Waterborne resins

Most coatings have four basic components. These are the resin, solvent, pigment and additive systems{{Cite book|title=Waterborne coatings and additives|date=1995|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|others=Karsa, D. R., Davies, W. D., Royal Society of Chemistry (Great Britain), Society of Chemical Industry (Great Britain)|isbn=0-85404-740-9|location=Cambridge, UK|oclc=33164476}} but the resin or binder is the key ingredient. Continuing environmental legislation in many countries along with geopolitics such as oil production are ensuring that chemists are increasingly turning to waterborne technology for paint/coatings and since resins or binders are the most important part of a coating, more of them are being developed and designed waterborne and there is a constantly increasing use by coating formulators. The use of waterborne coatings and hence waterborne resins really started to grow in the 1960s led by the United States and was driven by: a) the need to reduce flammability; b) environmental legislation aimed at reducing the amount of solvent vapor (VOC - Volatile organic compound) discharged into the atmosphere; c) cost; d) political factors i.e. security of supply.{{Cite journal|last=Jackson|first=K.|date=1999-07-01|title=Recent advances in water-borne protective coatings|journal=Surface Coatings International|language=en|volume=82|issue=7|pages=340–343|doi=10.1007/BF02720130|s2cid=135613088 |issn=1356-0751}} All these factors helped the desire to reduce the reliance on oil derived solvents. The use of water as the carrying solvent for coatings and hence resins has been increasing ever since. The same holds true for adhesives. Water is generally a low cost (but not free) commodity in plentiful supply with no toxicity problems so there has always been a desire to produce paints, inks, adhesives and textile sizes etc. with water as the carrying solvent. This has required the production of waterborne resins designed for these systems. In recent years legislative pressure has ensured that waterborne systems and hence waterborne resins are coming increasingly to the fore.Thames S.F. “Conversion to Water-Soluble/Water-borne polymers” February 1996 Lecture notes from the University of Southern Mississippi  short course{{Cite web|title=Waterborne Industrial Coatings: Evolving Perceptions and Technologies|url=https://www.coatingstech-digital.org/coatingstech/july_2021/MobilePagedArticle.action?articleId=1705064|access-date=2021-07-22|website=www.coatingstech-digital.org|language=en|archive-date=2022-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128164446/https://www.coatingstech-digital.org/coatingstech/july_2021/MobilePagedArticle.action?articleId=1705064|url-status=live}}{{Cite web |title=CoatingsTech - Waterborne Direct-to-Metal Coatings: Enduring Solutions in Corrosion Protection |url=https://www.coatingstech-digital.org/coatingstech/library/item/july_2022/4025802/ |access-date=2022-07-07 |website=www.coatingstech-digital.org |language=en}}

{{main|Epoxy}}

An epoxy resin system generally consists of a curing agent and an epoxy resin. Both the curing agent and the epoxy resin can be made waterborne. Solid epoxy resin (molecular weight >1000) dispersions are available and consist of an epoxy resin dispersed in water sometimes with the aid of co-solvents and surfactants. The resin backbone is often modified to ensure water dispersibility. These resins dry in their own right by water/co-solvent evaporation and the particles coalescence.Darwen S. “Developments in high performance water-borne epoxy coatings” Polymers Paints and Colours Journal February. 23 1994 pages 65–67 To cure the resin and crosslink it, an amine-based curing agent is usually added. This produces a two-component system. An alternative is to use standard medium viscosity liquid epoxy resins and emulsify them in a water-soluble polyamine or polyaminoamide hardener resin which also gives a two-component system. Polyaminoamides (or polyamidoamines) are made by reacting ethylene amines with dimerized fatty acids to give a species with amide links but still having amine functionality. Water is liberated during the condensation reaction. These resins can then  be made water-soluble by reacting further with glacial organic acids  or formaldehyde. Resins like these are usually left with yet further amine functionality on the polymer backbone to enable them to cure and crosslink an epoxy resin.Richardson F.B “Water-borne Epoxy Coatings: Past, Present and Future” Modern Paints and Coatings April 1988 pages 84-88 Paints may then be made from them by pigmenting  either the epoxy or the amine hardener portion or even both.{{Cite journal|last=Howarth|first=Graham|date=1995-01-01|title=The use of water-based epoxies for anti-corrosive primers|journal=Pigment & Resin Technology|volume=24|issue=6|pages=3–6|doi=10.1108/eb043156|issn=0369-9420}}{{Cite journal|last=Ranjbar |first=Zahra |journal=Progress in Color, Colorants and Coatings|date=2009-01-01 |title=Optimization of a Waterborne Epoxy Coatings Formulation via Experimental Design |url=https://www.academia.edu/65012355}} Polyamine curing resins as opposed to polyaminoamide resins are generally made by partially adducting polyfunctional amines with an epoxy resin and/or epoxy diluent and leaving the species with residual amine functionality. This adduct can then be dissolved in water and used to emulsify more epoxy resin and again either portion or both may be pigmented. The advantage with these systems is that they do not need glacial organic acids to solubilize them. This is an advantage if the coating is to be used over a highly alkaline substrate such as fresh concrete, as the alkali from the cement will neutralise the acid and cause instability on repeated dipping of a brush into the can.Howarth G.A "Synthesis of a legislation compliant corrosion protection coating system based on urethane, oxazolidine and waterborne epoxy technology" Master of Science Thesis April 1997 Imperial College London Even though water is present and is a fuel for corrosion, water-based metal coatings based on waterborne epoxy can also be formulated.{{Cite web|title=Formulate Waterborne Metal Epoxy Coatings That Work|url=https://coatings.specialchem.com/tech-library/article/formulate-waterborne-metal-epoxy-coatings|access-date=2021-01-13|website=coatings.specialchem.com|language=en|archive-date=2021-01-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114154116/https://coatings.specialchem.com/tech-library/article/formulate-waterborne-metal-epoxy-coatings|url-status=live}} Other research is investigating the benefits of combining graphene technology with waterborne epoxy.{{Cite journal|title=Waterborne Epoxy Technology:Lifting Performance for Tomorrow|journal=CoatingsTech February 2022|pages=35–38|url=https://www.coatingstech-digital.org/coatingstech/february_2022?pg=35|access-date=2022-02-18|language=en}}

