subsidence

File:Gwsanjoaquin.jpg subsidence]]

{{Main|Groundwater-related subsidence}}

Groundwater-related subsidence is the sinking of land resulting from groundwater extraction. It is a growing problem in the developing world as cities increase in population and water use, without adequate pumping regulation and enforcement. One estimate has 80% of serious land subsidence problems associated with the excessive extraction of groundwater,[http://water.usgs.gov/ogw/pubs/fs00165/ USGS Fact Sheet-165-00 December 2000] making it a growing problem throughout the world.{{Cite journal |last1=Herrera-García |first1=Gerardo |last2=Ezquerro |first2=Pablo |last3=Tomás |first3=Roberto |last4=Béjar-Pizarro |first4=Marta |last5=López-Vinielles |first5=Juan |last6=Rossi |first6=Mauro |last7=Mateos |first7=Rosa M. |last8=Carreón-Freyre |first8=Dora |last9=Lambert |first9=John |last10=Teatini |first10=Pietro |last11=Cabral-Cano |first11=Enrique |last12=Erkens |first12=Gilles |last13=Galloway |first13=Devin |last14=Hung |first14=Wei-Chia |last15=Kakar |first15=Najeebullah |date=January 2021 |title=Mapping the global threat of land subsidence |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abb8549 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=371 |issue=6524 |pages=34–36 |doi=10.1126/science.abb8549 |pmid=33384368 |bibcode=2021Sci...371...34H |hdl=10045/111711 |issn=0036-8075|hdl-access=free }}

Groundwater fluctuations can also indirectly affect the decay of organic material. The habitation of lowlands, such as coastal or delta plains, requires drainage. The resulting aeration of the soil leads to the oxidation of its organic components, such as peat, and this decomposition process may cause significant land subsidence. This applies especially when groundwater levels are periodically adapted to subsidence, in order to maintain desired unsaturated zone depths, exposing more and more peat to oxygen. In addition to this, drained soils consolidate as a result of increased effective stress.Tomás, R.; Márquez, Y.; Lopez-Sanchez, J.M.; Delgado, J.; Blanco, P.; Mallorquí, J.J.; Martínez, M.; Herrera, M.; Mulas, J. Mapping ground subsidence induced by aquifer overexploitation using advanced Differential SAR interferometry: Vega Media of the Segura river (SE Spain) case study. Remote Sensing of Environment, 98, 269-283, 2005R. Tomás, G. Herrera, J.M. Lopez-Sanchez, F. Vicente, A. Cuenca, J.J. Mallorquí. Study of the land subsidence in the Orihuela city (SE Spain) using PSI data: distribution, evolution, and correlation with conditioning and triggering factors. Engineering Geology, 115, 105-121, 2010. In this way, land subsidence has the potential of becoming self-perpetuating, having rates up to 5 cm/yr. Water management used to be tuned primarily to factors such as crop optimization but, to varying extents, avoiding subsidence has come to be taken into account as well.

Subsidence causes major problems in karst terrains, where dissolution of limestone by fluid flow in the subsurface creates voids (i.e., caves). If the roof of a void becomes too weak, it can collapse and the overlying rock and earth will fall into the space, causing subsidence at the surface. This type of subsidence can cause sinkholes which can be many hundreds of meters deep.{{cite book |last1=Waltham |first1=T. |last2=Bell |first2=F.G. |last3=Culshaw |first3=M.G. |title=Sinkholes and Subsidence |series=Karst and Cavernous Rocks in Engineering and Const |date=2005 |doi=10.1007/b138363|isbn=978-3-540-20725-2 }}

