Water resources in India#Topic

{{see also|Indian states ranking by drinking water|Water scarcity in India}}

The precipitation pattern in India exhibits significant variation across regions and throughout the calendar year. A substantial portion of the country's rainfall, approximately 85%, occurs during the summer months, primarily due to the monsoon rains in the Himalayan catchments of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin. The northeastern region of India receives considerably heavier rainfall compared to the northwestern, western, and southern parts of the country.

The unpredictable onset of the annual monsoon, often characterised by prolonged dry spells and fluctuations in seasonal and annual rainfall, poses a significant challenge.{{cite web|url= http://indianexpress.com/article/explained/how-india-sees-the-coming-crisis-of-water-and-is-preparing-for-it-3049950/ |title= How India sees the coming crisis of water — and is preparing for it |date= 26 September 2016 |accessdate=30 September 2016}} Vast areas of the country remain uncultivated due to local water scarcity or poor water quality.{{cite web|url= http://dolr.nic.in/dolr/wasteland_atlas.asp |title= Waste lands atlas of India, 2011 |accessdate=30 May 2016}} India experiences alternating cycles of drought and flood years, with the western and southern regions being particularly prone to rainfall deficits and high variability. These conditions cause severe distress, especially for small and marginal farmers and rural communities.{{cite web|url= http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub170/rr170.pdf |title=Mapping Multiple Climate-related Hazards in South Asia |accessdate=30 July 2017}}

The reliance on erratic rainfall, coupled with inadequate irrigation infrastructure in certain regions, often leads to crop failures and, in extreme cases, farmer suicides. Despite the abundance of rainfall during the monsoon season (June to September), several areas face drinking water shortages during other parts of the year. In some years, excessive rainfall results in devastating floods, causing widespread disruption and damage.{{cite web|url=http://www.cwc.gov.in/main/downloads/FFM.2200-2291.27112012.pdf|title= State wise flood damage statistics in India|accessdate=2013-01-04}}

{{See also|Johad}}

India currently stores only 6% of its annual rainfall, amounting to approximately {{convert|253|e9m3}}, whereas developed countries strategically store up to 250% of their annual rainfall in arid river basins.{{cite web|url=http://www.cwc.nic.in/main/downloads/IHD2015_final.pdf |title=Integrated hydrological data book (page 65) |accessdate=29 May 2016}}

India heavily depends on groundwater resources, which support over 50% of the irrigated area, facilitated by the installation of nearly 20 million tube wells. To harness river waters and promote groundwater recharge, the country has constructed approximately 5,000 major and medium-sized dams, barrages, and similar structures.{{cite web |url=http://india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/wrpinfo/index.php?title=Headworks_(Dam,_Barrage,Weir,_Anicut,_Lift) |title=List of riverwise dams and barrages |accessdate=29 May 2014}}

The 59 most significant dams collectively offer a gross storage capacity of {{convert|170|e9m3}}.{{cite web|url=http://www.cwc.nic.in/main/downloads/New%20NRLD.pdf|title= National register of dams in India |accessdate=19 July 2016}} Currently, about 15% of India's food production relies on rapidly depleting groundwater reserves. As the era of large-scale groundwater exploitation nears its end, there will be an increasing need for a shift towards surface water supply systems to meet agricultural and domestic water demands.{{cite web|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/06/25/000333037_20080625020800/Rendered/PDF/443760PUB0IN0W1Box0327398B01PUBLIC1.pdf |title=India's water economy bracing for a turbulent future, World Bank report, 2006|accessdate=29 May 2014}}

India is not facing a depletion of water resources; rather, a significant portion of its water flows out to the sea without being fully utilised for its potential benefits.{{cite web |title=India is not running out of water, water is running out of India|date=26 March 2017|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/opinion/op-ed/260317/by-invitation-india-is-not-running-out-of-water-water-is-running-out-of-india.html|accessdate=9 July 2018}} The construction of land-based water reservoirs is highly expensive, primarily due to the costs associated with land acquisition, property compensation, and rehabilitation. To address the need for adequate water storage, coastal freshwater reservoirs constructed in the sea near river deltas offer a viable and cost-effective solution. This approach avoids issues related to land and forest submergence, making it a socially and economically favourable option for water conservation and management.{{cite web |title=Efficacy of coastal reservoirs to address India's water shortage by impounding excess river flood waters near the coast (pages 49 and 19) |url=http://ojs.udspub.com/index.php/jsupp/issue/viewIssue/51/4|accessdate=9 July 2018}}{{cite web |title=International Association for Coastal Reservoir Research|url=http://iacrr.org/publications|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234508/http://iacrr.org/publications|url-status=usurped|archive-date=July 26, 2018|accessdate=9 July 2018}}

{{See also|Hydroelectric power in India}}

Indian rivers possess significant hydropower potential, particularly as they descend from their source mountains, including the Himalayas, Western Ghats, Aravali Range, Vindhya Mountains, and Eastern Ghats, before their waters are consumed or flow into the sea.

