User:Clayoquot/CCM

Mitigation measures may have many health co-benefits – potential measures can not only mitigate future health impacts from climate change but also improve health directly.{{cite journal |last1=Workman |first1=Annabelle |last2=Blashki |first2=Grant |last3=Bowen |first3=Kathryn J. |last4=Karoly |first4=David J. |last5=Wiseman |first5=John |date=April 2018 |title=The Political Economy of Health Co-Benefits: Embedding Health in the Climate Change Agenda |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=674 |doi=10.3390/ijerph15040674 |pmc=5923716 |pmid=29617317 |doi-access=free}} Globally the cost of limiting warming to 2 °C is less than the value of the extra years of life due to cleaner air - and in India and China much less.{{Cite journal |last1=Sampedro |first1=Jon |last2=Smith |first2=Steven J. |last3=Arto |first3=Iñaki |last4=González-Eguino |first4=Mikel |last5=Markandya |first5=Anil |last6=Mulvaney |first6=Kathleen M. |last7=Pizarro-Irizar |first7=Cristina |last8=Van Dingenen |first8=Rita |date=2020 |title=Health co-benefits and mitigation costs as per the Paris Agreement under different technological pathways for energy supply |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S016041201933911X |journal=Environment International |language=en |volume=136 |pages=105513 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2020.105513 |pmid=32006762 |s2cid=211004787}} Air quality improvement is a near-term benefit among the many societal benefits from climate change mitigation, including substantial health benefits. Studies suggest that demand-side climate change mitigation solutions have largely beneficial effects on 18 constituents of well-being.{{cite news |title=MCC: Quality of life increases when we live, eat and travel energy-efficiently |work=idw-online.de |url=https://idw-online.de/de/news781561 |access-date=11 December 2021}}{{Cite journal |last1=Creutzig |first1=Felix |last2=Niamir |first2=Leila |last3=Bai |first3=Xuemei |last4=Callaghan |first4=Max |last5=Cullen |first5=Jonathan |last6=Díaz-José |first6=Julio |last7=Figueroa |first7=Maria |last8=Grubler |first8=Arnulf |last9=Lamb |first9=William F. |last10=Leip |first10=Adrian |last11=Masanet |first11=Eric |last12=Mata |first12=Érika |last13=Mattauch |first13=Linus |last14=Minx |first14=Jan C. |last15=Mirasgedis |first15=Sebastian |date=2022 |title=Demand-side solutions to climate change mitigation consistent with high levels of well-being |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-021-01219-y |journal=Nature Climate Change |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=36–46 |bibcode=2022NatCC..12...36C |doi=10.1038/s41558-021-01219-y |issn=1758-678X |s2cid=234275540}}

{{Main|Energy storage}}

{{See also|Hydrogen economy}}

Wind energy and photovoltaics can deliver large amounts of electric energy but not at any time and place. One approach is the conversation into storable forms of energy. This generally leads to losses in efficiency.

For storage requirements up to a few days, pumped hydro (PHES), compressed air (CAES) and Li-on batteries are most cost effective depending on charging rhythm. For 2040, a more significant role for Li-on and hydrogen is projected.{{Cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=Oliver |last2=Melchior |first2=Sylvain |last3=Hawkes |first3=Adam |last4=Staffell |first4=Iain |date=2019 |title=Projecting the Future Levelized Cost of Electricity Storage Technologies |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S254243511830583X |journal=Joule |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=81–100 |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2018.12.008 |s2cid=67915118}} Li-on batteries are widely used in battery storage power stations and are starting to be used in vehicle-to-grid storage.{{Cite news |date=12 March 2020 |title=Volkswagen plans to tap electric car batteries to compete with power firms |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-volkswagen-electric-energy-idUSKBN20Z2D5 |access-date=7 April 2020}} They provide a sufficient round-trip efficiency of 75–90 %.{{Cite journal |last=Pellow |first=Matthew A. |last2=Emmott |first2=Christopher J. M. |last3=Barnhart |first3=Charles J. |last4=Benson |first4=Sally M. |date=2015 |title=Hydrogen or batteries for grid storage? A net energy analysis |url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=C4EE04041D |journal=Energy & Environmental Science |language=en |volume=8 |issue=7 |pages=1938–1952 |doi=10.1039/C4EE04041D |issn=1754-5692}} Their production can cause environmental problems.{{cite magazine |title=The spiralling environmental cost of our lithium battery addiction |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/lithium-batteries-environment-impact |magazine=WIRED |access-date=26 January 2020}} Levelized costs for battery storage have drastically fallen.{{cite web |date=28 April 2020 |title=Scale-up of Solar and Wind Puts Existing Coal, Gas at Risk |url=https://about.bnef.com/blog/scale-up-of-solar-and-wind-puts-existing-coal-gas-at-risk |publisher=BloombergNEF}}