Several types of sub-surface mining, and specifically methods which intentionally cause the extracted void to collapse (such as pillar extraction, longwall mining and any metalliferous mining method which uses "caving" such as "block caving" or "sub-level caving") will result in surface subsidence. Mining-induced subsidence is relatively predictable in its magnitude, manifestation and extent, except where a sudden pillar or near-surface tunnel collapse occurs (usually very old workingsHerrera, G.; Tomás, R.; López-Sánchez, J.M.; Delgado, J.; Mallorquí, J.; Duque, S.; Mulas, J. Advanced DInSAR analysis on mining areas: La Union case study (Murcia, SE Spain). Engineering Geology, 90, 148-159, 2007.). Mining-induced subsidence is nearly always very localized to the surface above the mined area, plus a margin around the outside.{{cite web |url=http://www.minesub.nsw.gov.au/SiteFiles/minesubnswgovau/Graduated_Guideline_Residential_Construction.pdf |title=Graduated Guidelines for Residential Construction (New South Wales) Volume 1 |access-date=2012-11-19}} The vertical magnitude of the subsidence itself typically does not cause problems, except in the case of drainage (including natural drainage)–rather, it is the associated surface compressive and tensile strains, curvature, tilts and horizontal displacement that are the cause of the worst damage to the natural environment, buildings and infrastructure.G. Herrera, M.I. Álvarez Fernández, R. Tomás, C. González-Nicieza, J. M. Lopez-Sanchez, A.E. Álvarez Vigil. Forensic analysis of buildings affected by mining subsidence based on Differential Interferometry (Part III). Engineering Failure Analysis 24, 67-76, 2012.

Where mining activity is planned, mining-induced subsidence can be successfully managed if there is co-operation from all of the stakeholders. This is accomplished through a combination of careful mine planning, the taking of preventive measures, and the carrying out of repairs post-mining.{{cite journal |last1=Bauer |first1=R.A. |year=2008 |title=Planned coal mine subsidence in Illinois: a public information booklet |journal=Illinois State Geological Survey Circular |volume=573 |url=https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/73425/c573.pdf?sequence=2 |access-date=10 December 2021}}

File:Abandoned coal mine subsidence stablization project.jpg

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If natural gas is extracted from a natural gas field the initial pressure (up to 60 MPa (600 bar)) in the field will drop over the years. The pressure helps support the soil layers above the field. If the gas is extracted, the overburden pressure sediment compacts and may lead to earthquakes and subsidence at the ground level.

Since exploitation of the Slochteren (Netherlands) gas field started in the late 1960s the ground level over a 250 km² area has dropped by a current maximum of 30 cm.[http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ozsvath/lectures/Deep%20Subsidence.htm Subsidence lecture] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041030032703/http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ozsvath/lectures/Deep%20Subsidence.htm |date=2004-10-30 }}

Extraction of petroleum likewise can cause significant subsidence. The city of Long Beach, California, has experienced {{convert|9|m||sp=us}} over the course of 34 years of petroleum extraction, resulting in damage of over $100 million to infrastructure in the area. The subsidence was brought to a halt when secondary recovery wells pumped enough water into the oil reservoir to stabilize it.

Land subsidence can occur in various ways during an earthquake. Large areas of land can subside drastically during an earthquake because of offset along fault lines. Land subsidence can also occur as a result of settling and compacting of unconsolidated sediment from the shaking of an earthquake.{{cite web |url=http://www.geology.ar.gov/geohazards/landsub_eq_induced.htm |title=Earthquake Induced Land Subsidence |access-date=2018-06-25}}

The Geospatial Information Authority of Japan reported immediate subsidence caused by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake.{{cite web|url=http://www.gsi.go.jp/sokuchikijun/sokuchikijun40003.html|script-title=ja:平成23年(2011年)東北地方太平洋沖地震に伴う地盤沈下調査|date=2011-04-14|publisher=Geospatial Information Authority of Japan|language=ja|trans-title=Land subsidence caused by 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami|access-date=2011-04-17}} In Northern Japan, subsidence of 0.50 m (1.64 ft) was observed on the coast of the Pacific Ocean in Miyako, Tōhoku, while Rikuzentakata, Iwate measured 0.84 m (2.75 ft). In the south at Sōma, Fukushima, 0.29 m (0.95 ft) was observed. The maximum amount of subsidence was 1.2 m (3.93 ft), coupled with horizontal diastrophism of up to 5.3 m (17.3 ft) on the Oshika Peninsula in Miyagi Prefecture.Report date on 19 March 2011, [http://www.gsi.go.jp/chibankansi/chikakukansi_tohoku2.html] Diastrophism in Oshika Peninsula on 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, [http://www.gsi.go.jp/common/000059674.pdf Diastrophism in vertical 2011-03-11 M9.0], [http://www.gsi.go.jp/common/000059672.pdf Diastrophism in horizontal 2011-03-11 M9.0] Geospatial Information Authority of Japan

