User:InformationToKnowledge/Secondary impacts of climate responses draft

In general, the term co-benefits refers to "simultaneously meeting several interests or objectives resulting from a political intervention, private sector investment or a mix thereof". Opportunistic co-benefits appear as auxiliary or side effect while focusing on a central objective or interest. Strategic co-benefits result from a deliberate effort to seizing several opportunities (e.g., economic, business, social, environmental) with a single purposeful intervention."{{Citation |last1=Helgenberger |first1=Sebastian |title=Co-benefits of Climate Change Mitigation |date=2019-10-25 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95885-9_93 |work=Climate Action |pages=327–339 |access-date=2021-03-09 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-95885-9_93 |isbn=978-3-319-95884-2 |s2cid=242913643 |last2=Jänicke |first2=Martin |last3=Gürtler |first3=Konrad}}

Climate change mitigation policies can lead to lower emissions of co-emitted air pollutants, for instance by shifting away from fossil fuel combustion. In addition, emissions of black carbon and methane contribute both to global warming and to air pollution, such that their mitigation can bring benefits in terms of limiting global temperature increases as well as improving air quality.{{cite journal |last1=Anenberg |first1=Susan C. |last2=Schwartz |first2=Joel |display-authors=etal |date=1 June 2012 |title=Global Air Quality and Health Co-benefits of Mitigating Near-Term Climate Change through Methane and Black Carbon Emission Controls |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=120 |issue=6 |pages=831–839 |doi=10.1289/ehp.1104301 |pmc=3385429 |pmid=22418651}} Multiple studies describe how lower GHG emissions lead to better air quality and consequently impact human health positively.{{Cite journal |last1=Burtraw |first1=Dallas |last2=Krupnick |first2=Alan |last3=Palmer |first3=Karen |last4=Paul |first4=Anthony |last5=Toman |first5=Michael |last6=Bloyd |first6=Cary |date=May 2003 |title=Ancillary benefits of reduced air pollution in the US from moderate greenhouse gas mitigation policies in the electricity sector |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0095-0696(02)00022-0 |journal=Journal of Environmental Economics and Management |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=650–673 |doi=10.1016/s0095-0696(02)00022-0 |issn=0095-0696 |s2cid=17391774}}{{Cite web |title=Cobenefits |url=https://www.cobenefits.info/}}{{Cite journal |last1=Thambiran |first1=Tirusha |last2=Diab |first2=Roseanne D. |date=May 2011 |title=Air pollution and climate change co-benefit opportunities in the road transportation sector in Durban, South Africa |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.02.059 |journal=Atmospheric Environment |volume=45 |issue=16 |pages=2683–2689 |bibcode=2011AtmEn..45.2683T |doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.02.059 |issn=1352-2310}} The scope of co-benefits research expanded to its economic, social, ecological and political implications.

Implementation of the climate pledges made in the run-up to the Paris Agreement could therefore have significant benefits for human health by improving air quality.{{cite journal |last1=Vandyck |first1=Toon |last2=Keramidas |first2=Kimon |display-authors=etal |date=22 November 2018 |title=Air quality co-benefits for human health and agriculture counterbalance costs to meet Paris Agreement pledges |journal=Nature Communications |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=4939 |bibcode=2018NatCo...9.4939V |doi=10.1038/s41467-018-06885-9 |pmc=6250710 |pmid=30467311 |doi-access=free}} The replacement of coal-based energy with renewables can lower the number of premature deaths caused by air pollution. A higher share of renewable energy and consequently less coal-related respiratory diseases can decrease health costs.{{Cite web |last=IASS/CSIR |date=2019a |title=Improving health and reducing costs through renewable energy in South Africa. Assessing the co-benefits of decarbonising the power sector |url=https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/COBENEFITS_SA_Health_Executive_Report_190322.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420232336/https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/COBENEFITS_SA_Health_Executive_Report_190322.pdf |archive-date=2021-04-20}}

{{excerpt|Environmental footprint of electric cars#Air pollution and carbon emissions}}