Research continues and many patents and journal papers continue to be published with novel ways of converting epoxy systems to their waterborne counterparts. One such method is to take a molecule that already is intrinsically partially hydrophilic such as a diol with a polypropylene oxide backbone, and then reacting it with epichlorohydrin and then dehydrochlorinated with sodium hydroxide. This produces a diepoxy terminated polypropylene glycol molecule. This can now be reacted with an ethyleneamine such as triethylenetetramine (TETA) to produce an amine terminated moiety that is intrinsically hydrophilic and able to cure an epoxy resin.{{Cite journal|last=Huang, Wang, Lai, Li, Jiang & Zhang|date=March 2021|title=Fabrication of a nonionic self-emulsifiable waterborne epoxy curing agent with high cure properties|journal=Journal of Coatings Technology & Research|volume=18|issue=2|pages=549–558|doi=10.1007/s11998-020-00423-3|s2cid=230717990 }}{{cite patent|country=US|number=5596030|title=Amide-containing self-emulsifying epoxy curing agent|assign=Air Products & Chemicals Inc.|pubdate=1997-01-21|inventor1-last=Walker|inventor1-first= Frederick H.}} These waterbased wpoxy coatings when used with the right choice of pigments, can be used to coat the inside of oil tanks.{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Zhong-Hua |last2=Tang |first2=Ying |last3=Yu |first3=Fei |last4=Chen |first4=Jian-Hua |last5=Chen |first5=Hai-Hong |date=2008-06-01 |title=Preparation of light color antistatic and anticorrosive waterborne epoxy coating for oil tanks |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-007-9063-7 |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=259–269 |doi=10.1007/s11998-007-9063-7 |s2cid=137473922 |issn=1935-3804 |access-date=2023-03-14 |archive-date=2023-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314202619/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11998-007-9063-7 |url-status=live }}

