Walkability

File:Bitola 2007.JPG, North Macedonia]]

One proposed definition for walkability is: "The extent to which the built environment is friendly to the presence of people living, shopping, visiting, enjoying or spending time in an area".Abley, Stephen. [http://www.levelofservice.com/walkability-research.pdf "Walkability Scoping Paper"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908151700/http://www.levelofservice.com/walkability-research.pdf |date=2017-09-08 }} 21 March 2005. Retrieved 4/21/08

A study attempted to comprehensively and objectively measure subjective qualities of the urban street environment. Using ratings from an expert panel, it was possible to measure five urban design qualities in terms of physical characteristics of streets and their edges: imageability, enclosure, human scale, transparency and complexity.{{cite journal |last1=Ewing |first1=Reid |last2=Handy |first2=Susan |title=Measuring the Unmeasurable: Urban Design Qualities Related to Walkability |journal=Journal of Urban Design |date=2009 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=65–84 |doi=10.1080/13574800802451155}}

Walkability relies on the interdependencies between density, mix, and access in synergy. The urban DMA (Density, Mix, Access) is a set of synergies between the ways cities concentrate people and buildings, how they mix different people and activities, and the access networks used to navigate through them.{{Cite journal |last1=Dovey |first1=Kim |last2=Pafka |first2=Elek |date=January 2020 |title=What is walkability? The urban DMA |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0042098018819727 |journal=Urban Studies |language=en |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=93–108 |doi=10.1177/0042098018819727 |bibcode=2020UrbSt..57...93D |hdl=11343/230627 |s2cid=159376367 |issn=0042-0980|hdl-access=free }}

These factors cannot be taken singularly. Rather than an ideal functional mix, there is a mix of mixes and interdependencies between formal, social, and functional mixes. Likewise, walk-able access cannot be reduced to any singular measure of connectivity, permeability, or catchment but is dependent on destinations and geared to metropolitan access through public transit nodes. While DMA is based on walkability measures, popular "walk score" or "rate my street" websites offer more metrics to connect urban morphology with better environmental and health outcomes.

Density is an interrelated assemblage of buildings, populations, and street life. It is a crucial property of walkability because it concentrates more people and places within walkable distances.{{cite thesis |type=PhD |last=Mariana Darling |first=Emily |year=2017 |title=Space for Community: Cohousing as an Alternative Density Model for Housing Seattle |publisher=University Of Washington}} There is difficulty determining density due to populations oscillating from the suburbs to the urban center. Moreover, measures of density can differ dramatically for different morphologies and building typologies. Density may be conflated with building height, contributing to the confusion.

The ratio between the floor area and the site area is generally known as the Floor Area Ratio (FAR, also called Plot Ratio and Floor Space Index). For example, a ten-story building on 10% of the site has the same floor area as a single-story building with 100% site coverage. Secondly, the measure of dwellings/hectare is common but particularly blunt. It depends on the functional mix, household size, and dwelling size in relation to building or population densities. Larger houses will produce higher building densities for the same population, and larger households will lead to higher populations for the same number of dwellings. In functionally mixed neighborhoods, housing will be just one component of the mix and therefore not a measure of building or population density. The census-based density of residents/hectare is another common measure, but it does not include those who work there.

When each neighbourhood has a mixture of homes, schools, work and other places people want to visit, the distances between these places are shortened. This makes it more attractive for people to walk. The idea of a functional mix contrasts with the early 20th century modernist vision, which was that each zone in a city should have a single function. This mix is sometimes visualised with the "home, work, visit" triangle.{{Cite journal |last=Tiitu |first=Maija |last2=Heikinheimo |first2=Vuokko |last3=Karjalainen |first3=Linda E. |last4=Helminen |first4=Ville |last5=Lyytimäki |first5=Jari |last6=Lehtimäki |first6=Jenni |last7=Paloniemi |first7=Riikka |date=2024-12-01 |title=A spatially explicit comparison of walkability within city-centre and suburban contexts in Helsinki, Finland |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204624001956 |journal=Landscape and Urban Planning |volume=252 |pages=105196 |doi=10.1016/j.landurbplan.2024.105196 |issn=0169-2046|doi-access=free }} The extremes of the triangle represent zones where one can only work, or visit, or live. A walkable city has few of these zones. Instead, there are places where when can combine at least two of the three functions. When a town or city has smaller plot sizes, it is easier to create a multi-functional neighbourhood.