{{Main|Active living}}

Biking reduces greenhouse gas emissions{{cite book |last1=Blondel |first1=Benoît |url=https://ecf.com/sites/ecf.com/files/ECF_CO2_WEB.pdf |title=Cycle more Often 2 cool down the planet ! |last2=Mispelon |first2=Chloé |last3=Ferguson |first3=Julian |date=November 2011 |publisher=European Cyclists’ Federation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217135036/https://ecf.com/sites/ecf.com/files/ECF_CO2_WEB.pdf |archive-date=17 February 2019 |url-status=dead |accessdate=16 April 2019}} while reducing the effects of a sedentary lifestyle at the same time{{cite web |title=Cycling - health benefits |url=https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/cycling-health-benefits |accessdate=16 April 2019 |website=Better Health Channel}} According to PLoS Medicine: "obesity, diabetes, heart disease, and cancer, which are in part related to physical inactivity, may be reduced by a switch to low-carbon transport—including walking and cycling."{{cite journal |last1=A. Patz |first1=Jonathan |last2=C. Thomson |first2=Madeleine |date=31 July 2018 |title=Climate change and health: Moving from theory to practice |journal=PLOS Medicine |volume=15 |issue=7 |pages=e1002628 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1002628 |pmc=6067696 |pmid=30063707}}

{{excerpt|Effects of climate change on human health|Health co-benefits from mitigation}}

Co-benefits can positively impact employment, industrial development, states' energy independence and energy self-consumption. The deployment of renewable energies can foster job opportunities. Depending on the country and deployment scenario, replacing coal power plants with renewable energy can more than double the number of jobs per average MW capacity.{{Cite web |last=IASS/Green ID |date=2019 |title=Future skills and job creation through renewable energy in Vietnam. Assessing the co-benefits of decarbonising the power sector. |url=https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/COBENEFITS-Vietnam_Employment_Exec-Report.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420232336/https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/COBENEFITS-Vietnam_Employment_Exec-Report.pdf |archive-date=2021-04-20}} Investments in renewable energies, especially in solar- and wind energy, can boost the value of production.{{Cite web |last=IASS/IPC |date=2019 |title=Industrial development, trade opportunities and innovation with renewable energy in Turkey. Assessing the co-benefits of decarbonising the power sector |url=https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/COBENEFITS-Turkey_Industrial-Development_ExecReport_200604.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420232341/https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/COBENEFITS-Turkey_Industrial-Development_ExecReport_200604.pdf |archive-date=2021-04-20}} Countries which rely on energy imports can enhance their energy independence and ensure supply security by deploying renewables. National energy generation from renewables lowers the demand for fossil fuel imports which scales up annual economic saving.{{Cite web |last=IASS/IPC |date=2020 |title=Securing Turkey's energy supply and balancing the current account deficit through renewable energy. Assessing the co-benefits of decarbonising the power sector. |url=https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/13_LY_IASS_study_Turkey_201026.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305061613/https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/13_LY_IASS_study_Turkey_201026.pdf |archive-date=2021-03-05}} Households and businesses can additionally benefit from investments in renewable energy. The deployment of rooftop solar and PV-self-consumption creates incentives for low-income households and can support annual savings for the residential sector.{{Cite web |last=IASS/CSIR |date=2019b |title=Consumer savings through solar PV self-consumption in South Africa. Assessing the co-benefits of decarbonising the power sector. |url=https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/COBENEFITS-Study-South-Africa-Self-Consumption.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919114155/https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/COBENEFITS-Study-South-Africa-Self-Consumption.pdf |archive-date=2020-09-19}}

