Vertical displacement
{{Short description|Vertical shift of land in plate tectonics}}
{{about|the concept in geosciences|the concept in mathematics|Vertical translation|the concept in physics|Vertical separation}}
In tectonics, vertical displacement refers to the shifting of land in a vertical direction, resulting in uplift and subsidence. The displacement of rock layers can provide information on how and why Earth's lithosphere changes throughout geologic time.{{Cite book|title=Tectonic Geomorphology|last=Anderson, Burbank|first=R.W., D.W.|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2011|isbn=9781444345032|location=Oxford, UK, Chichester, UK, Hoboken, NJ|pages=viii-x}} There are different mechanisms which lead to vertical displacement such as tectonic activity, and isostatic adjustments. Tectonic activity leads to vertical displacement when crust is rearranged during a seismic event. Isostatic adjustments result in vertical displacement through sinking due to an increased load or isostatic rebound due to load removal.
Tectonic causes of vertical displacement
File:Small thrust South verging.jpgVertical displacement resulting from tectonic activity occurs at divergent and convergent plate boundaries. The movement of magma in the asthenosphere can create divergent plate boundaries as the magma begins to rise and protrude weaker lithospheric crust. Subsidence at a divergent plate boundary is a form of vertical displacement which occurs when a plate begins to split apart.{{Cite journal|last1=Trippanera|first1=D.|last2=Acocella|first2=V.|last3=Ruch|first3=J.|date=2014|title=Dike-induced contraction along oceanic and continental divergent plate boundaries|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=41|issue=20|pages=7098–7104|doi=10.1002/2014GL061570|issn=1944-8007|bibcode=2014GeoRL..41.7098T|hdl=10754/347007|s2cid=53476061 |hdl-access=free}} As intrusive magma widens the rift zone of a divergent plate boundary the layers of crust on the surface above the rift will subside into the rift, creating a vertical displacement of those layers of surface crust.
Convergent plate boundaries create orogenies such as the Laramide orogeny that raised the Rocky Mountains.{{Cite book|title=Roadside Geology of Wyoming|last=Lageson, D.R., and Spearing D.R.|publisher=Mountain Press Publishing Company|year=1998|isbn=978-0-87842-216-6|location=Missoula|pages=15, 23-31, 47-49, 209-217}} For this orogen event dense oceanic crust from the Pacific plate subducts beneath the less dense continental crust of the North American plate as they converge. This subduction induced the compression of the bounded western region of the North American plate which created the uplift of different layers of rock. This vertical displacement created the various mountain formations which are cumulatively known as the Rocky Mountain range.
Earthquakes are one mechanism that leads to vertical displacement of crust. The fracturing of land during an earthquake creates a fault when land is displaced during the event.Rafferty, John P., (2013). "Geological Sciences". New York, NY: Rosen Publishing Group. 9781615305445. https://www.vitalsource.com/sa/en-us/products/geological-sciences-britannica-educational-v9781615305445 The throw of the fault is a term used to describe and quantify the magnitude of this displacement.
Glacial isostatic adjustment
{{main|Glacial isostatic adjustment}}
File:Glacier_weight_effects_LMB_(no_text).png
Changes in glaciation can lead to the vertical displacement of crust. Glaciers and ice sheets residing on top of landmass result in an isostatic depression, or sinking, in a section of lithospheric crust due to the weight of the ice. Likewise, isostatic rebound, or uplift, occurs when glaciers and ice sheets recede.{{Cite journal|last=Einarsson, Thorleifur, and Norddahl, Hreggvidur|date=2001|title=Concurrent changes of relative sea-level and glacier extent at the Weichselian-Holocene boundary in Berufjordur, Eastern Iceland|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|volume=20|issue=15|pages=1607–1622|doi=10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00006-3|bibcode=2001QSRv...20.1607N}}
Using asthenosphere viscosity data researchers are able to determine the rate by which isostatic rebound occurs. Isostatic rebound occurrence rate can be determined by comparing local viscosities to the maximum viscosity of the asthenosphere. Areas with higher viscosity are subject to quick isostatic rebound while in regions of low viscosity crustal uplift occurs at a slower rate. Uplift is still occurring through isostatic rebound from the Last Glacial Maximum.{{Cite journal|last=Peltier|first=W. R.|date=1998|title=Postglacial variations in the level of the sea: Implications for climate dynamics and solid-Earth geophysics|journal=Reviews of Geophysics|language=en|volume=36|issue=4|pages=603–689|doi=10.1029/98RG02638|issn=1944-9208|bibcode=1998RvGeo..36..603P|doi-access=}}
Glacial isostatic rebound leads to sea level regression which can be measured using 14C dating to determine the age of sublittoral sediment in different regions along the seafloor.