File:Walk Short Distances - Go by Shanks' Pony Art.IWMPST15267.jpg

The access networks of a city enable and constrain pedestrian flows; it is the capacity or possibility to walk. Like density and mix, these are properties embodied in urban form and facilitate more efficient pedestrian flows. Access networks are also multi-modal and need to be understood from the perspective of those who choose between modes of walking, cycling, public transport, and cars. Public transport trips are generally coupled with walkable access to the transit stop. Walking will primarily be chosen for up to 10 minutes if it is the fastest mode and other factors are equal. Walking has the advantage that it is a much more predictable trip time than public transport or cars, where we have to allow for delays caused by poor service, congestion, and parking.{{Cite book |last=Robertson |first=Margaret |title=Sustainability Principles and Practice |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=9780203768747 |pages=ppl: 208–222}}

Major infrastructural factors include access to mass transit, presence and quality of footpaths, buffers to moving traffic (planter strips, on-street parking or bike lanes) and pedestrian crossings, aesthetics, nearby local destinations, air quality, shade or sun in appropriate seasons, street furniture, traffic volume and speed,{{cite news|url=http://www.ajpm-online.net/article/PIIS0749379706003059/fulltext|title=Indicators of Activity-Friendly Communities: An Evidence-Based Consensus Process|publisher=American Journal of Preventive Medicine|author=Ramirez|date=December 2006|pages=515–24|display-authors=etal}} and wind conditions. Walkability is also examined based on the surrounding built environment. Reid Ewing and Robert Cervero's five D's of the built environment—density, diversity, design, destination accessibility, and distance to transit—heavily influence an area's walkability.Ewing, Reid and Cervero, Robert. "Travel and the Built Environment: A Meta-Analysis", Journal of the American Planning Association, vol 76, no 3 (2010): 265-294. Combinations of these factors influence an individual's decision to walk.Wang, Ke. "Causality Between Built Environment and Travel Behavior: Structural Equations Model Applied to Southern California." Transportation Research Record, no 2397 (2013): 80- 88.

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Before cars and bicycles were mass-produced, walking was the main way to travel.{{Cite web|url = https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/26/magazine/the-history-of-a-city-underfoot.html?_r=0|title = The History of a City Underfoot |date = April 23, 2015|access-date = November 22, 2015 |website = The New York Times Magazine|publisher = The New York Times Company |last = Rich|first = Nathaniel}} In the 1920s, economic growth led to increased automobile manufacturing. Cars were also becoming more affordable, leading to the rise of the automobile during the Post–World War II economic expansion.Hendee, Caitlin. "More on the cover story: A short history of walkable urbanism and transit-oriented development". Denver Business Journal.[http://www.bizjournals.com/denver/news/2014/09/02/more-on-the-cover-story-tuesday.html]

Jane Jacobs' classic book The Death and Life of Great American Cities remains one of the most influential books in the history of American city planning, especially concerning the future developments of the walkability concept. She coined the terms "social capital", "mixed primary uses", and "eyes on the street", which were adopted professionally in urban design, sociology, and many other fields.

While there has been a push towards better walkability in cities in recent years, there are still many obstacles that need to be cleared to achieve more complete and cohesive communities where residents won't have to travel as far to get to where they need to go. For example, the average time it has taken American commuters to get to work has actually increased from 25 minutes in 2006 to 27.6 minutes in 2019,{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Census Bureau Estimates Show Average One-Way Travel Time to Work Rises to All-Time High |url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2021/one-way-travel-time-to-work-rises.html |access-date=13 August 2024 |website=Census.gov}} so much is still to be done if walkability is to be realized and a lessened reliance on cars comes into fruition.

