2014|website=Science News|language=en|access-date=22 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622083801/https://www.sciencenews.org/blog/gory-details/urine-not-sterile-and-neither-rest-you|archive-date=22 June 2018|url-status=live}} In the urethra, epithelial cells lining the urethra are colonized by facultatively anaerobic Gram-negative rod and cocci bacteria.{{cite book|author1=Michael T. Madigan|author2=Thomas D. Brock|title=Brock biology of microorganisms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=12aWQAAACAAJ|access-date=10 September 2011|year=2009|publisher=Pearson/Benjamin Cummings|isbn=978-0-13-232460-1}}{{Dead link|date=May 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} One study conducted in Nigeria isolated a total of 77 distinct bacterial strains from 100 healthy children (ages 5–11) as well as 39 strains from 33 cow urine samples, a considerable amount being pathogens.{{Cite journal |last1=Ogunshe |first1=Adenike Adedayo O. |last2=Fawole |first2=Abosede Oyeyemi |last3=Ajayi |first3=Victoria Abosede |date=2010-05-25 |title=Microbial evaluation and public health implications of urine as alternative therapy in clinical pediatric cases: health implication of urine therapy |journal=The Pan African Medical Journal |volume=5 |pages=12 |doi=10.4314/pamj.v5i1.56188 |issn=1937-8688 |pmc=3032614 |pmid=21293739 }} Pathogens identified and their percentages were:

The study also states:

{{Blockquote|text=Multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) rates recorded in children urinal bacterial species were 37.5–100% (Gram-positive) and 12.5–100% (Gram-negative), while MAR among the cow urinal bacteria was 12.5–75.0% (Gram-positive) and 25.0–100% (Gram-negative).|title=[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3032614/| Microbial evaluation and public health implications of urine as alternative therapy in clinical pediatric cases: health implication of urine therapy]}}

File:Bigot, Trophime - A Doctor Examining Urine.jpg.]]

Many physicians in ancient history resorted to the inspection and examination of the urine of their patients. Hermogenes wrote about the color and other attributes of urine as indicators of certain diseases. Abdul Malik Ibn Habib of Andalusia ({{abbr|d.|died}} 862 AD) mentions numerous reports of urine examination throughout the Umayyad empire.Ibn Habib, Abdul Malik d.862CE/283AH "Kitaab Tib Al'Arab" (The Book of Arabian Medicine), Published by Dar Ibn Hazm, Beirut, Lebanon 2007(Arabic) Diabetes mellitus got its name because the urine is plentiful and sweet.{{Cite journal |date=2021-06-08 |title=History of diabetes mellitus - PubMed |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11953758/ |access-date=2024-05-08 |journal=Saudi Medical Journal |pmid=11953758 |archive-date=2021-06-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608192713/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11953758/ |url-status=bot: unknown |last1=Ahmed |first1=A. M. |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=373–378 }} The name uroscopy refers to any visual examination of the urine,{{Cite web |title=Medical Definition of UROSCOPY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/uroscopy |access-date=2024-05-08 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}} including microscopy, although it often refers to the aforementioned prescientific or Proto-scientific forms of urine examination. Clinical urine tests today duly note the color, turbidity, and odor of urine but also include urinalysis, which chemically analyzes the urine and quantifies its constituents. A culture of the urine is performed when a urinary tract infection is suspected, as bacteriuria without symptoms does not require treatment.Köves, B; Cai, T; Veeratterapillay, R; Pickard, R; Seisen, T; Lam, TB; Yuan, CY; Bruyere, F; Wagenlehner, F; Bartoletti, R; Geerlings, SE; Pilatz, A; Pradere, B; Hofmann, F; Bonkat, G; Wullt, B (25 July 2017). "Benefits and Harms of Treatment of Asymptomatic Bacteriuria: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis by the European Association of Urology Urological Infection Guidelines Panel". European Urology. 72 (6): 865–868. {{doi|10.1016/j.eururo.2017.07.014}} PMID 28754533. A microscopic examination of the urine may be helpful to identify organic or inorganic substrates and help in the diagnosis.

