Venomous snake#Most venomous snakes

{{Main|Evolution of snake venom}}

The evolutionary history of venomous snakes can be traced back to as far as 28 million years ago.{{citation|title=Oldest fossil evidence of modern African venomous snakes found in Tanzania|date=March 20, 2014|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0090415|volume=9|issue=3|journal=PLOS ONE|pages=e90415|pmid=24646522|pmc=3960104|last1=McCartney|first1=JA|last2=Stevens|first2=NJ|last3=O'Connor|first3=PM|doi-access=free}} Snake venom is modified saliva used for prey immobilization and self-defense and is usually delivered through highly specialized teeth, hollow fangs, directly into the bloodstream or tissue of the target. Evidence has recently been presented for the Toxicofera hypothesis, that venom was present (in small amounts) in the ancestors of all snakes (as well as several lizard families) as "toxic saliva" and evolved to extremes in those snake families normally classified as venomous by parallel evolution. The Toxicofera hypothesis further implies{{According to whom|date=June 2019}} that "nonvenomous" snake lineages have either lost the ability to produce venom (but may still have lingering venom pseudogenes), or actually do produce venom in small quantities, likely sufficient{{According to whom|date=June 2019}} to help capture small prey but causing no harm to humans when bitten.

There is not a single or special taxonomic group for venomous snakes. Venom is known in several families. This has been interpreted{{By whom|date=June 2019}} to mean venom in snakes originated more than once as the result of convergent evolution. Around a quarter of all snake species are identified as being venomous.

Venomous snakes are often said to be poisonous, but poison and venom are not the same thing. Poisons must be ingested, inhaled or absorbed, while venom must be injected into the body by mechanical means. While unusual, there are a few species of snake that are actually poisonous. Keelback snakes are both venomous and poisonous – their poisons are stored in nuchal glands and are acquired by sequestering toxins from poisonous toads the snakes eat.{{cite book |author=Klauber LM. |title=Rattlesnakes: Their Habitats, Life Histories, and Influence on Mankind |publisher=University of California Press, Berkeley, 1956, 1972 |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-520-21056-1 |edition=2 |location=Berkeley}} Similarly, certain garter snakes from Oregon can retain toxins in their livers from ingesting rough-skinned newts.{{cite journal|last1=Williams|first1=Becky L.|last2=Brodie|first2=Edmund D. Jr.|last3=Brodie III|first3=Edmund D.|year=2004|title=A resistant predator and its toxic prey: persistence of newt toxin leads to poisonous (not venomous) snakes|journal=Journal of Chemical Ecology|volume=30|issue=10|pages=1901–1919|doi=10.1023/B:JOEC.0000045585.77875.09|pmid=15609827|bibcode=2004JCEco..30.1901W |s2cid=14274035}}

File:FierceSnakeOlive.jpg of Australia.]]

Venom toxicities are compared by looking at the median lethal dose (usually using rodents as test animals and termed the murine LD₅₀), which is the dose of venom per unit body mass that kills half of the test animals that receive it. The result obtained depends on which of the four delivery sites is used for the injection: subcutis (SC), vein (IV), muscle or peritoneum (IP). Smaller murine LD₅₀ values indicate venoms that are more toxic, and there have been numerous studies on snake venom with a variability of potency estimates.{{cite journal |last=Mackessy |first=Stephen P. |date=June 2002 |title=Biochemistry and pharmacology of colubrid snake venoms |journal=Journal of Toxicology: Toxin Reviews |volume=21 |issue=1–2 |pages=43–83 |doi=10.1081/TXR-120004741 |url=http://www.unco.edu/nhs/biology/faculty_staff/mackessy/colubrid.pdf |access-date=2009-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602041516/http://www.unco.edu/nhs/biology/faculty_staff/mackessy/colubrid.pdf |archive-date=2010-06-02 |url-status=dead |citeseerx=10.1.1.596.5081 |s2cid=86568032 }} SC LD₅₀ is considered{{By whom|date=June 2019}} the most applicable to actual bites as only vipers with large fangs (such as large specimens from the genera Bitis, Bothrops, Crotalus, or Daboia) are capable of a truly intramuscular bite, snakebites rarely cause IV envenomation, and IP envenomation is even rarer. Measurements of LD₅₀ using dry venom mixed with 0.1% bovine serum albumin in saline are more consistent than the results obtained using saline alone. As an example, the venom of the eastern brown snake has a murine LD₅₀ (SC) of {{nowrap|41 μg/kg}} when measured in 0.1% bovine serum albumin in saline; when saline alone is used, the value is {{nowrap|53 μg/kg}}.{{cite journal|last1 = Broad|first1 = A. J.|last2 = Sutherland|first2 = S. K.|author-link2 = Struan Sutherland|last3 = Coulter|first3 = A. R.|title = The lethality in mice of dangerous Australian and other snake venom|journal = Toxicon|year = 1979|url = http://www.kingsnake.com/aho/pdf/menu5/broad1979b.pdf|volume = 17|issue = 6|pages = 661–664|pmid = 524395|doi = 10.1016/0041-0101(79)90245-9}}