{{See|Sedentary lifestyle}}

Walkability indices have been found to correlate with both lower Body Mass Index (BMI) and high levels of physical activity of local populations.{{cite news |author=Frank |display-authors=etal |date=Winter 2006 |title=Many Pathways from Land Use to Health |page=77 |publisher=Journal of the American Planning Association |url=http://www.planning.org/japa/pdf/JAPAFrank06.pdf |access-date=2007-07-01 |archive-date=2007-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927000845/http://www.planning.org/japa/pdf/JAPAFrank06.pdf |url-status=dead }}{{cite news|title=Linking objectively measured physical activity with objectively measured urban form: Findings from SMARTRAQ|author=Frank|url=http://www.ajpm-online.net/article/PIIS0749379704003253/fulltext|publisher=American Journal of Preventive Medicine|date=February 2005|pages=117–25|display-authors=etal}} Physical activity can prevent chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, depression, and osteoporosis.Gase, Lauren N., Paul A. Simon, et al.. "Public Awareness of and Support for Infrastructure Changes Designed to Increase Walking and Biking in Los Angeles County." Preventive Medicine 72 (2015): 70-75. Thus for instance, an increase in neighborhood Walk Score has linked with both better Cardio metabolic risk profiles{{Cite journal|last1=Méline|first1=Julie|last2=Chaix|first2=Basile|last3=Pannier|first3=Bruno|last4=Ogedegbe|first4=Gbenga|last5=Trasande|first5=Leonardo|last6=Athens|first6=Jessica|last7=Duncan|first7=Dustin T.|date=2017-12-19|title=Neighborhood walk score and selected Cardiometabolic factors in the French RECORD cohort study|journal=BMC Public Health|volume=17|issue=1|pages=960|doi=10.1186/s12889-017-4962-8|issn=1471-2458|pmc=5735827|pmid=29258476 |doi-access=free }} and a decreased risk of heart-attacks.{{Cite journal|last1=Mazumdar|first1=Soumya|last2=Learnihan|first2=Vincent|last3=Cochrane|first3=Thomas|last4=Phung|first4=Hai|last5=O'Connor|first5=Bridget|last6=Davey|first6=Rachel|date=2016-12-01|title=Is Walk Score associated with hospital admissions from chronic diseases? Evidence from a cross-sectional study in a high socioeconomic status Australian city-state|url= |journal=BMJ Open|language=en|volume=6|issue=12|pages=e012548|doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2016-012548|issn=2044-6055|pmid=27932340|pmc=5168632}} The World Cancer Research Fund and American Institute for Cancer Research released a report that new developments should be designed to encourage walking, on the grounds that walking contributes to a reduction of cancer.{{Cite web|url=http://www.webmd.com/cancer/news/20090226/1-in-3-common-cancers-may-be-preventable|title=Cancer: Sarcoma, Carcinoma, Lymphoma, and Leukemia}} A further justification for walkability is founded upon evolutionary and philosophical grounds, contending that gait is important to the cerebral development in humans.Stanford, Craig (2003) Upright: The Evolutionary Key to Becoming Human, Houghton-Mifflin: New York, pp. 122-171

In addition, walkable neighborhoods have been linked to higher levels of happiness, health, trust, and social connections in comparison with more car-oriented places. Leyden, K.M., Hogan, M.J., D'Arcy, L., Bunting, B. and Bierema, S., 2024. Walkable neighborhoods: Linkages between place, health, and happiness in younger and older adults. Journal of the American Planning Association, 90(1), pp.101-114. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2022.2123382

In contrast to walkable environments, less walkable environments are associated with higher BMIs and higher rates of obesity. This is particularly true for the more car-dependent environments of US suburban sprawl.{{Cite web |date=2020-02-20 |title=Is Your City Making You Fat? How Urban Planning Can Address The Obesity Epidemic - UMBC: University Of Maryland, Baltimore County |url=https://umbc.edu/stories/is-your-city-making-you-fat-how-urban-planning-can-address-the-obesity-epidemic/ |access-date=2024-03-31 |language=en-US}} Compared to walking and biking, driving as a commuting option is associated with higher levels of obesity.{{Cite journal |last1=King |first1=Douglas M. |last2=Jacobson |first2=Sheldon H. |date=March 2017 |title=What Is Driving Obesity? A Review on the Connections Between Obesity and Motorized Transportation |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s13679-017-0238-y |journal=Current Obesity Reports |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=3–9 |doi=10.1007/s13679-017-0238-y |pmid=28243840 |issn=2162-4968}} There are well-established links between the design of an urban area (including its walkability and land use policy) and health outcomes for that community.{{Cite journal |last=Nieuwenhuijsen |first=Mark J. |date=July 2018 |title=Influence of urban and transport planning and the city environment on cardiovascular disease |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41569-018-0003-2 |journal=Nature Reviews Cardiology |language=en |volume=15 |issue=7 |pages=432–438 |doi=10.1038/s41569-018-0003-2 |pmid=29654256 |issn=1759-5002}}File:Třebíč, Karlovo náměstí, školka na přechodu.jpg in Třebíč, Czech Republic]]

