User:Motivation413/Educational legacy

Emile Durkheim advocated for moral education to be incorporated into education systems.(Hall, W.D.1994. The Educational Legacy of Durkheim. Oxford Review of Education. 20 (2) Ppg. 253-257). He emphasized the importance of integrating a civic education curriculum for students in order for society to function undisturbed (Hall, W.D.1994. The Educational Legacy of Durkheim. Oxford Review of Education. 20 (2) Ppg. 253-257). Durkheim believed there are moral facts (link morality) provided by society and these facts must be taught to young children (Dill, Jeffery S.2007. Durkheim and Dewy and the challenge of contemporary moral education. Journal of Moral Education 36(2) Ppg 221-237

225) . Durkheim further theorized society is "organic" (Hall, W.D.1994. The Educational Legacy of Durkheim. Oxford Review of Education. 20 (2) 255) with its own rules, ideas, sentiments and character. Individuals should be taught, in Durkheim's view, how this organic system works in order to become functioning individuals in society. In his view, society is the highest authority and individuals must learn how to abide by the agenda of society (Dill, Jeffery S.2007. Durkheim and Dewy and the challenge of contemporary moral education. Journal of Moral Education 36(2) pg235) . Durkheim based this type of education on a "rational, secular model" (Dill, Jeffery S.2007. Durkheim and Dewy and the challenge of contemporary moral education. Journal of Moral Education 36(2) Ppg 221-237) that could remain separate from religious irrational model but still maintain a spirituality conducive to the workings of society. His philosophy of a civic education is still present in the education system of France.

Pierre Bourdieu notion of cultural capital implicitly critiques Durkheim's assertion of an organic society and the function of education systems (Hall, W.D.1994. The Educational Legacy of Durkheim. Oxford Review of Education. 20 (2) pg 256) . Bourdieu's idea of the "social world" (Bourdieu, Pierre. 1986. The Forms of Capital In Handbook in Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. New York, Greenwood, 241-258. 46) is the setting where people use their skills, networks, power knowledge and values to "pursue their interest" ( Wilk, Richard R and Lisa C Cliggett. 2007. Economies and cultures: Foundations of Economic Anthropology. 2ed. Boulder Co. Westview Press. 184) for power and superiority. In his view it is the dominant bourgeois class that establishes the desired living standard and the means to attain this standard (Bourdieu, Pierre. 1986. The Forms of Capital In Handbook in Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. New York, Greenwood, 241-258 41) . According to Bourdieu, economic capital is disguised as cultural capital where "belief is imposed" through education systems to the younger generation in a society (Bourdieu, Pierre. 1986. The Forms of Capital In Handbook in Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. New York, Greenwood, 241-258 50). Processes are developed that aid in the development and maintenance of cultural capital (Spindler George. 1954. Education and Anthropology. California. Stanford University Press 3). Cultural capital is an investment of time and resources into the establishment of knowledge, skills, and abilities for scholastic and academic achievement (Bourdieu, Pierre. 1986. The Forms of Capital In Handbook in Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. New York, Greenwood, 241-258 48) . The structure of education systems are endlessly redesigned to ensure that certain knowledge is imposed and delivered to meet the desirable behavior of society (Spindler George. 1954. Education and Anthropology. California. Stanford University Press 2) . Additionally Bourdieu challenges the premise that success and failure is based on the scholastic aptitude of students in a particular society. (Bourdieu, Pierre.1986. The Forms of Capital In Handbook in Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. New York, Greenwood, 241-258 50) . The culture of poverty (Calhoun, Craig and Francis Ianni

1976. The anthropological study of education. Aldine publishing company. New York.242) framework gained popularity and was used as an explanation for why children from low income or poor communities performed poorly in school (Calhoun, Craig and Francis Ianni 1976. The anthropological study of education. Aldine publishing company. New York. 243) . Bourdieu argued against this idea by adding that educational systems “perpetuate cultural capital as legitimate competence” (Bourdieu, Pierre. 1986. The Forms of Capital In Handbook in Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. New York, Greenwood, 241-258 1986,47) . Bourdieu asserts that cultural capital is unequally distributed among individual students and when students enter into educational systems what level of capital they possess determines if they will be successful (Bourdieu, Pierre. 1986. The Forms of Capital In Handbook in Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. New York, Greenwood, 241-258 48) . Institutionalizing cultural capital allows individuals to get ahead in the education system (educational attainment) in order to gain economic prosperity and upward social mobility (Bourdieu, Pierre. 1986. The Forms of Capital In Handbook in Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. New York, Greenwood, 241-258 46) . The changes in education systems assist in maintaining the legitimacy of homogeneous knowledge (Spindler George.1954. Education and Anthropology. California. Stanford University Press 2). Presently Bourdieu's concept is often used as an analytical framework into the inequalities among student performances in schools ( McQuillan 59-81).