Belcher's sea snake, which sometimes is mistakenly called the hook-nosed sea snake, has been erroneously popularized as the most venomous snake in the world, due to the first edition of Ernst and Zug's book, Snakes in Question: The Smithsonian Answer Book, published in 1996. Prominent venom expert Associate Professor Bryan Grieg Fry has clarified the error: "The hook nosed myth was due to a fundamental error in a book called Snakes in Question. In there, all the toxicity testing results were lumped in together, regardless of the mode of testing (e.g., subcutaneous vs. intramuscular vs. intravenous vs. intraperitoneal). As the mode can influence the relative number, venoms can only be compared within a mode. Otherwise, it's apples and rocks." Belcher's sea snake's actual LD₅₀ (IM) is 0.24 mg/kg{{cite journal |pmid=4818649 |year=1974 |last1=Tamiya |first1=N. |last2=Puffer |first2=H. |title=Lethality of sea snake venoms |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=85–87 |journal=Toxicon |doi=10.1016/0041-0101(74)90104-4}} and 0.155 mg/kg. Studies on mice*{{cite web|date = August 25, 2007|url = http://www.avru.org/compendium/biogs/A000084b.htm|title = Which snakes are the most venomous?|publisher = Australian Venom Research Unit, University of Melbourne|access-date = October 14, 2013|url-status = dead|archive-date = June 26, 2014|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140626092020/http://www.avru.org/compendium/biogs/A000084b.htm}}