{{see|Student transport|Walking bus}}

Walkability has also been found to have many socioeconomic benefits, including accessibility, cost savings both to individuals and to the public,{{Cite report|title=The Sixth Carbon Budget Surface Transport|url=https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Sector-summary-Surface-transport.pdf|website=UKCCC|quote=...there is zero net cost to the economy of switching from cars to walking and cycling .... as the cost of provision of improved walking and cycling infrastructure is expected to be substantially outweighed by the benefits through reduced cost of travel, better air quality, lower congestion and improved health and wellbeing.}} student transport (which can include walking buses), increased efficiency of land use, increased livability, economic benefits from improved public health, and economic development, among others.[http://trb.metapress.com/content/m1573875u76t4223/ Todd Littman, "Economic Value of Walkability", Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Vol. 1828, 2003.], {{cite news|last=Litman|first=Todd Alexander|url=http://www.vtpi.org/walkability.pdf|title=Economic Value of Walkability|date=2004-10-12|publisher=Victoria Transport Policy Institute}}{{cite journal |last1=Baobeid |first1=Abdulla |last2=Koç |first2=Muammer |last3=Al-Ghamdi |first3=Sami G. |title=Walkability and Its Relationships With Health, Sustainability, and Livability: Elements of Physical Environment and Evaluation Frameworks |journal=Frontiers in Built Environment |date=2021 |volume=7 |doi=10.3389/fbuil.2021.721218 |doi-access=free}} The benefits of walkability are best guaranteed if the entire system of public corridors is walkable - not limited to certain specialized routes. More sidewalks and increased walkability can promote tourism and increase property value.{{Cite web|url=http://www.ipa.udel.edu/healthyDEtoolkit/walkability/benefits.html|title = Planning for Complete Communities in Delaware}}

In recent years, the demand for housing in a walkable urban context has increased. The term "Missing Middle Housing" as coined by Daniel Parolek of Opticos Design, Inc.,{{cite web|last1=Parolek|first1=Daniel|title=Missing Middle Housing: Responding to the Demand for Walkable Urban Living|url=http://opticosdesign.com/missing-middle-housing-responding-to-the-demand-for-walkable-urban-living-2/|website=Opticos Design, Inc.|access-date=April 6, 2012}} refers to multi-unit housing types (such as duplexes, fourplexes, bungalow courts, and mansion apartments not bigger than a large house), which are integrated throughout most walkable Pre-1940s neighborhoods, but became much less common after World War II, hence the term "missing". These housing types are often integrated into blocks with primarily single-family homes, to provide diverse housing choices and generate enough density to support transit and locally-serving commercial amenities.

Auto-focused street design diminishes walking and needed "eyes on the street"{{cite book |last1=Jacobs |first1=Jane |title=The death and life of great American cities |date=1961 |publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn=0-679-74195-X}}{{rp|35}} provided by the steady presence of people in an area. Walkability increases social interaction, mixing of populations, the average number of friends and associates where people live, reduced crime (with more people walking and watching over neighborhoods, open space and main streets), increased sense of pride, and increased volunteerism.

Socioeconomic factors contribute to willingness to choose walking over driving. Income, age, race, ethnicity, education, household status, and having children in a household all influence walking travel.Joh, Kenneth, Sandip Chakrabarti, Marlon G Boarnet, and Ayoung Woo. "The Walking Renaissance: A Longitudinal Analysis of Walking Travel in the Greater Los Angeles Area, USA." Sustainability 7, no. 7 (2015): 8985-9011.