The color and volume of urine can be reliable indicators of hydration level. Clear and copious urine is generally a sign of adequate hydration. Dark urine is a sign of dehydration. The exception occurs when diuretics are consumed, in which case urine can be clear and copious and the person still be dehydrated.

{{Further|Lant}}

File:Urine collection in Ede, Netherlands (2920690579).jpg from it (Ede, the Netherlands)]]

Urine contains proteins and other substances that are useful for medical therapy and are ingredients in many prescription drugs (e.g., Ureacin, Urecholine, Urowave).{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}} Urine from postmenopausal women is rich in gonadotropins that can yield follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone for fertility therapy.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lcBEheiufVcC&q=urine-derived+gonadotropins&pg=PA489|last1=Carrell|first1=D.T.|last2=Peterson|first2=C.M. |date=2010|title=Artificial insemination: intrauterine insemination. 31.3.1.2 Gonadotropins|page=489|location=New York, New York|publisher=Springer|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-1436-1|access-date=2013-03-26|isbn=9781441914361|archive-date=2022-04-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407103426/https://books.google.com/books?id=lcBEheiufVcC&q=urine-derived+gonadotropins&pg=PA489|url-status=live}} One such commercial product is Pergonal.{{Cite news |last=Adelson |first=Andrea |date=1995-02-26 |title=Wall Street; A Fertility Drug Grows Scarce |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/02/26/business/wall-street-a-fertility-drug-grows-scarce.html |access-date=2024-05-08 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}

Urine from pregnant women contains enough human chorionic gonadotropins for commercial extraction and purification to produce hCG medication. Pregnant mare urine is the source of estrogens, namely Premarin. Urine also contains antibodies, which can be used in diagnostic antibody tests for a range of pathogens, including HIV-1.[http://www.clinchem.org/cgi/content/abstract/45/9/1602 Urine Antibody Tests: New Insights into the Dynamics of HIV-1 Infection – Urnovitz et al. 45 (9): 1602 – Clinical Chemistry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725181017/http://www.clinchem.org/cgi/content/abstract/45/9/1602 |date=2011-07-25 }}. Clinchem.org. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.

File:Urine after 4 months (28 June) (2957323941).jpg

File:Fresh Urine (Day 0; 24 March) (2957323823).jpg

Urine can also be used to produce urokinase, which is used clinically as a thrombolytic agent.{{citation needed|date=July 2018}}

{{excerpt|Reuse of human excreta#Urine|section=Urine as a fertilizer|files=no}}

Given that urea in urine breaks down into ammonia, urine has been used for cleaning. In pre-industrial times, urine was used – in the form of lant or aged urine – as a cleaning fluid.Sueton, Vespasian 23 [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian*.html#23 English] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713102257/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian%2A.html#23 |date=2021-07-13 }}, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian*.html#23 Latin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417022924/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian%2A.html#23 |date=2022-04-17 }}. Cf. Dio Cassius, Roman History, Book 65, chapter 14,5 [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html#14 English] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417022924/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65%2A.html#14 |date=2022-04-17 }}, [http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/historiens/Dion/livre66.htm Greek/French (66, 14)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326004005/http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/historiens/Dion/livre66.htm |date=2013-03-26 }} Urine was also used for whitening teeth in Ancient Rome.{{Cite book |last=Geissberger |first=Marc |title=Esthetic Dentistry in Clinical Practice |publisher=John Wiley & Son |year=2010 |isbn=9780813828251 |pages=6 |language=en}}