{{main|Alkyd}}

Water reducible alkyds are basically conventional alkyd resins (i.e., polyesters based on saturated or unsaturated oils or fatty acids, polybasic acids and alcohols) modified to confer water miscibility. Typical components are vegetable oils or fatty acids such as linseed, soybean, castor, dehydrated castor, safflower, tung, coconut and tall oil. Acids include isophthalic, terephthalic, adipic, benzoic, succinic acids and phthalic, maleic and trimellitic anhydride. Polyols include glycerol, pentaerythritol, Trimethylolpropane, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, diethylene glycol, neopentyl glycol, 1,6-hexanediol and 1,4-butanediol.{{Cite patent|country=US|number=5137965|pubdate=1992-08-11|assign=Westvaco Corp.|inventor1-last=Knox|inventor1-first=David E.|title=Water-borne alkyd resin compositions}} Typical methods for introducing varying degrees of water miscibility are similar to other resin systems. Methods basically involve introducing hydrophilic centres such as acid groups that can then be neutralised to form a salt.{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323203238|title=Synthesis of waterborne alkyd resins|access-date=2020-03-24|archive-date=2022-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128164443/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323203238_Synthesis_of_waterborne_alkyd_resins|url-status=live}} Introducing polar groups onto the backbone is another method. With alkyds typical methods include maleinazation of unsaturated fatty acids with maleic anhydride. This involves making a Diels-Alder adduct near the double bond sites. The acid groups introduced can then be further reacted with polyols. A Diels-Alder reaction only occurs where there is a conjugated double bond system. Simple addition occurs if not conjugated. Other techniques include synthesizing the resin with hydroxyl functional oligomers e.g. containing ethylene glycol then adding specific acid or hydroxyl containing substances towards the end of the reaction. Another technique is making an acrylic functional alkyd with an acrylic monomer blend rich in carboxylic acid groups. Synthesis techniques have been studied and published for acrylic modified water-reducible alkyds.{{Cite journal |last1=Aynali |first1=Figen |last2=Sakar |first2=Gürcan |last3=Kocyigit |first3=Elif Suna |last4=Kades |first4=Alper |date=2023-11-01 |title=Synthesis of acrylic-modified water-reducible alkyd resin: improvement of corrosion resistance in painting formulations |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-023-00795-2 |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=2007–2017 |doi=10.1007/s11998-023-00795-2 |issn=1935-3804}}

Late twentieth century technology allowed the production of alkyd emulsions.{{Cite journal|date=1994-06-01|title=Alkyd emulsions|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0033-0655%2894%2985020-8|journal=Progress in Organic Coatings|language=en|volume=24|issue=1–4|pages=281–297|doi=10.1016/0033-0655(94)85020-8|issn=0300-9440|last1=Östberg|first1=G.|last2=Huldén|first2=M.|last3=Bergenståhl|first3=B.|last4=Holmberg|first4=K.|access-date=2021-05-24|archive-date=2022-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128164423/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0033065594850208?via%3Dihub|url-status=live}} The technology continues to evolve including production of DTM (Direct To Metal) finishes.{{Cite web|title=Fast-Dry DTM Alkyd Emulsion|url=https://www.pcimag.com/articles/103149-fast-dry-dtm-alkyd-emulsion?v=preview|access-date=2021-04-26|website=www.pcimag.com|language=en|archive-date=2021-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426134914/https://www.pcimag.com/articles/103149-fast-dry-dtm-alkyd-emulsion?v=preview|url-status=live}} The biggest issue has been getting VOC content below 250g/L. Poor corrosion resistance has also been an issue. Alkyd emulsion technology uses a reactive surfactant that has double bonds and thus oxidative drying properties like a conventional alkyd. The material is then put under shear and water added slowly. Initially a water in oil emulsion is formed but continued water addition and shear results in inversion and a stable oil in water emulsion is formed.{{Cite web|last=Asian Paints|date=2018-05-24|title=(WO2018092158) Water Borne Alkyd Emulsions for Surface Primer Compositions for architectural interior finishes|url=https://paintsandcoatingsexpert.com/2018/05/24/wo2018092158-water-borne-alkyd-emulsions-for-surface-primer-compositions-for-architectural-interior-finishes/|access-date=2021-04-26|website=Paints and Coatings Expert|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426135234/https://paintsandcoatingsexpert.com/2018/05/24/wo2018092158-water-borne-alkyd-emulsions-for-surface-primer-compositions-for-architectural-interior-finishes/|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|title=RX Series Alkyd Emulsifiers|url=https://ethox.com/rx-series-alkyd-emulsifiers/|access-date=2021-04-26|website=Ethox|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426140405/https://ethox.com/rx-series-alkyd-emulsifiers/|url-status=live}} Sustainability and other market factors mean a number of companies are entering the market.{{Cite web|title=Arkema Expands Manufacturing Of Alkyd Emulsions For Sustainable Formulating|url=https://www.coatingsworld.com/contents/view_breaking-news/2018-10-08/arkema-expands-manufacturing-of-alkyd-emulsions-for-sustainable-formulating/|access-date=2021-04-26|website=Coatings World|archive-date=2021-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426141003/https://www.coatingsworld.com/contents/view_breaking-news/2018-10-08/arkema-expands-manufacturing-of-alkyd-emulsions-for-sustainable-formulating/|url-status=live}} As well as patents, doctoral theses are being done at universities on the subject.{{Cite web|last=Burns|first=Molly Elise|date=August 2016|title=A comparison of solvent and water-borne Alkyd Coatings & The History of VOC Regulation in the United States Master of Science Thesis|url=https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2838&context=theses|url-status=live|website=Faculty of California Polytechnic State University|access-date=2021-04-26|archive-date=2021-04-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425181624/https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2838&context=theses}}

