Vibrio parahaemolyticus

While infection can occur by the fecal-oral route, ingestion of bacteria in raw or undercooked seafood, usually oysters, is the predominant cause of the acute gastroenteritis caused by V. parahaemolyticus.{{cite book | vauthors = Finkelstein RA | chapter = Cholera, Vibrio cholerae O1 and O139, and Other Pathogenic Vibrios. | title = Barron's Medical Microbiology| veditors = Baron S| display-editors = etal| edition = 4th | publisher = University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston | year = 1996 | id = | chapter-url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed.section.1369 | via = NCBI Bookshelf) | isbn = 0-9631172-1-1 }} Wound infections also occur, but are less common than seafood-borne disease. The disease mechanism of V. parahaemolyticus infections has not been fully elucidated.{{cite journal | vauthors = Baffone W, Casaroli A, Campana R, Citterio B, Vittoria E, Pierfelici L, Donelli G | title = 'In vivo' studies on the pathophysiological mechanism of Vibrio parahaemolyticus TDH(+)-induced secretion | journal = Microbial Pathogenesis | volume = 38 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 133–137 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15748815 | doi = 10.1016/j.micpath.2004.11.001 | hdl = 11576/2504278 }}

Clinical isolates usually possess a pathogenicity island (PAI) on the second chromosome. The PAI can be acquired by horizontal gene transfer and contains genes for several virulence factors. Two fully sequenced variants exist of the V. parahaemolyticus PAI with distinctly different lineages.{{cite journal | vauthors = Makino K, Oshima K, Kurokawa K, Yokoyama K, Uda T, Tagomori K, Iijima Y, Najima M, Nakano M, Yamashita A, Kubota Y, Kimura S, Yasunaga T, Honda T, Shinagawa H, Hattori M, Iida T | title = Genome sequence of Vibrio parahaemolyticus: a pathogenic mechanism distinct from that of V cholerae | journal = Lancet | volume = 361 | issue = 9359 | pages = 743–749 | date = March 2003 | pmid = 12620739 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12659-1 | s2cid = 23443158 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Okada N, Iida T, Park KS, Goto N, Yasunaga T, Hiyoshi H, Matsuda S, Kodama T, Honda T | title = Identification and characterization of a novel type III secretion system in trh-positive Vibrio parahaemolyticus strain TH3996 reveal genetic lineage and diversity of pathogenic machinery beyond the species level | journal = Infection and Immunity | volume = 77 | issue = 2 | pages = 904–913 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19075025 | pmc = 2632016 | doi = 10.1128/IAI.01184-08 }} Each PAI variant contains a genetically distinct Type III Secretion System (T3SS), which is capable of injecting virulence proteins into host cells to disrupt host cell functions or cause cell death by apoptosis. The two known T3SS variants on V. parahaemolyticus chromosome 2 are known as T3SS2α and T3SS2β. These variants correspond to the two known PAI variants.

Aside from the T3SS, two genes encoding well-characterized virulence proteins are typically found on the PAI, the thermostable direct hemolysin gene (tdh) and/or the tdh-related hemolysin gene (trh). Strains possessing one or both of these hemolysins exhibit beta-hemolysis on blood agar plates. A distinct correlation seems to exist between presence of tdh, trh, and the two known T3SS variants: observations have shown T3SS2α correlating with tdh+/trh- strains, while T3SS2β correlates with tdh-/trh+ strains.{{cite journal | vauthors = Noriea NF, Johnson CN, Griffitt KJ, Grimes DJ | title = Distribution of type III secretion systems in Vibrio parahaemolyticus from the northern Gulf of Mexico | journal = Journal of Applied Microbiology | volume = 109 | issue = 3 | pages = 953–962 | date = September 2010 | pmid = 20408916 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2010.04722.x | doi-access = | s2cid = 1392167 }}