After the South lost the Civil War in the United States, this region maintained the theory of white supremacy in society (Butchart, Ronald.2010. Black hope, White power: emancipation, reconstructions and the legacy of unequal schooling in the US south, 1861-1880, Paedagogica Historica. 35). Many White people of the south were against the educational attainment for black children and used intimidation and violence to prevent the schooling of these individuals (Butchart 24) . Others would refuse to allow land for black schools resulting in limited venues of education for black children (Butchart, Ronald. 2010. Black hope, White power: emancipation, reconstructions and the legacy of unequal schooling in the US south, 1861-1880, Paedagogica Historica, 46:1 24). Still black community schools were opened and black teachers taught the younger generation with the objective of transmitting a knowledge to help succeed as newly freed individuals (White 270). These schools would receive less funding than white schools (Butchart, Ronald. 2010. Black hope, White power: emancipation, reconstructions and the legacy of unequal schooling in the US south, 1861-1880, Paedagogica Historica, 46:1 39). It wasn’t until 1890 when this practice of unequal distribution of economic capital towards schools would become legislated that would begin that would officially begin the legacy of unequal schooling in the United States (Butchart, Ronald.2010. Black hope, White power: emancipation, reconstructions and the legacy of unequal schooling in the US south, 1861-1880, Paedagogica Historica, 46:1

35) .

Plessy v. Ferguson mandated legalized segregation in public institutions, influencing the structure of educational institutions in the United States( Kozol, Jonathan.2005. The Shame of a Nation: The Restoration of Apartheid schooling in America. New York. Crown Publishing group.34) . Under this ruling, it was declared that separate meant equal, and black and white people in the United States were to maintain separate facilities and institutions from each other (Kozol, Jonathan.2005. The Shame of a Nation: The Restoration of Apartheid schooling in America. New York. Crown Publishing group.34) . Economic support continued to be unequally distributed between white and black schools (Butchart, Ronald. 2010. Black hope, White power: emancipation, reconstructions and the legacy of unequal schooling in the US south, 1861-1880, Paedagogica Historica, 46:1 35) . Separate but equal legacy resulted in both lack of resources, and the inability for social mobility of the subordinate group (White, Monica.2002. Paradise Lost? Teacher's perspective on the Use of Cultural Capital in the segregated schools of New Orleans, Louisiana. The Journal of African American History. 87 ppg. 270).

Brown vs. Board of education repealed the doctrine separate but equal by declaring separate is unequal ( Kimball, Solon T.1954. The Supreme Court Decision on Segregation: Educational Consequences. In Education and Anthropology. George D. Spindler ed. California. Stanford University Press. 282). This judges did not use the justification of unequal facilities and institutions as a basis for the ruling, rather it was based on the mental health and social well being of black students (Kimball, Solon T. 1954. The Supreme Court Decision on Segregation: Educational Consequences. In Education and Anthropology. George D. Spindler ed. California. Stanford University Press. 282) This ruling ordered for the desegregation and integration of schools with all deliberate speed ( Kimball, Solon T.1954. The Supreme Court Decision on Segregation: Educational Consequences. In Education and Anthropology. George D. Spindler ed. California. Stanford University Press. 282). As a result of desegregation, many black schools were closed and black teachers and principals lost their jobs (Mead 294) . Once integration was imposed, cultural capital was lost through the lost of the black intellectual teaching and/or socialization the black student inline citation (White, Monica. 2002. Paradise Lost? Teacher's perspective on the Use of Cultural Capital in the segregated schools of New Orleans, Louisiana. The Journal of African American History. 87 ppg 270) .

Current conditions of the educational systems in the United States include a large achievement gap among white, black and Hispanic students (Kozol, Jonathan. 2005. The Shame of a Nation: The Restoration of Apartheid schooling in America. New York. Crown Publishing group.280-282) , a large population of black students in special education programs, and a larger drop out rate for black and Hispanic students ( Kozol, Jonathan. 2005. The Shame of a Nation: The Restoration of Apartheid schooling in America. New York. Crown Publishing group. 155-156 ). Presently there is an emphases on equal educational opportunity where policies developed are aimed to closing the achievement gap and increasing retention rates ( Kozol, Jonathan. 2005. The Shame of a Nation: The Restoration of Apartheid schooling in America. New York. Crown Publishing group.395 ).

