Vredefort impact structure#Formation and structure

File:Map of Vredefort dome.jpg

File:Aasvoelkop.jpg and Venterskroon on its right in the background]]

The asteroid that hit Vredefort is estimated to have been one of the largest ever to strike Earth since the Hadean Eon some four billion years ago, originally thought to have been approximately {{convert|10|–|15|km|abbr=on}} in diameter.{{cite book |last1=McCarthy |first1=Terence |title=The Story of Earth & Life |date=2005 |publisher=Struik Publishers |isbn=978-1-77007-148-3 |pages=89–90,102–107,134–136 |oclc=883592852 |language=English}} As of 2022, the bolide was estimated at between {{Convert|20 and 25|km|mi}} in diameter and to have impacted with a vertical velocity of {{Convert|15|-|25|km/s|mph}}.{{Cite journal|last1=Allen |first1=Natalie H. |last2=Nakajima |first2=Miki |last3=Wünnemann |first3=Kai |last4=Helhoski |first4=Søren |last5=Trail |first5=Dustin |year=2022 |title=A Revision of the Formation Conditions of the Vredefort Crater |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets |volume=127 |issue=8 |page=e2022JE007186 |doi=10.1029/2022JE007186 |bibcode=2022JGRE..12707186A |s2cid=251449730 |doi-access=free }}

The original impact structure is estimated to have had a diameter of at least {{cvt|170|km|||||}}, with the impact affecting the structure of the surrounding host rock in a circular region around {{cvt|300|km|||||}} in diameter. Other estimates have placed the original crater diameter closer to {{convert|300|km|mi|||abbr=on|sigfig=}}. The landscape has been eroded to a depth of around {{convert|7-11|km|mi|abbr=on}} since formation, obliterating the original crater. The remaining structure, the "Vredefort Dome", consists of a partial ring of hills {{cvt|70|km|||||}} in diameter, and is the remains of the central uplift created by the rebound of rock below the impact site after the collision.

Estimates have placed the structure’s age to be 2.023 billion years (± 4 million years){{Cite journal |last1=Kamo |first1=S.L. |last2=Reimold |first2=W.U. |last3=Krogh |first3=T.E. |last4=Colliston |first4=W.P. |date=November 1996 |title=A 2.023 Ga age for the Vredefort impact event and a first report of shock metamorphosed zircons in pseudotachylitic breccias and Granophyre |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0012821X9600180X |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |language=en |volume=144 |issue=3–4 |pages=369–387 |doi=10.1016/S0012-821X(96)00180-X|bibcode=1996E&PSL.144..369K |url-access=subscription }} or 2.019/2.020 billion years (± 2-3 million years) old,{{Cite journal |last=Moser |first=D. E. |date=1997 |title=Dating the shock wave and thermal imprint of the giant Vredefort impact, South Africa |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology/article/25/1/7-10/190190 |journal=Geology |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=7 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1997)025<0007:DTSWAT>2.3.CO;2 |bibcode=1997Geo....25....7M |issn=0091-7613|url-access=subscription }} which places it in the Orosirian Period of the Paleoproterozoic Era. It is among the oldest universally accepted impact structures on Earth. In comparison, it is about 10% older than the Sudbury Basin impact (at 1.849 billion years) and the Yarrabubba impact structure is older than the Vredefort impact structure by about 0.2 billion years.Erickson, T.M., Kirkland, C.L., Timms, N.E., Cavosie, A.J. and Davison, T.M., 2020. Precise radiometric age establishes Yarrabubba, Western Australia, as Earth’s oldest recognised meteorite impact structure. Nature communications, 11(1), pp.1-8. {{doi|10.1038/s41467-019-13985-7}} Other purported older impact structures have either poorly constrained ages (Dhala impact structure, India)Pati, J.K., Qu, W.J., Koeberl, C., Reimold, W.U., Chakarvorty, M. and Schmitt, R.T., 2017. Geochemical evidence of an extraterrestrial component in impact melt breccia from the Paleoproterozoic Dhala impact structure, India. Meteoritics & Planetary Science, 52(4), pp.722-736. {{doi|10.1111/maps.12826}} or highly contentious impact evidence in case of the circa 3.023 billion year old Maniitsoq structure, West GreenlandGarde, A.A., McDonald, I., Dyck, B. and Keulen, N., 2012. Searching for giant, ancient impact structures on Earth: the Mesoarchaean Maniitsoq structure, West Greenland. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 337, pp.197-210. {{doi|10.1016/j.epsl.2012.04.026}} and the circa 2.4 billion year old Suavjärvi structure, Russia.Mashchak, M.S. and Naumov, M.V., 2012. The Suavjärvi impact structure, NW Russia. Meteoritics & Planetary Science, 47(10), pp.1644-1658. {{doi|10.1111/j.1945-5100.2012.01428.x}} Their classification as impact structures remain controversial and unsettled.{{cite journal |last1=Reimold|first1=W.U.|last2=Ferrière|first2=L.|last3=Deutsch|first3=A.|last4=Koeberl|first4=C.|author2-link= Ludovic Ferrière|author4-link=Christian Koeberl|date=2014 |title=Impact controversies: impact recognition criteria and related issues |journal=Meteoritics & Planetary Science |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=723–731 |doi=10.1111/maps.12284|bibcode=2014M&PS...49..723R |doi-access=free}}