Hydrogen may be useful for seasonal energy storage.{{Cite web |title=Is Green Hydrogen The Future Of Energy Storage? |url=https://oilprice.com/Alternative-Energy/Fuel-Cells/Is-Green-Hydrogen-The-Future-Of-Energy-Storage.html |access-date=7 April 2020 |website=OilPrice.com |language=en}} Thermal energy in the conversion process can be used for district heating. The concept of solar hydrogen is discussed for remote desert projects where grid connections to demand centers are not available.{{cite web |last1=Beauvais |first1=Aurélie |date=13 November 2019 |title=Solar + Hydrogen: The perfect match for a Paris-compatible hydrogen strategy? |url=https://www.solarpowereurope.org/blog-solar-and-hydrogen/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707005736/https://www.solarpowereurope.org/blog-solar-and-hydrogen/ |archive-date=7 July 2020 |access-date=5 April 2020 |publisher=Solar Power Europe}} Because it has more energy per unit volume sometimes it may be better to use hydrogen in ammonia.{{Cite news |date=30 March 2020 |title=Ammonia flagged as green shipping fuel of the future |newspaper=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/2014e53c-531f-11ea-a1ef-da1721a0541e}}

{{Main|Super grid|3 = Smart grid}}

File:DESERTEC-Map_large.jpg

Long-distance power lines help to minimize storage requirements. A continental transmission network can smoothen local variations of wind energy. With a global grid, even photovoltaics could be available all day and night. The strongest high-voltage direct current (HVDC) connections are quoted with losses of only 1.6% per 1000 km{{cite web |title=UHV Grid |url=https://en.geidco.org.cn/aboutgei/uhv/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201182520/https://en.geidco.org/aboutgei/uhv/ |archive-date=1 February 2020 |access-date=26 January 2020 |publisher=Global Energy Interconnection (GEIDCO)}} with a clear advantage compared to alternating current (AC) grids. HVDC is currently only used for point-to-point connections. Meshed HVDC grids may be used to connect offshore wind in future.{{Cite web |last=Vella |first=Heidi |date=2022-07-28 |title=For Europe's offshore ambitions, grid innovation is key |url=https://www.raconteur.net/infrastructure/for-europes-offshore-ambitions-grid-innovation-is-key/ |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=Raconteur |language=en-GB}}

A super grid in the US in combination with renewable energy could reduce GHG emissions by 80%.{{cite web |title=North American Supergrid |url=http://climate.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/supergrid_9_2019.pdf |access-date=26 January 2020 |publisher=Climate Institute (USA)}}

{{Main|2 = Load management}}

Instead of expanding grids and storage for more power, electricity demand can be adjusted on the consumer side. This can flatten demand peaks. Traditionally, the energy system has treated consumer demand as fixed. Instead, data systems can combine with advanced software to manage demand and respond to energy market prices.{{cite web |title=Renewable Energy and Load Management |url=https://arena.gov.au/assets/2018/10/REALM-Industry-Report_public_FINAL.pdf |access-date=28 March 2020 |publisher=UTS University of Technology Sydney}}

Time of use tariffs are a common way to motivate electricity users to reduce their peak load consumption. On a household level, charging electric vehicles or running heat pumps combined with hot water storage when wind or sun energy are available reduces electricity costs.

Demand response devices can receive all sorts of messages from the grid. The message could be a request to use a low power mode, to shut off entirely during a sudden failure on the grid, or notifications about the current and expected prices for power. This allows electric cars to recharge at the least expensive rates independent of the time of day. Vehicle-to-grid uses a car's battery to supply the grid temporarily.{{Cite web |date=2021-06-08 |title=UK vehicle-to-grid trial finds economic potential but 'hardware costs still too high' |url=https://www.energy-storage.news/uk-vehicle-to-grid-trial-finds-economic-potential-but-hardware-costs-still-too-high/ |access-date=2021-12-24 |website=Energy Storage News |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |date=2021-09-04 |title=Electric cars: Ofgem plans easier way for drivers to sell energy back to grid |url=http://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/sep/04/electric-cars-ofgem-plans-easier-way-for-drivers-to-sell-energy-back-to-grid |access-date=2021-12-24 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}