{{main|Polyester resin}}

Saturated polyester resins contain many of the materials used in conventional alkyd resins but without the oil or fatty acid components. Typical components for these resins are poly carboxylic and polyhydroxyl components. The more commonly used polyacids are phthalic, isophthalic, terephthalic and adipic acid. Phthalic and trimellitic anhydrides may also be used. Polyols tend to be neopentyl glycol, 1,6-hexanediol and trimethylolpropane. To make them waterborne organic acids or anhydrides are added in a two-stage process but there are other methods too.{{Cite patent|country=US|number=5218042|title=title=Water-dispersible polyester resins and process for their preparation|pubdate=1993-06-08|inventor1-last=Kuo|inventor1-first=Thauming|inventor2-last=Moody|inventor2-first=Keith M.}}{{Cite patent|country=US|number=8309229|title=Polyester resin and thermosetting water-borne coating compositions|pubdate=2012-11-13|assign=Kansai Paint Co. Ltd. |inventor1-last=Nakahara|inventor1-first=Shuichi|inventor2-last=Harakawa|inventor2-first=Hiromi}}

{{main|Polyurethane dispersion}}

Polyurethanes resins are available waterborne. The single component versions are usually referred to as Polyurethane dispersions (PUD).

They are available in anionic, cationic and nonionic versions though anionic moieties are the most readily available commercially.{{Cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/water-based-polyurethanes-dispersionspuds-an-overview-nikhil-gupta|title=Water Based Polyurethanes Dispersions(PUDs)-An Overview|website=www.linkedin.com|language=en|access-date=2020-03-24|archive-date=2018-11-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181110164711/https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/water-based-polyurethanes-dispersionspuds-an-overview-nikhil-gupta/|url-status=live}} The use of an anionic or cationic center or indeed a hydrophilic non-ionic manufacturing technique tends to result in a permanent inbuilt water resistance weakness. Research is being conducted and techniques developed to combat this weakness.{{Cite journal|last=Xu|first=Liangfeng|date=July 2021|title=CO2 triggered hydrophobic/hydrophilic switchable waterborne polyurethane-acrylate with simultaneously improved water resistance and mechanical properties|journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research|publisher=American Coatings Association|volume=18|issue=4 |pages=989–998|doi=10.1007/s11998-021-00476-y|s2cid=233176697 |issn=1547-0091}} Cationic PUD also introduce hydrophilic components when synthesized, but techniques have and are being researched to improve the performance and water resistance properties by various techniques. This includes introducing star-branched polydimethylsiloxane.{{Cite journal |last1=He |first1=Xiaoling |last2=He |first2=Jingwei |last3=Sun |first3=Yangkun |last4=Zhou |first4=Xiaopei |last5=Zhang |first5=Jingying |last6=Liu |first6=Fang |date=2022-07-01 |title=Preparation and characterization of cationic waterborne polyurethanes containing a star-branched polydimethylsiloxane |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-021-00584-9 |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=1055–1066 |doi=10.1007/s11998-021-00584-9 |s2cid=246946432 |issn=1935-3804}}