When differential stresses exist in the Earth, these can be accommodated either by geological faulting in the brittle crust, or by ductile flow in the hotter and more fluid mantle. Where faults occur, absolute subsidence may occur in the hanging wall of normal faults. In reverse, or thrust, faults, relative subsidence may be measured in the footwall.Lee, E.Y., Novotny, J., Wagreich, M. (2019) Subsidence analysis and visualization: for sedimentary basin analysis and modelling, Springer. {{doi|10.1007/978-3-319-76424-5}}

The crust floats buoyantly in the asthenosphere, with a ratio of mass below the "surface" in proportion to its own density and the density of the asthenosphere. If mass is added to a local area of the crust (e.g., through deposition), the crust subsides to compensate and maintain isostatic balance.

The opposite of isostatic subsidence is known as isostatic rebound—the action of the crust returning (sometimes over periods of thousands of years) to a state of isostacy, such as after the melting of large ice sheets or the drying-up of large lakes after the last ice age. Lake Bonneville is a famous example of isostatic rebound. Due to the weight of the water once held in the lake, the earth's crust subsided nearly {{convert|200|ft|m}} to maintain equilibrium. When the lake dried up, the crust rebounded. Today at Lake Bonneville, the center of the former lake is about {{convert|200|ft|m}} higher than the former lake edges.{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=K.D. |last2=Bills |first2=B.G. |title=Isostatic Rebound and Palinspastic Restoration of the Bonneville and Provo Shorelines in the Bonneville Basin, UT, NV, and ID |journal=Developments in Earth Surface Processes |date=2016 |volume=20 |pages=145–164 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-444-63590-7.00008-1|isbn=9780444635907 }}

{{See also|Expansive clay}}

Many soils contain significant proportions of clay. Because of the very small particle size, they are affected by changes in soil moisture content. Seasonal drying of the soil results in a lowering of both the volume and the surface of the soil. If building foundations are above the level reached by seasonal drying, they move, possibly resulting in damage to the building in the form of tapering cracks.

Trees and other vegetation can have a significant local effect on seasonal drying of soils. Over a number of years, a cumulative drying occurs as the tree grows. That can lead to the opposite of subsidence, known as heave or swelling of the soil, when the tree declines or is felled. As the cumulative moisture deficit is reversed, which can last up to 25 years, the surface level around the tree will rise and expand laterally. That often damages buildings unless the foundations have been strengthened or designed to cope with the effect.{{cite journal |last1=Page |first1=R.C.J. |title=Reducing the cost of subsidence damage despite global warming |journal=Structural Survey |date=June 1998 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=67–75 |doi=10.1108/02630809810219641}}

High buildings can create land subsidence by pressing the soil beneath with their weight. The problem is already felt in New York City, San Francisco Bay Area, Lagos.{{cite web |last1=Yirka |first1=Bob |title=New York City building weight contributing to subsidence drop of 1–2 millimeters per year |url=https://phys.org/news/2023-05-york-city-weight-contributing-subsidence.html |website=Phys.org |publisher=Earth's Future |access-date=22 January 2024}}{{cite web |last1=Novo |first1=Cristina |title=The weight of buildings contributes to the sinking of cities |url=https://smartwatermagazine.com/news/smart-water-magazine/weight-buildings-contributes-sinking-cities |website=Smart Water Magazine |date=2 March 2021 |access-date=22 January 2024}}