From an economic perspective, co-benefits can enhance increased employment through carbon tax revenues and the implementation of renewable energy.{{Cite journal |last=Yamazaki |first=Akio |date=May 2017 |title=Jobs and climate policy: Evidence from British Columbia's revenue-neutral carbon tax |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2017.03.003 |journal=Journal of Environmental Economics and Management |volume=83 |pages=197–216 |doi=10.1016/j.jeem.2017.03.003 |issn=0095-0696 |s2cid=157293760}}{{Cite journal |last1=Cai |first1=Wenjia |last2=Wang |first2=Can |last3=Chen |first3=Jining |last4=Wang |first4=Siqiang |date=October 2011 |title=Green economy and green jobs: Myth or reality? The case of China's power generation sector |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2011.08.016 |journal=Energy |volume=36 |issue=10 |pages=5994–6003 |doi=10.1016/j.energy.2011.08.016 |issn=0360-5442}} A higher share of renewables can additionally lead to more energy security.{{Cite journal |last1=Mondal |first1=Md. Alam Hossain |last2=Denich |first2=Manfred |last3=Vlek |first3=Paul L.G. |date=December 2010 |title=The future choice of technologies and co-benefits of CO2 emission reduction in Bangladesh power sector |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2010.08.037 |journal=Energy |volume=35 |issue=12 |pages=4902–4909 |doi=10.1016/j.energy.2010.08.037 |issn=0360-5442}} Socioeconomic co-benefits have been analysed such as energy access in rural areas and improved rural livelihoods.{{Cite web |last=IASS/TERI |date=2019 |title=Secure and reliable electricity access with renewable energy mini-grids in rural India. Assessing the co-benefits of decarbonising the power sector |url=https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/IN_EnergyAccess_ExecReport.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021101531/https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/IN_EnergyAccess_ExecReport.pdf |archive-date=2020-10-21}}{{Cite journal |last1=Chhatre |first1=Ashwini |last2=Lakhanpal |first2=Shikha |last3=Larson |first3=Anne M |last4=Nelson |first4=Fred |last5=Ojha |first5=Hemant |last6=Rao |first6=Jagdeesh |date=December 2012 |title=Social safeguards and co-benefits in REDD+: a review of the adjacent possible |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2012.08.006 |journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability |volume=4 |issue=6 |pages=654–660 |doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2012.08.006 |issn=1877-3435}}

Positive secondary effects from mitigation strategies can also occur for energy access. Rural areas which are not fully electrified can benefit from the deployment of renewable energies. Solar-powered mini-grids can remain economically viable, cost-competitive and reduce the number of power cuts. Energy reliability has additional social implications: stable electricity improves the quality of education.{{Cite web |last=IASS/TERI |date=2019 |title=Secure and reliable electricity access with renewable energy mini-grids in rural India. Assessing the co-benefits of decarbonising the power sector |url=https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/IN_EnergyAccess_ExecReport.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021101531/https://www.cobenefits.info/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/IN_EnergyAccess_ExecReport.pdf |archive-date=2020-10-21}}

Apart from climate protection, mitigation policies can foster additional ecological co-benefits but also risks with regards to soil conservation, fertility, biodiversity and wildlife habitat.{{Cite journal |last=Dumanski |first=Julian |date=August 2004 |title=Carbon Sequestration, Soil Conservation, and the Kyoto Protocol: Summary of Implications |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/b:clim.0000038210.66057.61 |journal=Climatic Change |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=255–261 |doi=10.1023/b:clim.0000038210.66057.61 |issn=0165-0009 |s2cid=154440872}}{{Cite journal |last1=Plantinga |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Wu |first2=JunJie |date=February 2003 |title=Co-Benefits from Carbon Sequestration in Forests: Evaluating Reductions in Agricultural Externalities from an Afforestation Policy in Wisconsin |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3147106 |journal=Land Economics |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=74–85 |doi=10.2307/3147106 |issn=0023-7639 |jstor=3147106 |s2cid=154296319}} Further, mitigation policies bear opportunities for capacity building, participation and forest governance for local communities.

{{excerpt|Climate change mitigation#Risks}}

{{excerpt|Environmental footprint of electric cars#Manufacturing Impact}}

{{excerpt|Environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries#Extraction}}

{{excerpt|Environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries#Disposal}}

{{excerpt|Issues relating to biofuels#"Food vs. fuel" debate}}

{{excerpt|Issues relating to biofuels#Soil erosion and deforestation}}

{{excerpt|Issues relating to biofuels#Effect on water resources}}

{{excerpt|Issues relating to biofuels#Pollution}}

{{excerpt|Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage|Environmental considerations}}