The education systems of indigenous peoples, specifically in Australia, New Zealand and the United States, has been heavily influenced by cultural assimilation imposed by British and United States colonizers (Havighusrt, Robert.1976. Contributions of Anthropology to Cultural Pluralism. : Three case studies: Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. In the Anthropological Study of Education. Ed. Craig J. Calhoun and Francis A. Ianni. Aldine, Chicago. Mouton Publishers: The Hague. pg 130) . Education systems for indigenous peoples were built on the premise that these groups will unite with the governing group in order to learn how to participate in the new dominant society (Havighusrt, Robert.1976. Contributions of Anthropology to Cultural Pluralism. : Three case studies: Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. In the Anthropological Study of Education. Ed. Craig J. Calhoun and Francis A. Ianni. Aldine, Chicago. Mouton Publishers: The Hague. pg:131) . This premise was extended further by the idea not preserving any indigenous knowledge because it was not valuable and the Anglo knowledge was the most desirable (Havighusrt, Robert. 1976. Contributions of Anthropology to Cultural Pluralism. : Three case studies: Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. In the Anthropological Study of Education. Ed. Craig J. Calhoun and Francis A. Ianni. Aldine, Chicago. Mouton Publishers: The Hague. pg 130) . Boarding schools to teach indigenous children the values, knowledge and skills of the dominant group and reservation camps were created to house indigenous groups (Havighusrt, Robert. 1976. Contributions of Anthropology to Cultural Pluralism. : Three case studies: Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. In the Anthropological Study of Education. Ed. Craig J. Calhoun and Francis A. Ianni. Aldine, Chicago. Mouton Publishers: The Hague. Ppg. 127-146 130). It was assumed that these skills will assist in the transition of indigenous population into mainstream society (Havighurst 131) . Some indigenous individuals successfully assimilated into mainstream culture (Havighusrt, Robert. 1976. Contributions of Anthropology to Cultural Pluralism. : Three case studies: Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. In the Anthropological Study of Education. Ed. Craig J. Calhoun and Francis A. Ianni. Aldine, Chicago. Mouton Publishers: The Hague. pg 134) . The individuals who were unsuccessful became poor and uneducated (Havighusrt, Robert.1976. Contributions of Anthropology to Cultural Pluralism. : Three case studies: Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. In the Anthropological Study of Education. Ed. Craig J. Calhoun and Francis A. Ianni. Aldine, Chicago. Mouton Publishers: The Hague. pg135) .

Presently there is an emphasis on self-determination through schooling (Havighusrt, Robert.1976. Contributions of Anthropology to Cultural Pluralism. : Three case studies: Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. In the Anthropological Study of Education. Ed. Craig J. Calhoun and Francis A. Ianni. Aldine, Chicago. Mouton Publishers: The Hague. pg143). The Indian Self-Determination and Educational Assistance Act (link) was a policy introduced in the United States in 1975 (Manuelito, Kathryn 2005. The role of education in American Indian self-determination: Lessons from the Ramah Navajo Community School. Anthropology and Education Quarterly. 36 (1) pg 73). This idea develops from a framework of cultural pluralism in order to counterbalance the legacy of assimilation policy and practices (Havighusrt, Robert. 1976. Contributions of Anthropology to Cultural Pluralism. : Three case studies: Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. In the Anthropological Study of Education. Ed. Craig J. Calhoun and Francis A. Ianni. Aldine, Chicago. Mouton Publishers: The Hague. pg:134). Indigenous knowledge about he environment is being recognized as valuable and is incorporated into the curriculum of some educational systems ( Manuelito, Kathryn 2005. The role of education in American Indian self-determination: Lessons from the Ramah Navajo Community School. Anthropology and Education Quarterly. 36 (1) pg 84) . Currently there are some challenges in the different ways groups view schooling. (Manuelito, Kathryn 2005. The role of education in American Indian self-determination: Lessons from the Ramah Navajo Community School. Anthropology and Education Quarterly. 36 (1) pg 84) . After conducting research in a Navajo community, Kathryn Manuelito found that the inclusion of Indigenous epistemologies in public education can only strengthen the development of self-determination, empowering Natives and non-Natives alike (Manuelito, Kathryn 2005. The role of education in American Indian self-determination: Lessons from the Ramah Navajo Community School. Anthropology and Education Quarterly. 36 (1) pg.84) .

Education in Uganda has been transformed since pre-colonial times to the present day due to various changes in the social and political environment (Cheney, Kristen.