Land subsidence leads to the lowering of the ground surface, altering the topography. This elevation reduction increases the risk of flooding, particularly in river flood plains{{Cite journal |last1=Navarro-Hernández |first1=María I. |last2=Valdes-Abellan |first2=Javier |last3=Tomás |first3=Roberto |last4=Tessitore |first4=Serena |last5=Ezquerro |first5=Pablo |last6=Herrera |first6=Gerardo |date=2023-09-01 |title=Analysing the Impact of Land Subsidence on the Flooding Risk: Evaluation Through InSAR and Modelling |journal=Water Resources Management |language=en |volume=37 |issue=11 |pages=4363–4383 |doi=10.1007/s11269-023-03561-6 |bibcode=2023WatRM..37.4363N |issn=1573-1650|doi-access=free |hdl=10045/136774 |hdl-access=free }} and delta areas.{{Cite journal |last1=Avornyo |first1=Selasi Yao |last2=Minderhoud |first2=Philip S. J. |last3=Teatini |first3=Pietro |last4=Seeger |first4=Katharina |last5=Hauser |first5=Leon T. |last6=Woillez |first6=Marie-Noëlle |last7=Jayson-Quashigah |first7=Philip-Neri |last8=Mahu |first8=Edem |last9=Kwame-Biney |first9=Michael |last10=Appeaning Addo |first10=Kwasi |date=2024-06-01 |title=The contribution of coastal land subsidence to potential sea-level rise impact in data-sparse settings: The case of Ghana's Volta delta |journal=Quaternary Science Advances |volume=14 |pages=100175 |doi=10.1016/j.qsa.2024.100175 |bibcode=2024QSAdv..1400175A |issn=2666-0334|doi-access=free }}

{{Excerpt|Sinking cities}}

Earth fissures are linear fractures that appear on the land surface, characterized by openings or offsets. These fissures can be several meters deep, several meters wide, and extend for several kilometers. They form when the deformation of an aquifer, caused by pumping, concentrates stress in the sediment.{{Cite journal |last=Burbey |first=Thomas |date=2002-10-01 |title=The influence of faults in basin-fill deposits on land subsidence, Las Vegas Valley, Nevada, USA |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10040-002-0215-7 |journal=Hydrogeology Journal |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=525–538 |doi=10.1007/s10040-002-0215-7 |bibcode=2002HydJ...10..525B |issn=1431-2174}} This inhomogeneous deformation results in the differential compaction of the sediments. Ground fissures develop when this tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength of the sediment.

Land subsidence can lead to differential settlements in buildings and other infrastructures, causing angular distortions. When these angular distortions exceed certain values, the structures can become damaged, resulting in issues such as tilting or cracking.{{Cite journal |last1=Bru |first1=G. |last2=Herrera |first2=G. |last3=Tomás |first3=R. |last4=Duro |first4=J. |last5=De la Vega |first5=R. |last6=Mulas |first6=J. |date=2010-09-22 |title=Control of deformation of buildings affected by subsidence using persistent scatterer interferometry |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15732479.2010.519710 |journal=Structure and Infrastructure Engineering |language=en |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1080/15732479.2010.519710 |issn=1573-2479}}{{Cite journal |last1=Tomás |first1=Roberto |last2=García-Barba |first2=Javier |last3=Cano |first3=Miguel |last4=Sanabria |first4=Margarita P |last5=Ivorra |first5=Salvador |last6=Duro |first6=Javier |last7=Herrera |first7=Gerardo |date=November 2012 |title=Subsidence damage assessment of a Gothic church using differential interferometry and field data |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1475921712451953 |journal=Structural Health Monitoring |language=en |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=751–762 |doi=10.1177/1475921712451953 |hdl=10045/55037 |issn=1475-9217|hdl-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Sanabria |first1=M. P. |last2=Guardiola-Albert |first2=C. |last3=Tomás |first3=R. |last4=Herrera |first4=G. |last5=Prieto |first5=A. |last6=Sánchez |first6=H. |last7=Tessitore |first7=S. |date=2014-05-27 |title=Subsidence activity maps derived from DInSAR data: Orihuela case study |url=https://nhess.copernicus.org/articles/14/1341/2014/ |journal=Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences |language=English |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=1341–1360 |doi=10.5194/nhess-14-1341-2014 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2014NHESS..14.1341S |issn=1561-8633|hdl=10045/46369 |hdl-access=free }}

Land subsidence causes vertical displacements (subsidence or uplift). Although horizontal displacements also occur, they are generally less significant. The following are field methods used to measure vertical and horizontal displacements in subsiding areas:

• Surveying.{{Cite journal |last1=Abidin |first1=Hasanuddin Z. |last2=Andreas |first2=H. |last3=Gamal |first3=M. |last4=Djaja |first4=Rochman |last5=Subarya |first5=C. |last6=Hirose |first6=K. |last7=Maruyama |first7=Y. |last8=Murdohardono |first8=D. |last9=Rajiyowiryono |first9=H. |date=2005 |editor-last=Sansò |editor-first=Fernando |title=Monitoring Land Subsidence of Jakarta (Indonesia) Using Leveling, GPS Survey and InSAR Techniques |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/3-540-27432-4_95 |journal=A Window on the Future of Geodesy |series=International Association of Geodesy Symposia |volume=128 |language=en |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer |pages=561–566 |doi=10.1007/3-540-27432-4_95 |isbn=978-3-540-27432-2}}{{Cite journal |last1=Fergason |first1=K. C. |last2=Rucker |first2=M. L. |last3=Panda |first3=B. B. |date=2015-11-12 |title=Methods for monitoring land subsidence and earth fissures in the Western USA |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/372/361/2015/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=en |volume=372 |pages=361–366 |doi=10.5194/piahs-372-361-2015 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2015PIAHS.372..361F |issn=2199-899X}}
• Borehole extensometers.{{Cite journal |last1=Pardo |first1=Juan Manuel |last2=Lozano |first2=Antonio |last3=Herrera |first3=Gerardo |last4=Mulas |first4=Joaquín |last5=Rodríguez |first5=Ángel |date=2013-11-01 |title=Instrumental monitoring of the subsidence due to groundwater withdrawal in the city of Murcia (Spain) |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-2710-7 |journal=Environmental Earth Sciences |language=en |volume=70 |issue=5 |pages=1957–1963 |doi=10.1007/s12665-013-2710-7 |bibcode=2013EES....70.1957P |issn=1866-6299}}
• Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS){{Cite journal |last1=Susilo |first1=Susilo |last2=Salman |first2=Rino |last3=Hermawan |first3=Wawan |last4=Widyaningrum |first4=Risna |last5=Wibowo |first5=Sidik Tri |last6=Lumban-Gaol |first6=Yustisi Ardhitasari |last7=Meilano |first7=Irwan |last8=Yun |first8=Sang-Ho |date=2023-07-01 |title=GNSS land subsidence observations along the northern coastline of Java, Indonesia |journal=Scientific Data |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=421 |doi=10.1038/s41597-023-02274-0 |pmid=37393372 |bibcode=2023NatSD..10..421S |issn=2052-4463|pmc=10314896 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Bo |last2=Chen |first2=Junyu |last3=Zhang |first3=Xingfu |date=January 2019 |title=Monitoring the Land Subsidence Area in a Coastal Urban Area with InSAR and GNSS |journal=Sensors |language=en |volume=19 |issue=14 |pages=3181 |doi=10.3390/s19143181 |doi-access=free |issn=1424-8220 |pmc=6679266 |pmid=31330996|bibcode=2019Senso..19.3181H }}{{Cite journal |last=Ikehara |first=Marti E. |date=October 1994 |title=Global Positioning System surveying to monitor land subsidence in Sacramento Valley, California, USA |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02626669409492765 |journal=Hydrological Sciences Journal |language=en |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=417–429 |doi=10.1080/02626669409492765 |bibcode=1994HydSJ..39..417I |issn=0262-6667}}
• Interferometric Synthetic Apertura Radar (InSAR)
• LiDAR
• Tiltmeters.{{Cite book |last1=Davis |first1=E. |last2=Wright |first2=C. |last3=Demetrius |first3=S. |last4=Choi |first4=J. |last5=Craley |first5=G. |title=All Days |date=2000-06-19 |chapter=Precise Tiltmeter Subsidence Monitoring Enhances Reservoir Management |chapter-url=https://dx.doi.org/10.2118/62577-MS |language=en |publisher=OnePetro |doi=10.2118/62577-MS}}{{Cite journal |last1=Andreas |first1=Heri |last2=Abidin |first2=Hasanuddin Zainal |last3=Sarsito |first3=Dina Anggreni |last4=Pradipta |first4=Dhota |date=2019 |title=The investigation on high-rise building tilting from the issue of land subsidence in Jakarta City |url=https://www.matec-conferences.org/articles/matecconf/abs/2019/19/matecconf_concern2018_06002/matecconf_concern2018_06002.html |journal=MATEC Web of Conferences |language=en |volume=270 |pages=06002 |doi=10.1051/matecconf/201927006002 |issn=2261-236X}}