The available hydropower potential varies over time, influenced by advancements in technology, the development of alternative power sources, changing priorities, and other limitations. Additionally, pumped-storage hydroelectricity potential can be economically developed by constructing embankment canals in conjunction with freshwater coastal reservoirs. This approach allows for the simultaneous harnessing of water resources to meet multiple needs while enhancing energy storage capabilities.{{Cite journal |last=Sasidhar |first=Nallapaneni |date=May 2023 |title=Multipurpose Freshwater Coastal Reservoirs and Their Role in Mitigating Climate Change |url=https://www.ijee.latticescipub.com/wp-content/uploads/papers/v3i1/A1842053123.pdf |access-date=2023-05-23 |journal=Indian Journal of Environment Engineering |issn=2582-9289 |volume=3 |issue=1|pages=30–45 |doi=10.54105/ijee.A1842.053123 |s2cid=258753397 }}

{{Main article|List of major rivers of India|Indian Rivers Inter-link}}

File:India Map based on Survey of India rivers.PNG.]]

The major rivers of India are as follows:{{cite web|url=http://india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/WRIS.html| title=River basin maps in India |accessdate=29 May 2014}}

• Rivers flowing into the Bay of Bengal: Brahmaputra, Ganges, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri
• Rivers flowing into the Arabian Sea: Indus, Narmada, Tapti

{{See also|List of lakes in India}}

The notable lakes in India include:

• Pulicat Lake
• Kolleru Lake
• Pangong Tso
• Chilika Lake
• Kuttanad Lake
• Sambhar Salt Lake
• Pushkar Lake

{{See also|Johad|List of Ramsar sites in India}}

India is a signatory to the Ramsar Convention, an international treaty aimed at the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands.{{cite web|url=http://www.indiawaterportal.org/node/18315 |title=Wet lands atlas of India 2011|accessdate=29 May 2016}}

{{main|Water supply and sanitation in India}}

Water supply and sanitation in India remain inadequate, despite long-standing efforts by various levels of government and local communities to improve coverage. Although investment in water and sanitation has been low by international standards, it has increased significantly since the 2000s, and access to these services has also expanded. For instance, rural sanitation coverage, which was estimated at 1% in 1980, reached 21% in 2008.UNICEF/WHO Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation estimate for 2008 based on 2006 Demographic and Health Survey, the 2001 census, other data, and the extrapolation of previous trends to 2010. See [http://www.wssinfo.org/datamining/tables.html JMP tables]{{cite web|url=http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/11th/11_v2/11v2_ch3.pdf|author=Planning Commission of India|author-link=Planning Commission of India|title=Health and Family Welfare and AYUSH : 11th Five Year Plan|accessdate=2010-09-19}}, p. 78 Similarly, the proportion of Indians with access to improved sources of water rose from 72% in 1990 to 88% in 2008.

However, local government institutions responsible for operating and maintaining infrastructure are often considered weak and lack the financial resources to effectively carry out their responsibilities. Moreover, no major city in India is known to have a continuous water supply,{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:20980493~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html|title=Development Policy Review|publisher=World Bank|accessdate=2010-09-19}} and an estimated 72% of Indians still lack access to improved sanitation facilities.

Despite adequate average rainfall in India, large areas are prone to water scarcity and drought conditions. Additionally, there are many places where the quality of groundwater is poor. Another significant issue lies in the interstate distribution of rivers. The water supply to 90% of India's territory is provided by interstate rivers, leading to an increasing number of conflicts between states and across the country regarding water-sharing issues.{{cite web |url=http://greencleanguide.com/2011/07/19/water-scarcity-and-india/ |title=Water scarcity and India « For the Changing Planet |website=greencleanguide.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924062622/http://greencleanguide.com/2011/07/19/water-scarcity-and-india/ |archive-date=2011-09-24}}

Several innovative approaches to improving water supply and sanitation have been tested in India, particularly in the early 2000s. These include demand-driven approaches in rural water supply since 1999, community-led total sanitation, public-private partnerships to enhance the continuity of urban water supply in Karnataka, and the use of micro-credit for women to improve access to water.