{{Main|Energy-efficient buildings|Sustainable architecture|Green building}}

{{See also|renewable heat}}

The buildings sector accounts for 23% of global energy-related {{CO2}} emissions.{{harvnb|IPCC SR15 Ch2|2018|p=141}} About half of the energy is used for space and water heating.{{Cite book |last=International Energy Agency |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1144453104 |title=Energy technology perspectives 2017 : catalysing energy technology transformations |date=2017 |isbn=92-64-27597-5 |location=Paris |oclc=1144453104}} Building insulation can reduce the primary energy demand significantly. Efficient electric heating and cooling loads may also provide a flexible resource that can participate in demand response to integrate variable renewable resources into the grid. Solar water heating uses the thermal energy directly. Sufficiency measures include moving to smaller houses when the needs of households change, mixed use of spaces and the collective use of devices.IPCC (2022) [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_TS.pdf Technical Summary]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/ Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA{{rp|71}} New buildings can be constructed using passive solar building design, low-energy building, or zero-energy building techniques.In addition, it is possible to design buildings that are more energy-efficient to cool by using lighter-coloured, more reflective materials in the development of urban areas.

File:Outunit_of_heat_pump.jpg]]

Heat pumps are an example of electrified heating with high efficiency. A modern heat pump typically produces around three to five times more thermal energy than electrical energy consumed, depending on the coefficient of performance and the outside temperature.{{Cite web |year=2022 |title=Heat Pumps – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/heat-pumps |access-date=2022-11-25 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}} It uses an electrically driven compressor that extracts heat energy from outdoor air or ground sources and moves that heat to the space to be warmed. In the summer months, the cycle can be reversed for air conditioning.

{{See also|Passive cooling|Passive daytime radiative cooling}}

Refrigeration and air conditioning account for about 10% of global {{CO2}} emissions caused by fossil fuel-based energy production and the use of fluorinated gases. Alternative cooling systems, such as passive cooling building design and installing passive daytime radiative cooling surfaces, can reduce air conditioning use. Suburbs and cities in hot and arid climates can significantly reduce energy consumption from cooling with daytime radiative cooling.{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Kai |last2=Miljkovic |first2=Nenad |last3=Cai |first3=Lili |date=March 2021 |title=Performance analysis on system-level integration and operation of daytime radiative cooling technology for air-conditioning in buildings |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778821000335 |journal=Energy and Buildings |volume=235 |page=110749 |doi=10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.110749 |via=Elsevier Science Direct |s2cid=234180182}}

The energy consumption for cooling is expected to rise significantly due to increasing heat and availability of devices in poorer countries. Of the 2.8 billion people living in the hottest parts of the world, only 8% currently have air conditioners, compared with 90% of people in the US and Japan.{{cite web |last=Radhika |first=Lalik |date=2019 |title=How India is solving its cooling challenge |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/05/india-heat-cooling-challenge-temperature-air-conditioning/ |access-date=20 July 2021 |publisher=World Economic Forum}} By combining energy efficiency improvements with the transition away from super-polluting refrigerants, the world could avoid cumulative greenhouse gas emissions of up to 210–460 Gt{{CO2}}e over the next four decades. {{cite web |date=2020 |title=Cooling Emissions and Policy Synthesis Report |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/cooling-emissions-and-policy-synthesis-report |access-date=20 July 2020 |publisher=IEA/UNEP}} A shift to renewable energy in the cooling sector comes with two advantages: Solar energy production with mid-day peaks corresponds with the load required for cooling. Additionally, cooling has a large potential for load management in the electric grid.

{{Main|Sustainable transport}}

Transportation emissions account for 15% of emissions worldwide.{{Cite journal |last1=Ge |first1=Mengpin |last2=Friedrich |first2=Johannes |last3=Vigna |first3=Leandro |date=6 February 2020 |title=4 Charts Explain Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Countries and Sectors |url=https://www.wri.org/blog/2020/02/greenhouse-gas-emissions-by-country-sector |language=en |access-date=30 December 2020 |website=World Resources Institute}} Increasing the use of public transport, low-carbon freight transport and cycling are important components of transport decarbonization.{{cite web |last1=Jochem |first1=Patrick |last2=Rothengatter |first2=Werner |last3=Schade |first3=Wolfgang |date=2016 |title=Climate change and transport |url=https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/91601/ |language=en}}{{cite journal |last1=Kwan |first1=Soo Chen |last2=Hashim |first2=Jamal Hisham |date=1 April 2016 |title=A review on co-benefits of mass public transportation in climate change mitigation |journal=Sustainable Cities and Society |language=en |volume=22 |pages=11–18 |doi=10.1016/j.scs.2016.01.004 |issn=2210-6707}}