Waterborne polyurethanes are also available in 2 component versions.{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Li |last2=Xu |first2=Fei |last3=Li |first3=Hongxin |last4=Liu |first4=Yangyan |last5=Liu |first5=Yali |date=2017-01-01 |title=Preparation and stability of aqueous acrylic polyol dispersions for two-component waterborne polyurethane |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-016-9845-x |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=215–223 |doi=10.1007/s11998-016-9845-x |s2cid=100045366 |issn=1935-3804 |access-date=2023-02-20 |archive-date=2023-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314202639/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11998-016-9845-x |url-status=live }} As a 2 component polyurethane consists of polyol(s) and an isocyanate and isocyanates react with water this requires special formulating and production techniques.{{Cite patent|title=Two-component water-based polyurethane compositions and coatings|pubdate=2012-11-21|country=EP|number=2523987|assign=Pazkar Ltd.|inventor1-last=Nachshon-Galili|inventor1-first=Nitsa|inventor2-last=Sussan|inventor2-first=Reut}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.pcimag.com/articles/99101-the-case-for-two-component-waterborne-polyurethane-coatings|title=The Case for Two-Component Waterborne Polyurethane Coatings|website=www.pcimag.com|language=en|access-date=2020-03-25|archive-date=2020-03-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325165814/https://www.pcimag.com/articles/99101-the-case-for-two-component-waterborne-polyurethane-coatings|url-status=live}} The polyisocyanate that is water-dispersible maybe modified with sulfonate{{Cite journal|last=Peng|first=Zhongkang|date=2020|title=Synthesis and properties of water-dispersible polyisocyanates carrying sulfonate|journal=J. Coat. Technol. Res.|volume=17|issue=2|pages=345–359|doi=10.1007/s11998-019-00277-4|s2cid=207989601 }} for example. PUDs are not usually synthesised with plant based polyols because they don't have other performance enhancing functional groups. Recent work (2021) reports modification to achieve this and enable even greener versions.{{Cite web|title=Biobased Polyol with self-crosslinking functionality|url=https://www.coatingstech-digital.org/coatingstech/january_2022?pg=32|page=32|access-date=2022-01-20|website=www.coatingstech-digital.org|language=en|archive-date=2022-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128164424/https://www.coatingstech-digital.org/coatingstech/january_2022/MobilePagedReplica.action?pg=32|url-status=live}} Work is also ongoing to get the performance of 1 component waterborne polyurethanes to match that of 2 component versions.{{Cite journal|title=1K PUR Dispersion with Comparable Performance to 2K Waterborne Coating|url=https://www.coatingstech-digital.org/coatingstech/february_2019/MobilePagedArticle.action?articleId=1462408|journal=CoatingsTech February 2022|access-date=2022-02-18|language=en}} Self-healing versions of two-component waterborne polyurethanes are being researched.{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Xinmeng |last2=Zhou |first2=Zhongqun |last3=Qin |first3=Liangrong |last4=Yu |first4=Caili |last5=Zhang |first5=Faai |date=2022-05-01 |title=Preparation of PVA/PU/PUA microcapsules and application in self-healing two-component waterborne polyurethane coatings |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-021-00577-8 |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=977–988 |doi=10.1007/s11998-021-00577-8 |s2cid=246752459 |issn=1935-3804}} Research has shown that modification of these resin systems with polyaniline improves a number of properties including corrosion resistance.{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Xianwen |last2=Xu |first2=Xinmeng |last3=Zhang |first3=Faai |date=2023-05-01 |title=Antistatic and antibacterial two-component waterborne polyurethane coating |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-022-00708-9 |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=869–881 |doi=10.1007/s11998-022-00708-9 |s2cid=254625069 |issn=1935-3804}} Higher solid content is also desired for economics of not transporting water.{{Cite journal |last1=Lou |first1=Kunpeng |last2=Li |first2=Siliang |last3=Cao |first3=Yang |last4=Li |first4=Menghang |last5=Zou |first5=Xiaoxuan |last6=Jing |first6=Bo |date=2024-05-01 |title=Preparation of high-solid, low-viscosity waterborne polyurethane: based on multiparticle size composite emulsification |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11998-023-00859-3 |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=907–923 |doi=10.1007/s11998-023-00859-3 |issn=1935-3804}}

Ionic centers are usually introduced with waterborne PUDs, and so the water resistance in the resultant film has been studied. The nature of the polyol and the level of COOH groups and hydrophobic modification with other moieties can improve the hydrophilicity. Polyester polyols give the biggest improvements.{{Cite journal |last1=Song |first1=Sam Cha |last2=Kim |first2=Suk Joon |last3=Park |first3=Kyung-Kyu |last4=Oh |first4=Joong-Geul |last5=Bae |first5=Seong-Guk |last6=Noh |first6=Geon Ho |last7=Lee |first7=Won-Ki |date=2017-12-12 |title=Synthesis and properties of waterborne UV-curable polyurethane acrylates using functional isocyanate |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15421406.2018.1450824 |journal=Molecular Crystals and Liquid Crystals |volume=659 |issue=1 |pages=40–45 |doi=10.1080/15421406.2018.1450824 |bibcode=2017MCLC..659...40S |s2cid=102697178 |issn=1542-1406}}{{Cite journal |last1=Bai |first1=Chen Yan |last2=Zhang |first2=Xing Yuan |last3=Dai |first3=Jia Bing |last4=Zhang |first4=Chu Yin |date=2007-07-02 |title=Water resistance of the membranes for UV curable waterborne polyurethane dispersions |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0300944007001075 |journal=Progress in Organic Coatings |language=en |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=331–336 |doi=10.1016/j.porgcoat.2007.05.003 |issn=0300-9440}} Polycarbonate polyols also enhance properties,{{Cite journal |last1=Ma |first1=Le |last2=Song |first2=Lina |last3=Wang |first3=Heng |last4=Fan |first4=Leiqiao |last5=Liu |first5=Baohua |date=2018-09-01 |title=Synthesis and characterization of poly(propylene carbonate) glycol-based waterborne polyurethane with a high solid content |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0300944017307580 |journal=Progress in Organic Coatings |volume=122 |pages=38–44 |doi=10.1016/j.porgcoat.2018.05.003 |issn=0300-9440}}{{Cite journal |last1=Hwang |first1=Hyeon-Deuk |last2=Park |first2=Cho-Hee |last3=Moon |first3=Je-Ik |last4=Kim |first4=Hyun-Joong |last5=Masubuchi |first5=Tetsuo |date=2011-12-01 |title=UV-curing behavior and physical properties of waterborne UV-curable polycarbonate-based polyurethane dispersion |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030094401100227X |journal=Progress in Organic Coatings |language=en |volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=663–675 |doi=10.1016/j.porgcoat.2011.07.009 |issn=0300-9440}} especially if the polycarbonate is also fluorinated.{{Cite journal |last1=Hwang |first1=Hyeon-Deuk |last2=Kim |first2=Hyun-Joong |date=2011-10-15 |title=UV-curable low surface energy fluorinated polycarbonate-based polyurethane dispersion |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021979711007788 |journal=Journal of Colloid and Interface Science |language=en |volume=362 |issue=2 |pages=274–284 |doi=10.1016/j.jcis.2011.06.044 |pmid=21788027 |bibcode=2011JCIS..362..274H |issn=0021-9797}}