2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press) . During pre-colonial times, education focused on manual labor and production of goods that were of immediate use for the society (Cheney, Kristen. 2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press. 76) . Uganda comprised of several tribes who knew of their history not through schoolbooks but from their own family oral history of ancestors, beliefs and customs (Cheney, Kristen. 2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press.77) . The arrival of missionary schools and western schooling from the British transformed educational philosophy and policy for individuals in Uganda (Calhoun, Craig and Francis Ianni 1976. The anthropological study of education. Aldine publishing company. New York. 239). Missionary schools focused more on academic training in literacy and arithmetic than agriculture (Cheney, Kristen.2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press. 80) . These schools brought the educational philosophy of the British into the education system of Uganda (Cheney, Kristen. 2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press. 80) . This resulted in more job seekers than those who could create jobs for the economy (Cheney, Kristen.

2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press. 81) . The value of education also changed with the appearance of the British, where education in the formalized fashion was held in higher esteem. Tribes began to disappear as the missionaries pushed for a Ugandan national identity (Cheney, Kristen. 2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press. 79) . Many individuals of Uganda began to desire the more formalized British education they had, the better chance of achieving a high living standard and material success (Calhoun, Craig and Francis Ianni 1976. The anthropological study of education. Aldine publishing company. New York.

241) (Cheney, Kristen. 2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press.80).

In the 1960's African nationals educated in the British formalized system and world organizations began to encourage a "education for national development" philosophy (Cheney, Kristen. 2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press.82) for African nations (Calhoun, Craig and Francis Ianni. 1976. The anthropological study of education. Aldine publishing company. New York.240) . As individuals and groups prepared for independence from the British, they began to realize the need for diverse industries to exist (Cheney, Kristen. 2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press.81). There was a movement towards job creators in order for national development and pride to be sustained (Calhoun, Craig and Francis Ianni

1976. The anthropological study of education. Aldine publishing company. New York. 239) .

Civil war in Uganda challenged the education system in several ways (Cheney, Kristen. 2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press.82). When Idi Amin came into power in the early 1970's (Cheney, Kristen. 2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press.5), the curriculum of education system was revised (Cheney, Kristen. 2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press. 82) and economic policy by Amin affected education systems and professional (Cheney, Kristen. 2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press. 5). Intellectualism was frowned upon while the spirit for a national identity was encouraged (Cheney, Kristen. 2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press. 82). Many stores owned by foreign national became nationalized while the desirable ethnic groups maintained stability. In addition many children were recruited as soldiers and some schools were used as hubs for soldiers (Cheney, Kristen. 2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press. 82).

Presently, the Ugandan education system emphasizes national identity and political socialization (Cheney, Kristen. 2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press. 98). Western-style education is still being questioned as a legitimate competence as parents are concerned that the "school does not properly prepare them(children) for life's realities (Cheney, Kristen. 2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press. 83). There has also been some concerns that educational materials in Uganda "are still constructed in terms of Western models that are inadequate not only for African children, but for children generally" (Calhoun, Craig and Francis Ianni .1976. The anthropological study of education. Aldine publishing company. New York.246) .

Hutterities:

The Hutterities are a Western cultural group who migrated to North America from European nations due to persecution of their religious beliefs (Spindler, George.

2000. Fifty Years of Anthropology and Education: A Spindler Anthology. New Jersey. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers 185) . They maintain a commune with an emphasis of enculturation of the younger generation (King, Michael J. 1976. Patterns of Enculturation in Communal Society. In The Anthropological study of Education. Ed. Craig Calhoun and Francis Ianni. Paris. Mouton Publishers. 78). The Hutterities developed separate colonies, apart from mainstream society, and maintain their cultural capital, belief system, language, and identity through the education system (Spindler, George. 2000. Fifty Years of Anthropology and Education: A Spindler Anthology. New Jersey. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Ppg. 127-140.185 ). They can trace their ancestor back to several generations assisting in the maintenance of their own cultural capital (King, Michael J. 1976. Patterns of Enculturation in Communal Society. In The Anthropological study of Education. Ed. Craig Calhoun and Francis Ianni. Paris. Mouton Publishers.83) . Education serves as the most crucial institution for development and survival for the younger generation (Spindler, George. 2000. Fifty Years of Anthropology and Education: A Spindler Anthology. New Jersey. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Ppg. 127-140.97-107) . According to the field research conducted by George and Louise Spindler (Spindler, George. 2000. Fifty Years of Anthropology and Education: A Spindler Anthology. New Jersey. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Ppg. 127-140. 185-187), the Hutterities priority on religious instruction and basic academic skills including reading, writing and arithmetic ensures a students success in adult life. Children attend school from the age of 3 until the age of 16. This is when the young adult will depart from the education system and enters into mandatory labor (King, Michael J.1976. Patterns of Enculturation in Communal Society. In The Anthropological study of Education. Ed. Craig Calhoun and Francis Ianni. Paris. Mouton Publishers.101).