Electric vehicles and environmentally friendly rail help to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels. In most cases, electric trains are more efficient than air transport and truck transport.{{cite web |author=Lowe, Marcia D. |date=April 1994 |title=Back on Track: The Global Rail Revival |url=http://www.worldwatch.org/node/872 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061204005745/http://www.worldwatch.org/node/872 |archive-date=4 December 2006 |access-date=15 February 2007}} Other efficiency means include improved public transport, smart mobility, carsharing and electric hybrids. Fossil-fuel powered passenger cars can be converted to electric propulsion. The production of alternative fuel without GHG emissions is only possible with high conversion losses. Furthermore, moving away from a car-dominated transport system towards low-carbon advanced public transport system is important.{{cite journal |last1=Mattioli |first1=Giulio |last2=Roberts |first2=Cameron |last3=Steinberger |first3=Julia K. |last4=Brown |first4=Andrew |date=1 August 2020 |title=The political economy of car dependence: A systems of provision approach |journal=Energy Research & Social Science |language=en |volume=66 |pages=101486 |doi=10.1016/j.erss.2020.101486 |issn=2214-6296 |s2cid=216186279}}

Heavyweight, large personal vehicles (such as cars) require a lot of energy to move and take up much urban space.{{Cite web |last=Gonsalvez |first=Venkat Sumantran, Charles Fine and David |date=16 October 2017 |title=Our cities need fewer cars, not cleaner cars |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/16/our-cities-need-fewer-cars-not-cleaner-cars-electric-green-transport |website=The Guardian}}{{Cite web |last=Casson |first=Richard |date=25 January 2018 |title=We don't just need electric cars, we need fewer cars |url=https://www.greenpeace.org/international/story/13968/we-dont-just-need-electric-cars-we-need-fewer-cars/ |access-date=17 September 2020 |publisher=Greenpeace}} Several alternatives modes of transport are available to replace these. The European Union has made smart mobility part of its European Green Deal{{Cite web |date=7 January 2020 |title=The essentials of the "Green Deal" of the European Commission |url=https://www.greenfacts.org/en/europe-green-deal-2019/l-2/index.htm#0 |access-date=3 April 2020 |website=Green Facts |publisher=Green Facts}} and in smart cities, smart mobility is also important.{{Cite web |title=Smart Mobility in Smart Cities |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314246043 |website=ResearchGate}}

{{See also|Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles|Alternative fuel vehicle}}

File:Societe_de_transport_de_Montreal_bus_36-902_-_08.jpg in Montreal]]

Between a quarter and three-quarters of cars on the road by 2050 are forecast to be electric vehicles. EVs use 38 megajoules per 100 km in comparison to 142 megajoules per 100 km for ICE cars.{{Cite web |title=How green are electric cars? |url=http://www.theguardian.com/football/ng-interactive/2017/dec/25/how-green-are-electric-cars |website=The Guardian}} Hydrogen can be a solution for long-distance transport by trucks and hydrogen-powered ships where batteries alone are too heavy.{{Cite news |title=Want Electric Ships? Build a Better Battery |language=en |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/story/want-electric-ships-build-a-better-battery/ |access-date=7 April 2020 |issn=1059-1028}}{{Cite web |title=The scale of investment needed to decarbonize international shipping |url=https://www.globalmaritimeforum.org/news/the-scale-of-investment-needed-to-decarbonize-international-shipping |access-date=7 April 2020 |website=www.globalmaritimeforum.org}}

GHG emissions depend on the amount of green energy being used for battery or fuel cell production and charging. In a system mainly based on electricity from fossil fuels, emissions of electric vehicles can even exceed those of diesel combustion.{{Cite web |last1=Sternberg |first1=André |last2=Hank |first2=Christoph |last3=Ebling |first3=Christopher |date=13 July 2019 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions for battery electric and fuel cell electric vehicles with ranges over 300 kilometers |url=https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/en/documents/News/190815_LCA-BEV-FCEV_Results_EnglishVersion.pdf |website=Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE |page=8}}