File:Jalan Siliwangi Kota Sukabumi 2023.jpg street in Sukabumi, Indonesia]]

One of benefits of improving walkability is the decrease of the automobile footprint in the community. Carbon emissions can be reduced if more people choose to walk rather than drive or use public transportation, so proponents of walkable cities describe improving walkability as an important tool for adapting cities to climate change. The benefits of less emissions include improved health conditions and quality of life, less smog, and less of a contribution to global climate change.{{Cite web|date=2020-02-06|title=Walkable Cities @ProjectDrawdown #ClimateSolutions|url=https://www.drawdown.org/solutions/walkable-cities|access-date=2020-11-27|website=Project Drawdown|language=en}}

Further, cities that developed under guiding philosophies like walkability typically see lower levels of noise pollution in their neighborhoods. This goes beyond just making quieter communities to live, less noise pollution can also mean greater biodiversity. Studies have shown that noise pollution can disrupt certain senses that animals rely on to find food, reproduce, avoid predators, etc. which can weaken ecosystems in an already human dominated environment. {{Citation |title=How the built environment influences walking and cycling |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1t6p71q.11 |work=Promoting walking and cycling |pages=67–84 |publisher=Bristol University Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctt1t6p71q.11 |access-date=2022-05-30}}{{Cite web |title=How does walking and cycling help to protect the environment? |url=https://www.sustrans.org.uk/our-blog/get-active/2020/in-your-community/how-does-walking-and-cycling-help-to-protect-the-environment |access-date=2022-05-30 |website=Sustrans |language=en}} Society depends on these ecosystem for many ecological services such as provisioning, regulation, cultural/tourism, and supporting services {{Cite web |title=Ecosystem Services |url=https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Understanding-Conservation/Ecosystem-Services |access-date=2022-05-30 |website=National Wildlife Federation |language=en}} and any degradation of these services can go beyond just affecting the aesthetic of a neighborhood or community but can have serious implications for livability and wellbeing on entire regions.

Cities that have a relatively high walkability score also tend to have a higher concentration of green spaces which facilitate a more walkable city. These green spaces can assist in regulatory ecological services such as flooding, improving the quality of both air and water, carbon sequestration, etc. all while also improving the attractiveness of the city or town in which it's implemented in.{{Cite web |last=Cartier |first=Kimberly M. S. |date=2021-05-21 |title=Growing Equity in City Green Space |url=http://eos.org/features/growing-equity-in-city-green-space |access-date=2022-05-30 |website=Eos |language=en-US}}

{{See also|Mobility transition}}

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| caption1 = Hibberson St. in Gungahlin, Australian Capital Territory, in 2009

| caption2 = Hibberson St. in 2020, after a pedestrian-friendly plan carried out by the ACT Government{{Cite web |date=2011-11-15 |title=Gungahlin's pedestrian-friendly plan tabled in Assembly |url=https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/6174571/gungahlins-pedestrian-friendly-plan-tabled-in-assembly/ |access-date=2024-01-18 |website=The Canberra Times |language=en-AU}}{{Cite web |title=Pedestrian Crossing and Safety at the Intersection of Gribble and Hibberson Street ACT Legislative Assembly |url=https://epetitions.parliament.act.gov.au/details/e-pet-011-23 |access-date=2024-01-18 |website=epetitions.parliament.act.gov.au}}