{{excerpt|Direct air capture|Environmental impact}}

{{excerpt|Climate change adaptation#Co-benefits with mitigation}}

{{excerpt|Climate change adaptation#Differing time scales}}

{{excerpt|Climate change adaptation#Maladaptation}}

{{excerpt|Climate change adaptation#Limits to adaptation}}

{{excerpt|Climate change adaptation#Trade-offs with mitigation}}

{{excerpt|Solar geoengineering#Unwanted or premature use}}

{{excerpt|Solar geoengineering#Disagreement and control}}

{{excerpt|Solar geoengineering#Distribution of effects}}

{{excerpt|Solar geoengineering#Maintenance and termination shock}}

Positive secondary effects that occur from climate mitigation and adaptation measures have been mentioned in research since the 1990s.{{Cite journal |last1=Ayres |first1=Robert U. |last2=Walter |first2=Jörg |date=1991 |title=The greenhouse effect: Damages, costs and abatement |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00367920 |journal=Environmental & Resource Economics |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=237–270 |doi=10.1007/bf00367920 |issn=0924-6460 |s2cid=41324083}}{{Cite book |last=Pearce |first=David William |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/232159680 |title=The secondary benefits of greenhouse gas control |date=1992 |publisher=Centre for Social and Economic Research on the Global Environment |oclc=232159680}}

The IPCC pointed out in 2007: "Co-benefits of GHG mitigation can be an important decision criteria in analyses carried out by policy-makers, but they are often neglected." And often the co-benefits are "not quantified, monetised or even identified by businesses and decision-makers". Appropriate consideration of co-benefits can greatly "influence policy decisions concerning the timing and level of mitigation action", and there can be "significant advantages to the national economy and technical innovation".{{cite web |last1=IPCC |title=Co-benefits of climate change mitigation |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/ch4s4-5-3.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160525042147/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/ch4s4-5-3.html |archive-date=2016-05-25 |accessdate=2016-02-18 |website=Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change |publisher=IPCC}}

The IPCC first mentioned the role of co-benefits in 2001, followed by its fourth and fifth assessment cycle stressing improved working environment, reduced waste, health benefits and reduced capital expenditures.{{Cite book|first=Bert|last=Metz|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/46640845|title=Climate change 2001 : mitigation : contribution of Working Group III to the third assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|date=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-80769-7|oclc=46640845}} In the early 2000s the OECD was further fostering its efforts in promoting ancillary benefits.{{Cite book|date=2000-10-25|title=Ancillary Benefits and Costs of Greenhouse Gas Mitigation|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264188129-en|doi=10.1787/9789264188129-en|isbn=9789264185425}} During the past decade, co-benefits have been discussed by several other international organisations: The International Energy Agency (IEA) spelled out the "multiple benefits approach" of energy efficiency while the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) operationalised the list of co-benefits of the renewable energy sector.{{Cite web|last=IRENA|date=2016|title=Renewable Energy Benefits: Measuring the Economics|url=https://www.irena.org/publications/2016/Jan/Renewable-Energy-Benefits-Measuring-the-Economics|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201093053/http://www.irena.org/publications/2016/Jan/Renewable-Energy-Benefits-Measuring-the-Economics |archive-date=2017-12-01 }}{{Cite web|last=IEA|date=2015|title=Capturing the Multiple Benefits of Energy Efficiency|url=https://webstore.iea.org/capturing-the-multiple-benefits-of-energy-efficiency|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701031853/https://webstore.iea.org/capturing-the-multiple-benefits-of-energy-efficiency |archive-date=2019-07-01 }}

The UNFCCC's Paris Agreement acknowledges mitigation co-benefits from Parties' action plans.{{Cite web|last=UNFCCC|date=2015|title=Adoption of the Paris Agreement|url=http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/l09r01.pdf.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119120049/https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/l09r01.pdf. |archive-date=2022-01-19 }} Co-benefits have been integrated in official national policy documents such as India's National Action Plan on Climate Change or the updated Vietnamese National Determined Contributions.{{Cite web|last=Government of India|date=2009|title=National Action Plan on Climate Change|url=http://www.nicra-icar.in/nicrarevised/images/Mission%20Documents/National-Action-Plan-on-Climate-Change.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160626134257/http://nicra-icar.in/nicrarevised/images/Mission%20Documents/National-Action-Plan-on-Climate-Change.pdf |archive-date=2016-06-26 }}{{Cite web|last=Government of Vietnam|date=2020|title=Updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)|url=https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Viet%20Nam%20First/Viet%20Nam_NDC_2020_Eng.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922151414/https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Viet%20Nam%20First/Viet%20Nam_NDC_2020_Eng.pdf |archive-date=2020-09-22 }}

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