The dome in the centre of the impact structure was originally thought to have been formed by a volcanic explosion, but in the mid-1990s, evidence revealed it was the site of a huge bolide impact, as telltale shatter cones were discovered in the bed of the nearby Vaal River.

This impact structure is one of the few multiple-ringed impact structures on Earth, although they are more common elsewhere in the Solar System. Perhaps the best-known example is Valhalla crater on Jupiter's moon Callisto. Earth's Moon has some as well. Geological processes, such as erosion and plate tectonics, have destroyed most multiple-ring impact structures on Earth.

The impact distorted the Witwatersrand Basin which was laid down over a period of 250 million years between 950 and 700 million years before the Vredefort impact. The overlying Ventersdorp lavas and the Transvaal Supergroup which were laid down between 700 and 80 million years before the meteorite strike, were similarly distorted by the formation of the {{convert|300|km|mi|adj=mid|-wide}} impact structure.{{cite book |last1=Norman |first1=Nick |last2=Whitfield |first2=Gavin |title=Geological Journeys |date=2006 |publisher=Struik Publishers |isbn=978-1-77007-062-2 |oclc=974035410 |pages=38–49, 60–61|language=English}} The rocks form partial concentric rings around the impact structure's centre today, with the oldest, the Witwatersrand rocks, forming a semicircle {{cvt|25|km|||||}} from the centre. Since the Witwatersrand rocks consist of several layers of very hard, erosion-resistant sediments (e.g. quartzites and banded ironstones),{{cite book |last1=Truswell |first1=J. F |title=The Geological Evolution of South Africa |date=1977 |publisher=Purnell |oclc=488347575 |language=English|pages=23–38}} they form the prominent arc of hills that can be seen to the northwest of the impact structure's centre in the satellite picture above. The Witwatersrand rocks are followed, in succession, by the Ventersdorp lavas at a distance of about {{cvt|35|km|||||}} from the centre, and the Transvaal Supergroup, consisting of a narrow band of the Ghaap Dolomite rocks and the Pretoria Subgroup of rocks, which together form a {{convert|25|to|30|km|mi|adj=mid|-wide|}} band beyond that.Geological map of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (1970). Council for Geoscience, Geological Survey of South Africa.

From about halfway through the Pretoria Subgroup of rocks around the impact structure's centre, the order of the rocks is reversed. Moving outwards towards where the crater rim used to be, the Ghaap Dolomite group resurfaces at {{cvt|60|km|||||}} from the centre, followed by an arc of Ventersdorp lavas, beyond which, at between {{cvt|80|and|120|km|||}} from the centre, the Witwatersrand rocks re-emerge to form an interrupted arc of outcrops today. The Johannesburg group is the most famous one because it was here that gold was discovered in 1886. It is thus possible that if it had not been for the Vredefort impact this gold would never have been discovered.