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Many communities have embraced pedestrian mobility as an alternative to older building practices that favor automobiles. This shift includes a belief that dependency on cars is ecologically unsustainable. Automobile-oriented environments engender dangerous conditions for motorists and pedestrians and are generally bereft of aesthetics.{{cite book |last=Zehner |first=Ozzie |url=http://www.greenillusions.org/ |title=Green Illusions |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |year=2012 |location=Lincoln and London |pages=263–300}} A type of zoning called Form-based coding is a tool that some American cities, like Cincinnati, are employing to improve walkability.{{Cite web |last=Yung |first=John |title=Here's how Cincinnati's form-based codes are designed to spur redevelopment |url=https://www.bizjournals.com/cincinnati/news/2014/01/21/heres-how-cincinnatis-form-based.html?page=all |access-date=April 16, 2018}}{{Cite web |title=Cincinnati Form-Based Code |url=http://formbasedcodes.org/codes/cincinnati-form-based-code/ |publisher=Form-Based Codes Institute}} The COVID-19 pandemic gave birth to proposals for radical change in the organization of the city, in particular in Barcelona with the publication of the Manifesto for the Reorganisation of the city -written by architecture theorist Massimo Paolini- in which the elimination of the car and the consequent pedestrianization of the whole city is one of the critical elements, as well as the proposed inversion of the concept of the sidewalk.{{Cite news|last=Maiztegui|first=Belén|date=2020-06-18|title=Manifiesto por la reorganización de la ciudad tras el COVID-19|language=es|url=https://elpais.com/elpais/2020/05/06/alterconsumismo/1588769208_267470.html|access-date=2021-05-11}}{{Cite news|last=Argemí|first=Anna|date=2020-05-08|title=Por una Barcelona menos mercantilizada y más humana|language=es|url=https://elpais.com/elpais/2020/05/06/alterconsumismo/1588769208_267470.html|access-date=2021-05-11}}{{Cite news|last=Paolini|first=Massimo|date=2020-04-20|title=Manifesto for the Reorganisation of the City after COVID19|language=en-GB|url=https://www.degrowth.info/en/2020/05/manifesto-for-the-reorganisation-of-the-city-after-covid-19/|access-date=2021-05-01}}

There are several ways to make a community more walkable:

• Buffers: Vegetation buffers as grass areas between the street and the sidewalk also make sidewalks safer and also absorbs the carbon dioxide from automobile emissions and assists with water drainage.
• Moving obstructions: removing signposts and utility poles, can increase the walkable width of the sidewalk. Quality maintenance and proper sidewalks lighting reduce obstructions, improve safety, and encourage walking.
• Sidewalk gaps: Sidewalks can be implemented where there are "sidewalk gaps", with priority to areas where walking is encouraged, such as around schools or transit stations. Campaigns such as Atlanta, Georgia's safe transit routes provide safer access to transit stops for pedestrians.{{Cite web|url=http://peds.org/issues/safe_crossings/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090626065543/http://peds.org/issues/safe_crossings/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=June 26, 2009|title=safe routes to transit}} There are several aspects to consider when implementing new sidewalks, such as sidewalk width. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requires that sidewalks be at least five feet in width."Accessible Rights-of-Way: A Design Guide", [http://www.access-board.gov/prowac/guide/PROWGuide.htm] 1999
• Pedestrian zone: New infrastructure and pedestrian zones replace roads for better walkability. Cities undertake pedestrian projects for better traffic flow by closing automobile access and only allowing pedestrians to travel. Projects such as the High Line and The 606 Trail increase walkability by connecting neighborhoods, using landscape architectural elements to create visually aesthetic green space and allowing for physical activity. Towns can also be modified to be pedestrian villages.
• Curb extensions: Curb extensions decrease the radii of the corners of the curb at intersections, calm traffic, and reduce the distance pedestrians have to cross. On streets with parking, curb extensions allow pedestrians to see oncoming traffic better where they otherwise would be forced to walk into the street to see past parked cars. Striped crosswalks, or zebra crossings, also provide safer crossings because they provide better visibility for both drivers and pedestrians. Improving crosswalk safety also increases walkability.
• Improving safety: Monitoring and improving safety in neighborhoods can make walking a more attractive option. Safety is the primary concern among children when choosing how to get to and from school. Ensuring safer walking areas by keeping paths well-maintained and well-lit can encourage walkability.Banerjee, Tridib et al. "Walking to School: The Experience of Children in Inner City Los Angeles and Implications for Policy." Journal of Planning Education and Research 34, no 2 (2014): 123-140.
• Work from home: working from home completely eliminates any travel time associated with work and allows for people to use the time spent commuting, an average of 27.6 minutes in America. An increase in people working from home in recent years after the COVID 19 pandemic not only has cut down on fossil fuels burned, but also has other benefits like improving productivity.{{Cite web |last1=Parker |first1=Kim |last2=Horowitz |first2=Juliana Menasce |last3=Minkin |first3=Rachel |date=2022-02-16 |title=COVID-19 Pandemic Continues To Reshape Work in America |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2022/02/16/covid-19-pandemic-continues-to-reshape-work-in-america/ |access-date=2022-05-30 |website=Pew Research Center's Social & Demographic Trends Project |language=en-US}}
• Improving destinations: Create a destination within walking distance of every home where people can partake in indoor and outdoor games, sports, dance, food, etc. Although exclusive to children, these destinations sometimes exist in the form of schools.