{{Main|Potassium nitrate}}

Urine was used before the development of a chemical industry in the manufacture of gunpowder. Urine, a nitrogen source, was used to moisten straw or other organic material, which was kept moist and allowed to rot for several months to over a year. The resulting salts were washed from the heap with water, which was evaporated to allow collection of crude saltpeter crystals, that were usually refined before being used in making gunpowder.{{cite book | url = http://docsouth.unc.edu/imls/lecontesalt/leconte.html | title = Instructions for the Manufacture of Saltpeter | author = Joseph LeConte | publisher = South Carolina Military Department; printer: Charles P. Pelham | location = Columbia, S.C. | page = 14 | year = 1862 | access-date = 2007-10-19 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071013174033/http://docsouth.unc.edu/imls/lecontesalt/leconte.html | archive-date = 2007-10-13 | url-status = live }}

{{See also|Urophagia}}

{{Transclude lead excerpt|Urophagia}}

The US Army Field Manual advises {{em|against}} drinking urine for survival. The manual explains that drinking urine tends to worsen rather than relieve dehydration due to the salts in it, and that urine should not be consumed in a survival situation, even when there is no other fluid available. In hot weather survival situations, where other sources of water are not available, soaking cloth (a shirt for example) in urine and putting it on the head can help cool the body.[http://www.equipped.com/21-76/ch6.pdf Water Procurement] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612013729/http://www.equipped.com/21-76/ch6.pdf|date=2009-06-12}}, US Army Field Manual

During World War I, Germans experimented with numerous poisonous gases as weapons. After the first German chlorine gas attacks, Allied troops were supplied with masks of cotton pads that had been soaked in urine. It was believed that the ammonia in the pad neutralized the chlorine. These pads were held over the face until the soldiers could escape from the poisonous fumes.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}

Urban legend states that urine works well against jellyfish stings.Castillo, M. (2017, June 20). Don't Pee On A Jellyfish Sting — It Won't Work | LittleThings.com. Littlethings. https://littlethings.com/entertainment/jellyfish-sting-news This scenario has appeared many times in popular culture including in the Friends episode "The One With the Jellyfish", an early episode of Survivor, as well as the films The Real Cancun (2003), The Heartbreak Kid (2007) and The Paperboy (2012). However, at best it is ineffective, and in some cases this treatment may make the injury worse.{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Old Wives' Tale? Urine as Jellyfish Sting Remedy |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Health/story?id=2283933&page=1 |access-date=2024-05-08 |website=ABC News |language=en}}[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa004&articleID=EEC8FE59-E7F2-99DF-3F08DA1A6F42454F&ref=rss Fact or Fiction?: Urinating on a Jellyfish Sting is an Effective Treatment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011104056/http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa004&articleID=EEC8FE59-E7F2-99DF-3F08DA1A6F42454F&ref=rss |date=2007-10-11 }}. Scientific American. 4 January 2007. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.[http://firstaid.about.com/od/bitesstings/ht/06_jellyfish.htm Jellyfish Sting Treatment – How to Treat a Jellyfish Sting] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080929064844/http://firstaid.about.com/od/bitesstings/ht/06_jellyfish.htm |date=2008-09-29 }}. Firstaid.about.com. 22 August 2010. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.

Urine has often been used as a mordant to help prepare textiles, especially wool, for dyeing. In the Scottish Highlands and Hebrides, the process of "waulking" (fulling) woven wool is preceded by soaking in urine, preferably infantile.Mentioned by an interviewee in Lomax the Songhunter, a 2004 documentary film.