Tomás et al.{{Cite journal |last1=Tomás |first1=R. |last2=Romero |first2=R. |last3=Mulas |first3=J. |last4=Marturià |first4=J. J. |last5=Mallorquí |first5=J. J. |last6=Lopez-Sanchez |first6=J. M. |last7=Herrera |first7=G. |last8=Gutiérrez |first8=F. |last9=González |first9=P. J. |last10=Fernández |first10=J. |last11=Duque |first11=S. |last12=Concha-Dimas |first12=A. |last13=Cocksley |first13=G. |last14=Castañeda |first14=C. |last15=Carrasco |first15=D. |date=2014-01-01 |title=Radar interferometry techniques for the study of ground subsidence phenomena: a review of practical issues through cases in Spain |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-2422-z |journal=Environmental Earth Sciences |language=en |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=163–181 |doi=10.1007/s12665-013-2422-z |bibcode=2014EES....71..163T |issn=1866-6299|hdl=10261/82968 |hdl-access=free }} conducted a comparative analysis of various land subsidence monitoring techniques. The results indicated that InSAR offered the highest coverage, lowest annual cost per point of information and the highest point density. Additionally, they found that, aside from continuous acquisition systems typically installed in areas with rapid subsidence, InSAR had the highest measurement frequencies. In contrast, leveling, non-permanent GNSS, and non-permanent extensometers generally provided only one or two measurements per year.

; Empirical Methods

: These methods project future land subsidence trends by extrapolating from existing data, treating subsidence as a function solely of time. The extrapolation can be performed either visually or by fitting appropriate curves. Common functions used for fitting include linear, bilinear, quadratic, and/or exponential models. For example, this method has been successfully applied for predicting mining-induced subsidence.{{Cite journal |last1=Alam |first1=A. K. M. Badrul |last2=Fujii |first2=Yoshiaki |last3=Eidee |first3=Shaolin Jahan |last4=Boeut |first4=Sophea |last5=Rahim |first5=Afikah Binti |date=2022-08-30 |title=Prediction of mining-induced subsidence at Barapukuria longwall coal mine, Bangladesh |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=14800 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-19160-1 |pmid=36042276 |pmc=9427737 |bibcode=2022NatSR..1214800A |issn=2045-2322}}

; Semi-empirical or statistical methods

: These approaches evaluate land subsidence based on its relationship with one or more influencing factors,{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Y. S. |last2=Shen |first2=S. L. |last3=Bai |first3=Y. |date=2006-05-15 |title=State-of-the-Art of Land Subsidence Prediction due to Groundwater Withdrawal in China |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/40867(199)5 |journal=Underground Construction and Ground Movement |location=Reston, VA |publisher=American Society of Civil Engineers |pages=58–65 |doi=10.1061/40867(199)5|isbn=978-0-7844-0867-4 }} such as changes in groundwater levels, the volume of groundwater extraction, and clay content.

; Theoretical methods

:* 1D model: This model assumes that changes in piezometric levels affecting aquifers and aquitards occur only in the vertical direction. It allows for subsidence calculations at a specific point using only vertical soil parameters.{{Cite journal |last1=Lees |first1=Matthew |last2=Knight |first2=Rosemary |last3=Smith |first3=Ryan |date=June 2022 |title=Development and Application of a 1D Compaction Model to Understand 65 Years of Subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley |journal=Water Resources Research |language=en |volume=58 |issue=6 |doi=10.1029/2021WR031390 |bibcode=2022WRR....5831390L |issn=0043-1397|doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Tomás |first1=R. |last2=Herrera |first2=G. |last3=Delgado |first3=J. |last4=Lopez-Sanchez |first4=J. M. |last5=Mallorquí |first5=J. J. |last6=Mulas |first6=J. |date=2010-02-26 |title=A ground subsidence study based on DInSAR data: Calibration of soil parameters and subsidence prediction in Murcia City (Spain) |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0013795209002944 |journal=Engineering Geology |volume=111 |issue=1 |pages=19–30 |doi=10.1016/j.enggeo.2009.11.004 |bibcode=2010EngGe.111...19T |issn=0013-7952}}