One way of assessing and measuring walkability is to undertake a walking audit. An established and widely used walking audit tool is PERS (Pedestrian Environment Review System) which has been used extensively in the UK.{{Cite web|url=http://www.walk21.com/papers/TfL%20TRL%20Walk21%20NYC%202009%20paper%20-%20Identifying%20and%20prioritizing%20walking%20investment%20through%20PERS%20audit%20tool.pdf |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301171301/http://www.walk21.com/papers/TfL%20TRL%20Walk21%20NYC%202009%20paper%20-%20Identifying%20and%20prioritizing%20walking%20investment%20through%20PERS%20audit%20tool.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-01|title=Davies, A. and Clark, S. (2009) Identifying and prioritising walking investment through the PERS audit tool - Walk21 Proceedings, 10th International Conference for Walking, New York, USA, October 2009}}

A simple way to determine the walkability of a block, corridor or neighborhood is to count the number of people walking, lingering and engaging in optional activities within a space.Gehl, J. and Gemzoe, L. (1996). Public spaces and public life. Copenhagen: Danish Architectural Press This process is a vast improvement upon pedestrian level of service (LOS) indicators, recommended within the Highway Capacity Manual.Transportation Research Board (2000). Highway capacity manual: HCM2000. Washington D.C.: National Research Council However it may not translate well to non-Western locations where the idea of "optional" activities may be different.Hutabarat Lo, R. (2009). "Walkability: what is it?", Journal of Urbanism Vol. 2, No. 2, pp 145-166. In any case, the diversity of people, and especially the presence of children, seniors and people with disabilities, denotes the quality, completeness and health of a walkable space.

A number of commercial walkability scores also exist:

• Walk Score is a company that creates a walkability index based on the distance to amenities such as grocery stores, schools, parks, libraries, restaurants, and coffee shops.{{Cite web|url=http://www.ceosforcities.org/research/walking-the-walk/|title=ceosforcities.org, Walking the Walk (2009)}} Walk Score's algorithm awards maximum points to amenities within 5 minutes' walk (.25 mi), and a decay function assigns points for amenities up to 30 minutes away.{{Cite web|url=https://www.walkscore.com/methodology.shtml|title=Walk Score Methodology|website=Walk Score}} Scores are normalized from 0 to 100.
• Walkonomics was a web app that combines open data and crowdsourcing to rate and review the walkability of each street. As of 2011, Walkonomics claimed to have ratings for every street in England (over 600,000 streets) and New York City.,{{Cite web|url=https://walkonomics.com/2011/06/18/rating-walkability-open-data-crowdsourcing/|title=Rating walkability by combining Open Data and Crowdsourcing|date=June 18, 2011}} although it stopped service in 2018.
• RateMyStreet is a website that uses crowdsourcing, Google Maps and a five star rating system to allow users to rate the walkability of their local streets. Users can rate a street using eight different categories: Crossing the street, pavement/sidewalk width, trip hazards, wayfinding, safety from crime, road safety, cleanliness/attractiveness, and disabled peoples' access.

A newly developing concept is the transit time map (sometimes called a transit shed map), which is a type of isochrone map.Dovey, K., Woodcock, I. & Pike, L. (2017) 'Isochrone Mapping of Urban Transport', Planning Practice & Research, 32(4): 402-416. {{doi|10.1080/02697459.2017.1329487}} These are maps (often online and interactive) that display the areas of a metropolis which can be reached from a given starting point, in a given amount of travel time. Such maps are useful for evaluating how well-connected a given address is to other possible urban destinations, or conversely, how large a territory can quickly get to a given address. The calculation of transit time maps is computationally intensive, and considerable work is being done on more efficient algorithms for quickly producing such maps.Steiniger, S., Poorazizi, M.E. & Hunter, A.J.S (2013) 'WalkYourPlace - evaluating neighbourhood accessibility at street level', UDMS 2013 - Proceedings of the 29th Urban Data Management Symposium, https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/194261782.pdf