In order to comply with the law for children to attend a licensed school (King, Michael J. 1976. Patterns of Enculturation in Communal Society. In The Anthropological study of Education. Ed. Craig Calhoun and Francis Ianni. Paris. Mouton Publishers.102) the Hutterities send their children to a public school during their school aged years while attending a Hutterian German school after school and on Saturdays (King, Michael J.1976. Patterns of Enculturation in Communal Society. In The Anthropological study of Education. Ed. Craig Calhoun and Francis Ianni. Paris. Mouton Publishers 102). In some cases the Hutterian have taken over some schools in order to satisfy the requirements of the state and maintain their customs and knowledge (King, Michael J. 1976. Patterns of Enculturation in Communal Society. In The Anthropological study of Education. Ed. Craig Calhoun and Francis Ianni. Paris. Mouton Publishers.

102).

The Hershey Industrial School (now currently known as the Milton Hershey School) established 100 years ago in Pennsylvania boast of legacy of success for impoverished children (Kemmery, Robert.2010. A CTE Legacy Built on Chocalate: Milton Hersey School's 100 years. American College of Physicians. W. a c t e o n l l n e . o r g.

2010). The boarding school offers "education, recreation, food, housing, clothing, medical and dental care all free of charge" (Kemmery, Robert.2010. A CTE Legacy Built on Chocalate: Milton Hersey School's 100 years. American College of Physicians. W. a c t e o n l l n e . o r g. 48). The original emphasis on the school was agriculture due to the location and the environmental setting (Kemmery, Robert. 2010. A CTE Legacy Built on Chocalate: Milton Hersey School's 100 years. American College of Physicians. W. a c t e o n l l n e . o r g.2010). Other trade programs were gradually introduced to prepare students for "society transitioning "(Kemmery, Robert. 2010. A CTE Legacy Built on Chocalate: Milton Hersey School's 100 years. American College of Physicians. W. a c t e o n l l n e . o r g. 48) . The curriculum of the school has gone through several changes to reflect the changing times, attitude and values of people in society (Kemmery, Robert. 2010. A CTE Legacy Built on Chocalate: Milton Hersey School's 100 years. American College of Physicians. W. a c t e o n l l n e . o r g. 49). The Milton Hershey School now offers a curriculum mixed with vocational and academic training with the philosophy to train the younger generation for a "post secondary setting" (kemmery 49). The school, originally for white orphan boys, is now coed with a diverse group of students (Kemmery, Robert. 2010. A CTE Legacy Built on Chocalate: Milton Hersey School's 100 years. American College of Physicians. W. a c t e o n l l n e . o r g.49). Programs at the school adjusted to meet the needs of a diverse population entering (Kemmery, Robert. 2010. A CTE Legacy Built on Chocalate: Milton Hersey School's 100 years. American College of Physicians. W. a c t e o n l l n e . o r g.

49). As a result health occupation, technology and communication programs were included (Kemmery, Robert. 2010. A CTE Legacy Built on Chocalate: Milton Hersey School's 100 years. American College of Physicians. W. a c t e o n l l n e . o r g. 49). The Milton Hershey School continues to serve youth who are disadvantaged (Kemmery, Robert. 2010. A CTE Legacy Built on Chocalate: Milton Hersey School's 100 years. American College of Physicians. W. a c t e o n l l n e . o r g. 48)

Researchers, policy makers, and social scientist analyze policies and determine the long term-effects it may have on the current conditions of educational systems in assorted nations (Turnbull, Brenda. 1986. Federal and State Policy. In The contributions of the social sciences to educational policy and practice:1965-1985. California. McCutchan Publishing Corporation. Ppg. 99-114) . Educational anthropologists seek to discover several solutions to problems that exist in education systems (Spindler George.1954. Education and Anthropology. California. Stanford University Press 1). Every society has an education system that serves as a transmission of knowledge and culture (Spindler 2000: 56). According to educational anthropologist George Spindler (2000; 5) The schools are constructed out of demographics and cultures of the past, and are created in every society to ensure the continuance of the status quo. Educational regimes have a legacy that shows it is not just historical forces that set education on a specific trajectory (Spindler George.1954. Education and Anthropology. California. Stanford University Press 25). Educational legacy helps to establish a context for the study of education adds Calhoun, (Calhoun, Craig and Francis Ianni 1976. The anthropological study of education. Aldine publishing company. New York.328) since education systems fluctuate and change frequently (Calhoun, Craig and Francis Ianni 1976. The anthropological study of education. Aldine publishing company. New York.

339).

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