:* Quasi-3D Model: Quasi-three-dimensional seepage models apply Terzaghi's one-dimensional consolidation equation to estimate subsidence, integrating some aspects of three-dimensional effects.{{Cite journal |last1=Zhu |first1=Yan |last2=Shi |first2=Liangsheng |last3=Wu |first3=Jingwei |last4=Ye |first4=Ming |last5=Cui |first5=Lihong |last6=Yang |first6=Jinzhong |date=2016-05-12 |title=Regional Quasi-Three-Dimensional Unsaturated-Saturated Water Flow Model Based on a Vertical-Horizontal Splitting Concept |journal=Water |language=en |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=195 |doi=10.3390/w8050195 |doi-access=free |issn=2073-4441}}

:* 3D Model: The fully coupled three-dimensional model simulates water flow in three dimensions and calculates subsidence using Biot's three-dimensional consolidation theory.{{Cite journal |last1=Bonì |first1=Roberta |last2=Meisina |first2=Claudia |last3=Teatini |first3=Pietro |last4=Zucca |first4=Francesco |last5=Zoccarato |first5=Claudia |last6=Franceschini |first6=Andrea |last7=Ezquerro |first7=Pablo |last8=Béjar-Pizarro |first8=Marta |last9=Antonio Fernández-Merodo |first9=José |last10=Guardiola-Albert |first10=Carolina |last11=Luis Pastor |first11=José |last12=Tomás |first12=Roberto |last13=Herrera |first13=Gerardo |date=2020-06-01 |title=3D groundwater flow and deformation modelling of Madrid aquifer |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002216942030233X |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=585 |pages=124773 |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.124773 |bibcode=2020JHyd..58524773B |hdl=10045/103419 |issn=0022-1694|hdl-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Ye |first1=Shujun |last2=Luo |first2=Yue |last3=Wu |first3=Jichun |last4=Yan |first4=Xuexin |last5=Wang |first5=Hanmei |last6=Jiao |first6=Xun |last7=Teatini |first7=Pietro |date=2016-05-01 |title=Three-dimensional numerical modeling of land subsidence in Shanghai, China |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10040-016-1382-2 |journal=Hydrogeology Journal |language=en |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=695–709 |doi=10.1007/s10040-016-1382-2 |bibcode=2016HydJ...24..695Y |issn=1435-0157}}

; Machine learning

: Machine learning has become a new approach for tackling nonlinear problems. It has emerged as a promising method for simulating and predicting land subsidence.{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Jianxin |last2=Liu |first2=Wenxiang |last3=Allechy |first3=Fabrice Blanchard |last4=Zheng |first4=Zhiwen |last5=Liu |first5=Rong |last6=Kouadio |first6=Kouao Laurent |date=2024-02-14 |title=Machine learning-based techniques for land subsidence simulation in an urban area |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0301479724000641 |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |volume=352 |pages=120078 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120078 |pmid=38232594 |bibcode=2024JEnvM.35220078L |issn=0301-4797}}{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Huijun |last2=Zhu |first2=Lin |last3=Dai |first3=Zhenxue |last4=Gong |first4=Huili |last5=Guo |first5=Tao |last6=Guo |first6=Gaoxuan |last7=Wang |first7=Jingbo |last8=Teatini |first8=Pietro |date=December 2021 |title=Spatiotemporal modeling of land subsidence using a geographically weighted deep learning method based on PS-InSAR |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149244 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=799 |pages=149244 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149244 |pmid=34365261 |bibcode=2021ScTEn.79949244L |issn=0048-9697}}

• Cave-in
• Lateral and subjacent support, a related concept in property law
• Mass wasting
• Settlement (structural)
• Sinkhole
• Soil liquefaction
• UNESCO Working Group on Land Subsidence
• Sea level rise

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