The {{convert|40|km|mi|adj=mid|-diameter}} centre of the Vredefort impact structure consists of a granite dome (where it is not covered by much younger rocks belonging to the Karoo Supergroup) which is an exposed part of the Kaapvaal craton, one of the oldest microcontinents which formed on Earth 3.9 billion years ago. This central peak uplift, or dome, is typical of a complex impact structure, where the liquefied rocks splashed up in the wake of the meteor as it penetrated the surface.

File:Earth's geolological timeline.svg|A timeline of the Earth's history indicating when the Vredefort impact structure was formed in relation to some of the other important South African geological events. W indicates when the Witwatersrand Supergroup was laid down, C the Cape Supergroup, and K the Karoo Supergroup. The graph also indicates the period during which banded ironstone formations were formed on earth, indicative of an oxygen-free atmosphere. The Earth's crust was wholly or partially molten during the Hadean Eon. One of the first microcontinents to form was the Kaapvaal craton, which is exposed at the centre of the Vredefort Dome, and again north of Johannesburg.

File:Vredefort crater cross section 2.png|A schematic diagram of a NE (left) to SW (right) cross-section through the 2.020-billion-year-old Vredefort impact structure and how it distorted the contemporary geological structures. The present erosion level is shown. Johannesburg is where the Witwatersrand Basin (the yellow layer) is exposed at the "present surface" line, just inside the impact structure's rim, on the left. Not to scale.

The Vredefort Dome World Heritage Site is currently subject to property development, and local owners have expressed concern regarding sewage dumping into the Vaal River and the impact structure.{{cite web

| title = River heading for the rocks

| date = 23 August 2009

| author = Momberg, Eleanor

| url = http://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/river-heading-for-the-rocks-1.456012

| access-date = 22 March 2011

}} The granting of prospecting rights around the edges of the impact structure has led environmental interests to express fear of destructive mining.

The Vredefort Dome in the centre of the impact structure is home to four towns: Parys, Vredefort, Koppies and Venterskroon. Parys is the largest and a tourist hub; both Vredefort and Koppies mainly depend on an agricultural economy.

On 19 December 2011, a broadcasting licence was granted by ICASA to a community radio station to broadcast for the Afrikaans- and English-speaking members of the communities within the impact structure. The Afrikaans name Koepel Stereo (Dome Stereo) refers to the dome and announces its broadcast as KSFM. The station broadcasts on 94.9 MHz FM.

{{Portal|Geology|South Africa}}

• List of impact structures on Earth
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• Deniliquin multiple-ring feature

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{{reflist | 30em}}

{{Commons category|Vredefort Dome}}

• [http://www.parys.co.za/ Parys South Africa]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20160601234203/https://www.wits.ac.za/science/schools/geosciences/research/impact-crater-research/ Impact Cratering Research Group – University of the Witwatersrand]
• [http://www.passc.net/EarthImpactDatabase/New%20website_05-2018/Vredefort.html Earth Impact Database]
• [http://www.hartrao.ac.za/other/vredefort/vredefort.html Deep Impact – The Vredefort Dome]
• [https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=-27.016754,27.435608&spn=0.632744,0.962814&t=k&hl=en Satellite image of Vredefort impact structure] from Google Maps
• [http://lithosphere.univie.ac.at/impactresearch/impact-cratering/ Impact Cratering: an overview of Mineralogical and Geochemical aspects – University of Vienna] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706085435/http://lithosphere.univie.ac.at/impactresearch/impact-cratering/ |date=2011-07-06 }}
• [http://www.thinklemon.com/ge/impact-top25.kmz Google Earth 3d .KMZ of 25 largest craters] (requires Google Earth)

{{World Heritage Sites in South Africa}}

{{Impact cratering on Earth}}

Category:Extinction events

Category:Impact craters of South Africa

Category:Landforms of the Free State (province)

Category:Proterozoic impact craters

Category:World Heritage Sites in South Africa