• {{cite web|publisher = Venom Immunochemistry, Pharmacology and Emergency Response (VIPER) Institute, University of Arizona|title = Frequently Asked Questions: What is the most venomous snake?|url = http://viper.arizona.edu/faq/what-most-venomous-snake|quote = Many experts answer that it is the Inland Taipan of Australia, because its drop-by-drop concentration of venom has great potency when measured by its ability to kill rodents.|access-date = October 14, 2013|archive-date = July 15, 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180715123400/http://viper.arizona.edu/faq/what-most-venomous-snake|url-status = dead}}
• {{cite web|author = Florida Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation|url = http://ufwildlife.ifas.ufl.edu/venomous_snake_faqs.shtml|title = Frequently Asked Questions About Venomous Snakes|quote = A comparative study found that the snake venom that is most toxic to mice (of the species tested) is that of the Inland Taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus), found in Australia|publisher = University of Florida|access-date = November 5, 2013}}
• {{cite journal|last1 = Hodgson|first1 = W. C.|last2 = Dal Belo|first2 = C. A.|last3 = Rowan|first3 = E. G.|pmid = 17313963|title = The neuromuscular activity of paradoxin: A presynaptic neurotoxin from the venom of the inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus)|quote = The inland taipan is the world's most venomous snake|year = 2007|volume = 52|issue = 5|pages = 1229–1236|doi = 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2007.01.002|journal = Neuropharmacology|s2cid = 19532337}}
• {{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0041-0101(97)00060-3 |title=Some pharmacological studies of venom from the inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus) |quote=The Inland Taipan is believed to have the most toxic venom in the world (Sutherland, 1994) |year=1998 |last1=Bell |first1=Karen L. |author-link2=Struan Sutherland |last2=Sutherland |first2=Struan K. |last3=Hodgson |first3=Wayne C. |journal=Toxicon |volume=36 |pages=63–74 |pmid=9604283 |issue=1}}
• {{cite journal|journal = Journal of Herpetology|volume = 17|issue = 1|year = 1983|pages = 60–69|first1 = Richard|last1 = Shine|author-link1 = Richard Shine|author-link2 = Jeanette Covacevich|first2 = Jeanette|last2 = Covacevich|title = Ecology of Highly Venomous Snakes: the Australian Genus Oxyuranus (Elapidae)|url = http://sydney.edu.au/science/biology/shine/publications/reprints_legal/33taipanecology.pdf|doi = 10.2307/1563782|jstor = 1563782|quote = ... the number of mouse LD₅₀ doses per bite is much higher for Oxyuranus microlepidotus (218,000 mice) ... than for any other snakes, including sea snakes, investigated to date (Broad, Sutherland and Coulter, 1979).}}
• LISTS . [http://www.britannica.com/list/10/1/1-the-snake-with-the-worlds-deadliest-venom Nine of the World's Deadliest Snakes]. "#1: The snake with the world's deadliest venom - Oxyuranus microlepidotus" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved November 5, 2013.
• BBC Nature Wildlife. [https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Inland_Taipan Inland Taipan page]. "Australia's inland taipan is considered to be the most venomous snake in the world". BBC. Retrieved October 15, 2013.
• Cecilie Beatson (November 29, 2011). [https://australian.museum/learn/animals/reptiles/inland-taipan/ Animal Species: Inland Taipan] "The venom of the Inland Taipan is extremely potent and is rated as the most toxic of all snake venoms in LD50 tests on mice". Australian Museum. Retrieved October 14, 2013.
• Steve Irwin presentation .[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mlDXZywedvc&t=1m54s Australia Zoo Tour with Steve Irwin] (1m54s) "..the number 1 most venomous snake in the entire world, the fierce snake". Australia Zoo (official YouTube Channel). Retrieved October 14, 2013.Inland Taipan Venom vs. Sea Snakes Venom (most notable Belcher's sea snake)
• Oakley, Cecily (2011). [http://science.org.au/scientists/interviews/f/fry.html Interview with Associate Professor Bryan Fry Biochemist and molecular biologist] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022215756/http://science.org.au/scientists/interviews/f/fry.html |date=2013-10-22 }}. "...For my PhD, I worked on the inland taipan, which is the world’s most venomous snake..." . Australian Academy of Science. Retrieved October 14, 2013.
• kingsnake.com September Guest Chatter (September 16, 2006).[http://www.connectedbypets.com/articles/BGF.html Q&A with Dr. Bryan Grieg Fry, Deputy Director, Australian Venom Research Unit, University of Melbourne] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015165718/http://www.connectedbypets.com/articles/BGF.html |date=2012-10-15 }}. "Q: In retrospect to the LD50 charts, what do you personally feel is the hottest snake, in regards to potency, defensiveness, means of injection, etc.? A: It is the inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus). Not, as is popularised, any of the sea snakes." connectedbypets.com. Retrieved October 14, 2013. Though many (Oxyuranus microlepidotus) do -have- lots of venom stored. They are actually not as brutal as other snakes.
• Garden of Eden Exotics (May 2, 2012) [http://nyexotics.blogspot.co.il/2012/05/dr-bryan-grieg-fry-venom-useless-pickup.html Dr. Bryan Grieg Fry – Interview] "...The inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus) is far and away the most toxic, much more so than even sea snakes." nyexotics.blogspot.com Retrieved October 14, 2013 and human cardiac cell culture[http://www.sciencearchive.org.au/scientists/interviews/f/fry.html Fry, Bryan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419012946/http://www.sciencearchive.org.au/scientists/interviews/f/fry.html |date=2014-04-19 }} (February 08, 2005) [http://www.venomdoc.com/forums/viewtopic.php?t=1212&postdays=0&postorder=asc&highlight=inland+taipan&start=0 Most Venomous] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017041923/http://www.venomdoc.com/forums/viewtopic.php?t=1212&postdays=0&postorder=asc&highlight=inland+taipan&start=0 |date=2014-10-17 }},"Q;I was wondering what snakes venom is the most potent to humans A:Drop for drop it is the inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus), which has a venom more toxic than any other land snake or even the sea snakes." venomdoc.com Forums, Retrieved April 17, 2014{{cite web|author-link = Jamie Seymour|last = Seymour|first = Jamie|title = World's Worst Venom|url = https://geographyscout.com/animals/the-deadly-taipan/|quote = (starting at 44 min 33 s): "Among the reptiles tested, the most toxic venom belongs to inland taipan, killing over 60% of heart cells in the first 10 minutes|publisher = National Geographic Channel|access-date = April 17, 2014}}{{cite web|author-link = Jamie Seymour|last = Seymour|first = Jamie|title = Venom Deathmatch|url = http://natgeotv.com/uk/australias-most-deadly/videos/venom-deathmatch|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110210070452/http://natgeotv.com/uk/australias-most-deadly/videos/venom-deathmatch|url-status = dead|archive-date = February 10, 2011|quote = (starting at 1 min 49 s): "They have the most toxic venom towards humans then any other snake in the world|publisher = National Geographic Channel|access-date = April 17, 2014}} show that venom of the inland taipan is the most toxic among all snakes.