{{Further|Environmental effects of shipping#Greenhouse gas pollutants}}

In the shipping industry, the use of liquefied natural gas (LNG) as a marine bunker fuel is driven by emissions regulations. Ship operators have to switch from heavy fuel oil to more expensive oil-based fuels, implement costly flue gas treatment technologies or switch to LNG engines.{{cite web |date=28 September 2014 |title=LNG projected to gain significant market share in transport fuels by 2035 |url=http://gasprocessingnews.com/news/lng-projected-to-gain-significant-market-share-in-transport-fuels-by-2035.aspx |publisher=Gas Processing News/Bloomberg}} Methane slip, when gas leaks unburned through the engine, lowers the advantages of LNG. Maersk, the largest container shipping line and vessel operator in the world, warns of stranded assets when investing into transitional fuels like LNG.{{cite news |last1=Chambers |first1=Sam |date=26 February 2021 |title='Transitional fuels are capturing the regulatory agenda and incentives': Maersk |publisher=splash247 |url=https://splash247.com/transitional-fuels-are-capturing-the-regulatory-agenda-and-incentives-maersk/ |access-date=27 February 2021}} The company lists green ammonia as one of the preferred fuel types of the future and has announced the first carbon-neutral vessel on the water by 2023, running on carbon-neutral methanol.{{cite press release |title=Maersk backs plan to build Europe's largest green ammonia facility |url=https://www.maersk.com/news/articles/2021/02/23/maersk-backs-plan-to-build-europe-largest-green-ammonia-facility |publisher=Maersk |date=23 February 2021 |access-date=27 February 2021}}

Hybrid and all electric ferries are suitable for short distances. Norway's goal is an all electric fleet by 2025.{{cite web |last1=Parker |first1=Selwyn |date=8 September 2020 |title=Norway moves closer to its ambition of an all-electric ferry fleet |url=https://www.rivieramm.com/news-content-hub/news-content-hub/partnership-creates-next-generation-all-electric-ferry-60619 |publisher=Rivera}} The E-ferry Ellen, which was developed in an EU-backed project, is in operation in Denmark.

{{Further|environmental impact of aviation}}

File:CO2_emissions_fraction_of_Aviation_(%25).png grew from 0.7% to 2.65% of all {{CO2}} emissions.{{citation |author=D. S. Lee |title=The contribution of global aviation to anthropogenic climate forcing for 2000 to 2018 |url= |journal=Atmospheric Environment |volume=244 |page=117834 |year=2021 |bibcode=2021AtmEn.24417834L |doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117834 |pmc=7468346 |pmid=32895604 |display-authors=etal}}]]

Jet airliners contribute to climate change by emitting carbon dioxide ({{CO2}}), the best understood greenhouse gas, and, with less scientific understanding, nitrogen oxides, contrails and particulates. Their radiative forcing is estimated at 1.3–1.4 that of {{CO2}} alone, excluding induced cirrus cloud with a very low level of scientific understanding. In 2018, global commercial operations generated 2.4% of all {{CO2}} emissions.{{cite web |author=Brandon Graver |author2=Kevin Zhang |author3=Dan Rutherford |date=September 2019 |title=CO₂ emissions from commercial aviation, 2018 |url=https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_CO2-commercl-aviation-2018_20190918.pdf |publisher=International Council on Clean Transportation}}

While the aviation industry has become more fuel efficient, overall emissions have risen as the volume of air travel has increased. By 2020, aviation emissions were 70% higher than in 2005 and they could grow by 300% by 2050.{{Cite web |date=23 November 2016 |title=Reducing emissions from aviation |url=https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/transport/aviation_en |website=Climate Action |publisher=European Commission}}

Aviation's environmental footprint can be reduced by better fuel economy in aircraft, and by optimising flight routes to lower non-{{CO2}} effects on climate from {{chem|N|O|x}}, particulates or contrails. Aviation biofuel, emissions trading and carbon offsetting, part of the ICAO's CORSIA, can lower {{CO2}} emissions. Aviation usage can be lowered by short-haul flight bans, train connections, personal choices and taxation on flights. Fuel-powered aircraft may be replaced by hybrid electric aircraft and electric aircraft or by hydrogen-powered aircraft.

In aviation, current 180 Mt of {{CO2}} emissions (11% of emissions in transport) are expected to rise in most projections, at least until 2040. Aviation biofuel and hydrogen can only cover a small proportion of flights in the coming years. The market entry for hybrid-driven aircraft on regional scheduled flights is projected after 2030, for battery-powered aircraft after 2035.{{Cite web |date=4 September 2019 |title=The aviation network – Decarbonisation issues |url=https://www.eurocontrol.int/publication/aviation-network-decarbonisation-issues |publisher=Eurocontrol}} In October 2016, the 191 nations of the ICAO established the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA), requiring operators to purchase carbon offsets to cover their emissions above 2020 levels, starting from 2021. This is voluntary until 2027.