When sufficient salt export from a river basin to the sea is not ensured in an attempt to fully harness river water, it leads to the closure of the river basin. As a result, the available water in the downstream areas becomes saline and/or alkaline. Land irrigated with such saline or alkaline water gradually turns into saline or alkali soils.{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237403006 |title=River basin development phases and implications of closure |last1=Keller |first1=Jack |last2=Keller |first2=Andrew |last3=Davids |first3=Grant |date=January 1998| accessdate=25 September 2020}}{{cite web|url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub001/REPORT01.PDF|title=The New Era of Water Resources Management: From "Dry" to "Wet" Water Savings|author1=David Seckler |accessdate=5 June 2016}}{{cite web|url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub003/REPORT03.PDF|title=Integrated Water Resource Systems: Theory and Policy Implications|author1=Andrew Keller |author2=Jack Keller |author3=David Seckler |accessdate=5 January 2014}}

Alkali soils have very poor water percolation, which leads to waterlogging issues. The spread of alkali soils forces farmers to cultivate only crops like rice or grasses, as the soil has low productivity for other crops and tree plantations.{{cite web|url=http://extension.oregonstate.edu/umatilla/mf/sites/default/files/pnw597-e.pdf|title=Managing irrigation water quality|author=Oregon State University, USA|accessdate=28 August 2012}} In saline soils, cotton is a preferred crop compared to many others, as most crops show poor yields under such conditions.{{cite web|url=http://222065430381538974.weebly.com/uploads/1/1/5/2/11520542/irrigation_water_quality_-_salinity_-_derm.pdf|title=Irrigation water quality—salinity and soil structure stability |accessdate=5 January 2016}} In the northeastern states, high soil acidity caused by excessive rainfall negatively affects agricultural productivity.{{cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/environment/extreme-rainfall-acidifies-land-in-india-s-northeastern-states-62330|title=Extreme rainfall acidifies land in India's northeastern states|date=29 November 2018 |accessdate=2 December 2018}}

Interlinking water-surplus rivers with water-deficit rivers is essential for the long-term sustainable productivity of river basins. This measure helps mitigate human-induced impacts on rivers by ensuring adequate salt export to the sea through environmental flows.{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/agri-business/india-on-verge-of-looming-soil-crisis-report/article9985289.ece|title=India on verge of looming soil crisis: Report|date=7 December 2017 |accessdate=7 December 2017}} Additionally, baseflows in rivers must be restored by curbing excessive groundwater extraction and augmenting surface water through canals. Such measures will help achieve adequate salt export to the sea and preserve water quality in river basins.

{{Main article|Interstate River Water Disputes Act}}

There is intense competition for the available water in several interstate rivers, including the Kaveri, Krishna, Godavari, Vamsadhara, Mandovi, Ravi-Beas-Sutlej, Narmada, Tapti, and Mahanadi, among the riparian states of India. This competition arises due to the absence of water augmentation from surplus rivers such as the Brahmaputra, the Himalayan tributaries of the Ganga, and the west-flowing coastal rivers of the Western Ghats.

{{main|Water pollution in India}}

Out of India's 3,119 towns and cities, only 209 have partial wastewater treatment facilities, and just 8 have full wastewater treatment facilities (WHO, 1992){{update inline|date=May 2019}}.Russell Hopfenberg and David Pimentel [http://www.oilcrash.com/articles/populatn.htm HUMAN POPULATION NUMBERS AS A FUNCTION OF FOOD SUPPLY] oilcrash.com Retrieved on- February 2008 A total of 114 cities discharge untreated sewage and partially cremated bodies directly into the Ganges River.National Geographic Society. 1995. Water: A Story of Hope. Washington (DC): National Geographic Society Downstream, this untreated water is used for drinking, bathing, and washing.{{cite web|url=http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/Report%20on%20River%20Stretches%20For%20Restoration%20Of%20Water%20Quality.pdf |title= River Stretches for Restoration of Water Quality, MoEF |accessdate=15 September 2018}} This situation is common for many rivers across India, although the Ganges River is comparatively less polluted.{{cite web|url=http://cpcbenvis.nic.in/water_quality_data.html# |title= Water Quality Database of Indian rivers, MoEF |accessdate=15 September 2016}}

{{main|Pollution of the Ganges}}

The Ganges River is the largest river in India. Its extreme pollution affects approximately 600 million people living near its banks. The river water begins to show signs of pollution as it enters the plains, with commercial exploitation increasing in proportion to population growth.