{{multiple image

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| footer = The Big Four snakes responsible for most fatal bites on the Indian Subcontinent

| image1 = Bungarus caerulus.jpg

| caption1 = Common krait (Bungarus caeruleus)

| image2 = Daboia_russelii_A_Chawla01.jpg

| caption2 = Russell's viper (Daboia russelii)

| image3 = Indiancobra.jpg

| caption3 = Indian cobra (Naja naja)

| image4 = Echis_carinatus_sal.jpg

| caption4 = Saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus)

}}

The toxicity of snake venom, based on laboratory tests conducted on mice, is sometimes used to gauge the extent of danger to humans, but this is not enough. Many venomous snakes are specialized predators whose venom may be adapted specifically to incapacitate their preferred prey.{{cite web|url=http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/ld50.html#_1_1|title= What is an LD50 and LC50|date= 2018-12-31}} A number of other factors are also critical in determining the potential hazard of any given venomous snake to humans, including their distribution and behavior.{{cite web|title=Most venomous snakes|url=http://www.reptilegardens.com/reptiles/snakes/venomous/worlds-deadliest-snakes.php|publisher=Reptile Gardens|access-date=October 13, 2014|archive-date=May 8, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508080325/http://www.reptilegardens.com/reptiles/snakes/venomous/worlds-deadliest-snakes.php|url-status=dead}}{{cite web|author=Walls, Jerry G.|url=http://www.reptilechannel.com/snakes/venomous-snakes/deadly-snakes.aspx|title=Deadly Snakes: What are the world's most deadly venomous snakes?|publisher=Reptiles|access-date=November 5, 2013}} For example, while the inland taipan is regarded as the world's most venomous snake based on LD₅₀ tests on mice, it is a shy species and rarely strikes, and has not caused any known human fatalities. On the other hand, India's Big Four (Indian cobra, common krait, Russell's viper, and saw-scaled viper), while less venomous than the inland taipan, are found in closer proximity to human settlements and are more confrontational, thus leading to more deaths from snakebite. In addition, some species, such as the black mamba and coastal taipan, occasionally show some aggression, generally when alarmed or in self-defence, and then may deliver fatal doses of venom, resulting in high human mortality rates.{{cite web|url=http://toxicology.ucsd.edu/Snakebite%20Protocols/Dendroa3.htm|title=Immediate First Aid – Black Mamba|access-date=2010-05-12|last=Davidson|first=Terence|publisher=University of California, San Diego|archive-date=2023-07-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230725040353/http://toxicology.ucsd.edu/Snakebite%20Protocols/Dendroa3.htm|url-status=dead}}{{cite web|url= http://toxicology.ucsd.edu/Snakebite%20Protocols/Oxyura~2.htm|title= Immediate First Aid for bites by Australian taipan or common taipan}}

• List of dangerous snakes
• List of fatal snake bites in the United States
• List of fatal snake bites in Australia
• List of venomous animals
• Poisonous amphibians
• Snakebite
• Toxic birds
• Venomoid
• Venomous fish
• Venomous lizards

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{{Wikivoyage|Venomous snakes}}

• {{Commons category-inline|Venomous snakes}}
• [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/snakes/ Venomous snakes and outdoor workers] Bite-prevention and treatment information for outdoor workers.
• [https://www.thailandsnakes.com/venomous-snakes-in-thailand-list-by-species/ Venomous Thailand Snakes] List.

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