Silicone modification of the resin makes the species much more hydrophobic and water resistant.{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Dinglun |last2=Liu |first2=Jin |last3=Li |first3=Zhen |last4=Shen |first4=Yun |last5=Wang |first5=Ping |last6=Wang |first6=Di |last7=Wang |first7=Xianbiao |last8=Hu |first8=Xianhai |date=2021-11-01 |title=Preparation and properties of UV-curable waterborne silicon-containing polyurethane acrylate emulsion |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030094402100374X |journal=Progress in Organic Coatings |language=en |volume=160 |pages=106503 |doi=10.1016/j.porgcoat.2021.106503 |s2cid=240504048 |issn=0300-9440}}{{Cite journal |last1=Bai |first1=Chenyan |last2=Zhang |first2=Xingyuan |last3=Dai |first3=Jiabing |date=2007-08-01 |title=Synthesis and characterization of PDMS modified UV-curable waterborne polyurethane dispersions for soft tact layers |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0300944007001476 |journal=Progress in Organic Coatings |language=en |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=63–68 |doi=10.1016/j.porgcoat.2007.07.003 |issn=0300-9440}}{{Cite journal |last1=Hong |first1=Chengqi |last2=Zhou |first2=Xing |last3=Ye |first3=Yuanchao |last4=Li |first4=Wenbo |date=2021-07-01 |title=Synthesis and characterization of UV-curable waterborne Polyurethane–acrylate modified with hydroxyl-terminated polydimethylsiloxane: UV-cured film with excellent water resistance |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0300944021001223 |journal=Progress in Organic Coatings |language=en |volume=156 |pages=106251 |doi=10.1016/j.porgcoat.2021.106251 |s2cid=233549036 |issn=0300-9440}}

As the world attempts to move towards a low-carbon economy, carbon capture by using carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is gaining attention and research being done. Using carbon dioxide in PUD production is being researched.{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Jin |last2=Zhang |first2=Hongming |last3=Miao |first3=Yuyang |last4=Qiao |first4=Lijun |last5=Wang |first5=Xianhong |last6=Wang |first6=Fosong |date=2016-09-25 |title=UV-curable waterborne polyurethane from CO2-polyol with high hydrolysis resistance |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032386116307054 |journal=Polymer |language=en |volume=100 |pages=219–226 |doi=10.1016/j.polymer.2016.08.039 |issn=0032-3861}}