GefA, a GGEEF domain containing diguanylate cyclase, has recently been characterized from the V. parahaemolyticus genome. GefA plays a significant role in pathogenesis. By inhibiting swarming motility and promoting biofilm formation, it helps the bacteria to colonize within a host. Additionally, GefA influences the expression of virulence factors like the T3SS1, which directly contributes to the injection of the effector molecules into the host cell.{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhong X, Lu Z, Wang F, Yao N, Shi M, Yang M | title = Characterization of GefA, a GGEEF Domain-Containing Protein That Modulates Vibrio parahaemolyticus Motility, Biofilm Formation, and Virulence | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 88 | issue = 6 | pages = e0223921 | date = March 2022 | pmid = 35108083 | pmc = 8939336 | doi = 10.1128/aem.02239-21 | bibcode = 2022ApEnM..88E2239Z | editor-first = Charles M. | editor-last = Dozois }}

The incubation period of about 24 hours is followed by intense watery or bloody diarrhea accompanied by nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and sometimes a fever. Symptoms typically resolve within 72 hours, but can persist for up to 10 days in immunocompromised individuals. As the vast majority of cases of V. parahaemolyticus food poisoning are self-limiting, doxycycline is not typically necessary. In severe cases, ORS is indicated.

Outbreaks tend to be concentrated along coastal regions during the summer and early fall when higher water temperatures favor higher levels of bacteria. Seafood most often implicated includes squid, mackerel, tuna, sardines, crab, conch, shrimp, and bivalves, such as oysters and clams. In the Northeast United States, there is an increasing incidence of illness due to oysters contaminated with V. parahaemolyticus, which is associated with warmer waters from the Gulf of Mexico moving northward.{{cite web| vauthors = Casey M |title=New Hampshire Looks for Answers Behind Oyster Outbreaks|url=http://www.rdmag.com/news/2016/12/new-hampshire-looks-answers-behind-oyster-outbreaks|website=R&D Magazine|publisher=Associated Press|access-date=5 December 2016}}

Additionally, swimming or working in affected areas can lead to infections of the eyes, ears,{{cite journal | vauthors = Penland RL, Boniuk M, Wilhelmus KR | title = Vibrio ocular infections on the U.S. Gulf Coast | journal = Cornea | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 26–29 | date = January 2000 | pmid = 10632004 | doi = 10.1097/00003226-200001000-00006 | s2cid = 42510694 }} or open cuts and wounds. Following Hurricane Katrina, 22 wounds were infected with Vibrio, three of which were caused by V. parahaemolyticus, and two of these led to death.

Hosts of V. parahaemolyticus include:

• Clithon retropictus{{cite journal | vauthors = Kumazawa NH, Kato E, Takaba T, Yokota T | title = Survival of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in two gastropod molluscs, Clithon retropictus and Nerita albicilla | journal = Nihon Juigaku Zasshi. The Japanese Journal of Veterinary Science | volume = 50 | issue = 4 | pages = 918–924 | date = August 1988 | pmid = 3172602 | doi = 10.1292/jvms1939.50.918 | doi-access = free }}
• Litopenaeus shrimp (suspected; possibly causes necrotising hepatopancreatitis){{cite web|url=http://www.gaalliance.org/newsroom/news.php?Cause-Of-EMS-Shrimp-Disease-Identified-107 |title=Cause Of EMS Shrimp Disease Identified |publisher=Gaalliance.org |access-date=2013-12-29}}
• Nerita albicilla
• Magallana gigas{{cite web|url=https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/industry/FoodIncidents/Pages/Vibrio-parahaemolyticus-and-raw-Pacific-oysters.aspx|title=Vibrio parahaemolyticus and raw Pacific oysters from Coffin Bay, SA|publisher=Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ)|access-date=2021-12-04}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/about+us/news+and+media/all+media+releases/coffin+bay+oysters+recalled|title=Coffin Bay Oysters Recalled|publisher=Government of South Australia|access-date=2021-12-04}}

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{{Wikispecies}}

• {{CDCDiseaseInfo|vibriop}}
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20090815125845/http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodSafety/FoodborneIllness/FoodborneIllnessFoodbornePathogensNaturalToxins/BadBugBook/ucm070452.htm FDA Bad Bug Book entry on V. parahaemolyticus]
• [http://bacdive.dsmz.de/index.php?search=17267&submit=Search Type strain of Vibrio parahaemolyticus] at BacDive—the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase

{{Gram-negative bacterial diseases}}

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Category:Bacteria described in 1951

Category:Food microbiology

Category:Marine microorganisms

Category:Vibrionales