The towns of Gangotri and Uttarkashi exemplify this trend. Until the 1970s, Gangotri was a small settlement with only a few huts occupied by sadhus. However, in recent years, the population of Uttarkashi has increased significantly, reflecting the broader impact of urbanisation and human activities on the river’s ecosystem.

{{main|Yamuna}}

The Yamuna is one of the few sacred rivers in India, revered by many as a goddess. However, the river has come under extreme stress due to the exponential rise in the number of tourists and pilgrims, coupled with the growing population along its banks.

As a result of this rapid increase in human activity, the Yamuna has become severely polluted. The pollution has reached such an alarming level that the Government of India launched the Yamuna Action Plan to address and mitigate the river’s degradation.

In India, there is intense competition for water resources from all interstate rivers, except the Brahmaputra River, among the riparian states. Additionally, water-sharing disputes extend to neighbouring countries, including Nepal, China, Pakistan, Bhutan, and Bangladesh.{{cite web |title=India's water economy bracing for a turbulent future, World Bank report, 2006 |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/06/25/000333037_20080625020800/Rendered/PDF/443760PUB0IN0W1Box0327398B01PUBLIC1.pdf |access-date=29 May 2015}}

A vast area of the Indian subcontinent experiences a tropical climate, which is favourable for agriculture due to warm and sunny conditions. However, a perennial water supply is essential to meet the high evapotranspiration rates from cultivated land.

Although the overall water resources in the subcontinent are sufficient to meet its needs, gaps in water supply persist due to the temporal and spatial variability of water distribution among states and neighbouring countries. Bridging these gaps is crucial for ensuring equitable water access and sustainable resource management.

There is intense competition for the water from interstate rivers such as the Kaveri, Krishna, Godavari, Vamsadhara, Mandovi, Ravi-Beas-Sutlej, Narmada, Tapti, and Mahanadi among the riparian states of India. This competition is primarily due to the lack of water augmentation from surplus rivers such as the Brahmaputra, the Himalayan tributaries of the Ganga, and the west-flowing coastal rivers of the Western Ghats.

During the intense summer season, when rainfall is minimal, all river basins experience severe water shortages, affecting even the basic drinking water needs of people, cattle, and wildlife.

Water security can be achieved alongside energy security, as linking surplus water areas with water-deficit regions through lift canals, pipelines, and other infrastructure will require a significant amount of electricity.{{cite news |last=Brown |first=Lester R. |date=November 29, 2013 |title=India's dangerous 'food bubble' |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/opinion/la-xpm-2013-nov-29-la-oe-brown-india-food-bubble-famine-20131129-story.html |access-date=July 13, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218120818/http://articles.latimes.com/2013/nov/29/opinion/la-oe-brown-india-food-bubble-famine-20131129 |archive-date=December 18, 2013}} [http://www.earth-policy.org/plan_b_updates/2013/update119 Alt URL]

In 2019, the Indian short film The Big Bang, written and directed by Lal Bijo, addressed the issue of water consumption. The film portrays a young man who is unaware of the value of water. One day, while attempting to collect water, he hears strange sounds nearby, becomes frightened, and runs away. The film highlights the importance of water conservation through its symbolic narrative.{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2019-11-21 |title=Short take on a grave issue |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/mollywood/211119/short-take-on-a-grave-issue.html |access-date=2024-12-19 |website=www.deccanchronicle.com |language=en}}

{{anchor| Topic | Topics}}

• History of water supply and sanitation
• Ancient water conservation techniques
• Water supply and sanitation in the Indus-Saraswati Valley Civilisation
• History of stepwells in Gujarat
• Sanitation in ancient Rome
• Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity

• Water resources in India
• National Water Policy of India
• Groundwater in India
• Irrigation in India
• List of rivers of India by discharge
• List of dams and reservoirs in India
• Indian Rivers Inter-link
• Interstate River Water Disputes Act
• National Waterways of India

• Water scarcity in India
• Indian states ranking by drinking water
• Water conservation in India
• Kalpasar Project

• Environment of India
• List of rivers by dissolved load
• List of drainage basins by area
• List of rivers by discharge

{{Reflist}}

• {{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/india_water.html|title=NASA Satellites Unlock Secret to Northern India's Vanishing Water|last=Cook-Anderson|first=Gretchen|date=12 August 2009|publisher=NASA|accessdate=26 November 2010}}
• [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/gallery/2012/oct/09/childrens-eyes-earth-photography-in-pictures#/?picture=397396825&index=17 Children's Eyes on Earth 2012 photography contest – in pictures] Peaceful Co-existence Guardian 9 October 2012

{{DEFAULTSORT:Water In India}}