{{main|Latex}}

A latex is a stable dispersion (emulsion) of polymer in water. Synthetic lattices are usually made by polymerizing a monomer such as vinyl acetate that has been emulsified with surfactants dispersed in water.{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/latex|title=Definition of LATEX|website=www.merriam-webster.com|language=en|access-date=2020-03-25|archive-date=2020-03-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325185510/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/latex|url-status=live}} The overall technique is called Emulsion polymerization. Other techniques including inversion from water in oil to oil in water emulsions are available.{{Cite journal |last1=Bartoň |first1=Jaroslav |last2=Sarov |first2=Yanko |last3=Capek |first3=Ignác |date=2006-01-01 |title=Polymerization of vinyl monomers in separated Winsor II (w/o) and Winsor I (o/w) microemulsion phases. Part 1: preparation and characterization of polymerizable vinyl-monomer-containing microemulsions |url=https://doi.org/10.1163/156855506776382682 |journal=Designed Monomers and Polymers |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=153–168 |doi=10.1163/156855506776382682|s2cid=98198031 }} Particular emphasis in recent years has been the production of self-crosslinking versions especially acrylic emulsions. As an example, these may be produced by modifying with divinyl silane.{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Xiaolong |last2=Cao |first2=Shusen |last3=Zhao |first3=Wangting |last4=Chen |first4=Lijun |date=2022-05-01 |title=Preparation and characterization of self-crosslinking acrylate emulsion modified by divinyl silane |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-021-00566-x |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=887–895 |doi=10.1007/s11998-021-00566-x |s2cid=245964323 |issn=1935-3804}} Some examples include vinyl acetate based latices, acrylics and styrene-butadiene versions. They may be used to produce waterborne direct to metal coatings.{{Cite web |title=Waterborne Direct to metal coatings:Enduring solutions in corrosion protection |url=https://www.coatingstech-digital.org/coatingstech/library/page/july_2022/17/ |access-date=2022-07-21 |website=www.coatingstech-digital.org |language=en}} Waterborne acrylic resins are also used frequently in water-based paints.{{Ullmann | last1 = Stoye | first1 = D. | last2 = Funke | first2 = W. | last3 = Hoppe | first3 = L. | last4 = Hasselkus | first4 = J. R. | last5 = Curtis | first5 = L. G. | last6 = Hoehne | first6 = K. | last7 = Zech | first7 = H. J. | last8 = Heiling | first8 = P. | last9 = Yamabe | first9 = M. | last10 = Dören | first10 = K. | last11 = Schupp | first11 = H. | last12 = Küchenmeister | first12 = R. | last13 = Schmitthenner | first13 = M. | last14 = Kremer | first14 = W. | last15 = Wieczorrek | first15 = W. | last16 = Gempeler | first16 = H. | last17 = Schneider | first17 = W. | last18 = White | first18 = J. W. | last19 = Short | first19 = A. G. | last20 = Blank | first20 = W. J. | last21 = Calbo | first21 = L. J. | last22 = Plath | first22 = D. | last23 = Wagner | first23 = F. | last24 = Haller | first24 = W. | last25 = Rödder | first25 = K. M. | last26 = Streitberger | first26 = H. J. | last27 = Urbano | first27 = E. | last28 = Laible | first28 = R. | last29 = Meyer | first29 = B. D. | last30 = Bagda | first30 = E. | year = 2006 | pmid = | pmc = | doi = 10.1002/14356007.a18_359.pub2 | isbn = 3527306730 | title= Paints and Coatings | display-authors = 3 }}

Acrylic latices prepared by emulsion polymerization are often improved by copolymerizing other functional monomers.{{Cite journal |last1=Geurts |first1=J. |last2=Bouman |first2=J. |last3=Overbeek |first3=A. |date=2008-03-01 |title=New waterborne acrylic binders for zero VOC paints |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-007-9036-x |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=57–63 |doi=10.1007/s11998-007-9036-x |s2cid=137589975 |issn=1935-3804 |access-date=2023-03-14}} Glycidyl methacrylate is one such monomer used which then incorporates oxirane functionality into the polymer. This would then improve the properties (such as scrub resistance) of the paint formulated from this resin. DMAEMA (dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate) is another such species.{{Cite journal |last1=Akbulut |first1=Gokhan |last2=Bulbul Sonmez |first2=Hayal |date=2022-09-01 |title=Synthesis of styrene and n-butyl acrylate latex polymers modified by functional monomers and their waterborne paint applications |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-022-00616-y |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=1421–1435 |doi=10.1007/s11998-022-00616-y |s2cid=248837079 |issn=1935-3804}} Other innovative techniques for improving acrylic latices include incorporating a biocide with acrylic functionality as the modifying monomer. This allows the binder for a waterborne paint to be inherently anti-biocidal.{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Xiaopei |last2=Liu |first2=Fang |last3=Xiong |first3=Shaobo |last4=Zhou |first4=Furong |last5=Xiang |first5=Hui |last6=He |first6=Jingwei |date=2022-09-01 |title=Preparation and properties of antibacterial styrene-acrylic emulsion containing thiazole structure and its application as coating |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-021-00589-4 |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=1365–1379 |doi=10.1007/s11998-021-00589-4 |s2cid=249650102 |issn=1935-3804}} Techniques exist to speed up the cure of waterborne acrylics.{{Cite journal |last1=Decker |first1=C. |last2=Masson |first2=F. |last3=Schwalm |first3=R. |date=2004-04-01 |title=How to speed up the UV curing of water-based acrylic coatings |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-004-0007-1 |journal=JCT Research |language=en |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=127–136 |doi=10.1007/s11998-004-0007-1 |s2cid=97686666 |issn=1935-3804}} Waterborne acrylic latices and polyurethane acrylates that are UV curable have also been produced.{{Cite journal |last1=Decker |first1=C. |last2=Lorinczova |first2=I. |date=2004-10-01 |title=UV-Radiation curing of waterborne acrylate coatings |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-004-0027-x |journal=JCT Research |language=en |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=247–256 |doi=10.1007/s11998-004-0027-x |s2cid=95089921 |issn=1935-3804}}