To be useful, the production of a transit time map must take into consideration detailed transit schedules, service frequency, time of day, and day of week.{{cite web|title=Transit Time Map: Bay Area, 9:00am|url=http://www.walkscore.com/transit-map.php|work=Walk Score|access-date=25 February 2013}}{{cite web|last=Wehrmeyer|first=Stefan|title=Dynamic Public Transport Travel Time Maps|url=http://www.mapnificent.net|work=Mapnificent|publisher=Stefan Wehrmeyer|access-date=25 February 2013}}{{cite web|last=Roth|first=Matthew|title=Walk Score Updates Transit Travel Map for Bay Area|url=http://sf.streetsblog.org/2009/03/12/walk-score-updates-transit-travel-map-for-bay-area/|work=sf.streetsblog.org|date=12 March 2009|publisher=streetsblog.org|access-date=25 February 2013}}{{cite web|last=Walker|first=Jarrett|title=Beyond "transit scores": an exchange with Matt Lerner|url=http://www.humantransit.org/2011/01/beyond-transit-scores-an-exchange-with-matt-lerner.html|work=Human Transit|date=24 January 2011|publisher=humantransit.org|access-date=25 February 2013}}{{cite web|last=Wehrmeyer|first=Stefan|title=A Mapnificent World|url=http://blog.stefanwehrmeyer.com/post/1448498820/a-mapnificent-world|work=On the Things I Do|publisher=stefanwehrmeyer.com|access-date=25 February 2013|date=31 October 2010|archive-date=5 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205163744/http://blog.stefanwehrmeyer.com/post/1448498820/a-mapnificent-world|url-status=dead}} Moreover, the recent development of computer vision and street view imagery has provided significant potential to automatically assess spaces for pedestrians from the ground level.

{{cite journal |year=2021 |title=Assessing bikeability with street view imagery and computer vision |journal=Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies |volume= 132 |page= 103371 |doi=10.1016/j.trc.2021.103371 |last1=Ito |first1=K. |last2=Biljecki |first2=F. |arxiv=2105.08499 |bibcode=2021TRPC..13203371I |s2cid=234763005}}

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• {{Annotated link|15 minute city}}
• {{Annotated link|Active living}}
• {{Annotated link|Active mobility}}
• Alley
• {{Annotated link|Bicycle-friendly}}
• {{Annotated link|Complete streets}}
• {{Annotated link|Cyclability}}
• {{Annotated link|Cycling mobility}}
• {{Annotated link|Footpath}}
• Forced rider
• Form-based code
• Free-range parenting
• Greening
• {{Annotated link|Human scale}}
• International charter for walking
• Jaywalking
• {{Annotated link|Living street}}
• Missing Middle Housing
• New Urbanism
• Non-motorist
• {{Annotated link|Obesity and walking}}
• {{Annotated link|Pedestrian village}}
• Permeability (spatial and transport planning)
• Street reclamation
• {{Annotated link|Sustainable Development Goal 11}}
• Trail ethics
• {{Annotated link|Urban vitality}}
• Walking
• Walking audit
• Walking bus
• Walking distance measure
• Walking tour

{{div col end}}

{{Reflist|30em}}

• Dovey, Kim & Pafka, Elek (2019). [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0042098018819727 "What is walkability? The urban DMA"], Urban Studies.
• Leyden, Kevin M. (2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20171018173922/http://www.minority.unc.edu/sph/minconf/2004/materials/leyden.k.pdf "Social Capital and the Built Environment: The Importance of Walkable Neighborhoods."] American Journal of Public Health. Volume 93: 1546-1551
• Speck, Jeff. (2012). Walkable City: How Downtown Can Save America, One Step at a Time. Macmillan.

• [http://www.levelofservice.com/ levelofservice.com, Walkability tools research and walking level of service calculator.]
• [https://www.walkscore.com/ walkscore.com, an online tool that maps walk-scores, a walkability index that is based on a number of measurable variables.]

{{Walking}}

{{Transportation-planning}}

Category:Urban studies and planning terminology

Category:Sustainable transport

Category:Pedestrian activism

Category:Pedestrian infrastructure