Urine plays a role in olfactory communication, since it contains semiochemicals that act as pheromones.{{Cite book |last=Mucignat-Caretta |first=Carla |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3I-lAgAAQBAJ&q=%22sex%20pheromones%22%20urine |title=Neurobiology of Chemical Communication |date=2014-02-14 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4665-5341-5 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=Wyatt |first=Tristram D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OCVOAgAAQBAJ&q=%22sex%20pheromones%22%20urine |title=Pheromones and Animal Behavior: Chemical Signals and Signatures |date=2014-01-23 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-11290-1 |language=en}} The urine of predator species often contains kairomones{{Cite journal |last1=Osada |first1=Kazumi |last2=Miyazono |first2=Sadaharu |last3=Kashiwayanagi |first3=Makoto |year=2015 |title=The scent of wolves: Pyrazine analogs induce avoidance and vigilance behaviors in prey |journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience |volume=9 |page=363 |doi=10.3389/fnins.2015.00363 |pmc=4595651 |pmid=26500485 |doi-access=free}} that serve as a repellent against their prey species.Swihart, Robert K., Joseph J. Pignatello, and Mary Jane I. Mattina. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mary-Mattina/publication/258824627_Aversive_responses_of_white-tailed_deer_Odocoileus_virginianus_to_predator_urines/links/0deec522f3633123b6000000/Aversive-responses-of-white-tailed-deer-Odocoileus-virginianus-to-predator-urines.pdf "Aversive responses of white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, to predator urines."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018165727/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mary-Mattina/publication/258824627_Aversive_responses_of_white-tailed_deer_Odocoileus_virginianus_to_predator_urines/links/0deec522f3633123b6000000/Aversive-responses-of-white-tailed-deer-Odocoileus-virginianus-to-predator-urines.pdf|date=2021-10-18}} Journal of chemical ecology 17.4 (1991): 767-777.

File:Jesus-College-MS-111 00470 235v (cropped) Ansoddau'r Trwnc.jpg text from the Red Book of Hergest on uroscopy, called {{lang|cy|Ansoddau'r Trwnc}} (the 'Qualities of Urine'). Opening lines (translated):{{pb}} "Since it is through the qualities of the urine that a person's faults and his dangers and his diseases and his illness can be identified..."]]

File:De urinarum differencia negocium between 1210 and 1230 ..JPG

The fermentation of urine by bacteria produces a solution of ammonia; hence fermented urine was used in Classical Antiquity to wash cloth and clothing, to remove hair from hides in preparation for tanning, to serve as a mordant in dying cloth, and to remove rust from iron.See:

• Forbes, R.J., Studies in Ancient Technology, vol. 5, 2nd ed. (Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1966), pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zqg3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA19 19] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210705012715/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zqg3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA19 |date=2021-07-05 }}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zqg3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA48 48] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210705011945/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zqg3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA48 |date=2021-07-05 }}, and [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zqg3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA65 65] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210705012702/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zqg3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA65 |date=2021-07-05 }}.
• Moeller, Walter O., The Wool Trade of Ancient Pompeii (Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1976), [https://books.google.com/books?id=g7wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA20 p. 20.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210705013437/https://books.google.com/books?id=g7wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA20 |date=2021-07-05 }}
• Faber, G.A. (pseudonym of: Goldschmidt, Günther) (May 1938) "Dyeing and tanning in classical antiquity," Ciba Review, 9 : 277–312. Available at: [http://www.elizabethancostume.net/cibas/ciba9.html Elizabethan Costume] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126083642/http://www.elizabethancostume.net/cibas/ciba9.html |date=2021-01-26 }}
• Smith, William, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (London, England: John Murray, 1875), article: "Fullo" (i.e., fullers or launderers), [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hneuvp;view=1up;seq=570 pp. 551–553.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210705050703/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hneuvp;view=1up;seq=570 |date=2021-07-05 }}
• Rousset, Henri (31 March 1917) [https://books.google.com/books?id=WB4uWYU5V20C&pg=PA197 "The laundries of the Ancients,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210705012714/https://books.google.com/books?id=WB4uWYU5V20C&pg=PA197 |date=2021-07-05 }} Scientific American Supplement, 83 (2152) : 197.
• Bond, Sarah E., Trade and Taboo: Disreputable Professions in the Roman Mediterranean (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 2016), [https://books.google.com/books?id=HIxfDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA112 p. 112.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210705013436/https://books.google.com/books?id=HIxfDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA112 |date=2021-07-05 }}
• Binz, Arthur (1936) "Altes und Neues über die technische Verwendung des Harnes" (Ancient and modern [information] about the technological use of urine), Zeitschrift für Angewandte Chemie, 49 (23) : 355–360. [in German]
• Witty, Michael (December 2016) "Ancient Roman urine chemistry," Acta Archaeologica, 87 (1) : 179–191. Witty speculates that the Romans obtained ammonia in concentrated form by adding wood ash (impure potassium carbonate) to urine that had been fermented for several hours. Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate) is thereby precipitated, and the yield of struvite can be increased by then treating the solution with bittern, a magnesium-rich solution that is a byproduct of making salt from sea water. Roasting struvite releases ammonia vapors. Ancient Romans used fermented human urine (in the form of lant) to cleanse grease stains from clothing.{{cite web |url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/weekly/aa031303a.htm |title=Hygiene in Ancient Rome |access-date=2010-02-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101018214357/http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/weekly/aa031303a.htm |archive-date=2010-10-18 |url-status=live }} The emperor Nero instituted a tax ({{langx|la|vectigal urinae}}) on the urine industry, continued by his successor, Vespasian. The Latin saying {{lang|la|Pecunia non olet}} ('money does not smell') is attributed to Vespasian – said to have been his reply to a complaint from his son about the unpleasant nature of the tax. Vespasian's name is still attached to public urinals in France ({{lang|fr|vespasiennes}}), Italy ({{lang|it|vespasiani}}), and Romania ({{lang|ro|vespasiene}}).

Alchemists spent much time trying to extract gold from urine, which led to discoveries such as white phosphorus by German alchemist Hennig Brand when distilling fermented urine in 1669. In 1773 the French chemist Hilaire Rouelle discovered the organic compound urea by boiling urine dry.

The English word urine ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|juː|r|ᵻ|n}}, {{IPAc-en|ˈ|j|ɜːr|ᵻ|n}}) comes from the Latin {{lang|la|urina}} (-ae, f.), which is cognate with ancient words in various Indo-European languages that concern water, liquid, diving, rain, and urination (for example Sanskrit {{transliteration|sa|varṣati}} meaning 'it rains' or {{transliteration|sa|vār}} meaning 'water' and Greek {{transliteration|grc|ourein}} meaning 'to urinate').{{Cite web |date=2024-05-07 |title=Definition of URINE |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/urine |access-date=2024-05-08 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}} The onomatopoetic term piss predates the word urine, but is now considered vulgar.Harper, D. (n.d.). Etymology of piss. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved March 17, 2022, from https://www.etymonline.com/word/piss {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318040903/https://www.etymonline.com/word/piss |date=2022-03-18 }}{{Cite web |title=Definition of PISS |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/piss |access-date=2024-05-08 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}} Urinate was at first used mostly in medical contexts.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} Piss is also used in such colloquialisms as to piss off, piss poor, and the slang expression pissing down to mean heavy rain. Euphemisms and expressions used between parents and children (such as wee, pee, number one and many others) have long existed.

Lant is a word for aged urine, originating from the Old English word {{lang|ang|hland}} referring to urine in general.

• Drinking urine (urophagia)
• Ureotelic
• Urine therapy
• Urolagnia, an attraction to urine

{{Notelist}}

{{Reflist}}

{{Wiktionary|urine|piss}}

• [http://www-medlib.med.utah.edu/WebPath/TUTORIAL/URINE/URINE.html Urinanalysis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070117124829/http://www-medlib.med.utah.edu/WebPath/TUTORIAL/URINE/URINE.html |date=2007-01-17 }} at the University of Utah Eccles Health Sciences Library
• [https://www.drugs.com/enc/urine-chemistry.html Urine Chemistry] at drugs.com

{{Renal physiology|state=collapsed}}

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Category:Animal physiology

Category:Body fluids

Category:Sanitation