Polymeric and oligomeric aziridines are one of the moieties used to crosslink waterborne resins. They usually react with the carboxyl groups present on these species. Potlife is usually improved along with other properties.{{Cite journal |last1=Bückmann |first1=A. J. P. |last2=Chen |first2=Q. |last3=Overbeek |first3=G. C. |last4=Stals |first4=P. J. M. |last5=van der Zwaag |first5=D. |date=2022-09-01 |title=Polymeric aziridines as benign crosslinkers for water-based coating applications |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=1345–1355 |doi=10.1007/s11998-022-00626-w |s2cid=250181669 |issn=1935-3804|doi-access=free }}

{{Quote box

|title = IUPAC definition of Emulsion Polymerization

|quote = Emulsion polymerization: Polymerization whereby monomer(s), initiator, dispersion
medium, and possibly colloid stabilizer constitute initially an inhomogeneous system
resulting in particles of colloidal dimensions containing the formed polymer.

Note: With the exception of mini-emulsion polymerization, the term “emulsion polymerization”
does not mean that polymerization occurs in the droplets of a monomer emulsion.{{cite journal|title=Terminology of polymers and polymerization processes in dispersed systems (IUPAC Recommendations 2011)|journal=Pure and Applied Chemistry|year=2011|volume=83|issue=12|pages=2229–2259|doi=10.1351/PAC-REC-10-06-03|url=http://pac.iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/2011/pdf/8312x2229.pdf|last1=Slomkowski|first1=Stanislaw|last2=Alemán|first2=José V.|last3=Gilbert|first3=Robert G.|last4=Hess|first4=Michael|last5=Horie|first5=Kazuyuki|last6=Jones|first6=Richard G.|last7=Kubisa|first7=Przemyslaw|last8=Meisel|first8=Ingrid|last9=Mormann|first9=Werner|last10=Penczek|first10=Stanisław|last11=Stepto|first11=Robert F. T.|s2cid=96812603|access-date=2022-07-21|archive-date=2013-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020164408/http://pac.iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/2011/pdf/8312x2229.pdf|url-status=dead}}

Batch emulsion polymerization: Emulsion polymerization in which all the ingredients are
placed in a reactor prior to reaction.{{cite journal|title=Terminology of polymers and polymerization processes in dispersed systems (IUPAC Recommendations 2011)|journal=Pure and Applied Chemistry|year=2011|volume=83|issue=12|pages=2229–2259|doi=10.1351/PAC-REC-10-06-03|url=http://pac.iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/2011/pdf/8312x2229.pdf|last1=Slomkowski|first1=Stanislaw|last2=Alemán|first2=José V.|last3=Gilbert|first3=Robert G.|last4=Hess|first4=Michael|last5=Horie|first5=Kazuyuki|last6=Jones|first6=Richard G.|last7=Kubisa|first7=Przemyslaw|last8=Meisel|first8=Ingrid|last9=Mormann|first9=Werner|last10=Penczek|first10=Stanisław|last11=Stepto|first11=Robert F. T.|s2cid=96812603|access-date=2022-07-21|archive-date=2013-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020164408/http://pac.iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/2011/pdf/8312x2229.pdf|url-status=dead}}

}}

see article Electrophoretic deposition

File:EDP painting.png

The resins used for electrodeposition are usually epoxy, acrylic or phenolic resin types. They are formulated with functional groups which when neutralised form ionic groups on the polymer backbone. These confer water solubility on the polymer. They are available as anodic versions which deposit on the cathode of an electrochemical cell or cathodic which deposit on the cathode.{{Cite journal|last=Sato|first=Toshihiko|date=1982-01-01|title=Mechanism of Electrophoretic Deposition of Organic Coatings on Anodized Aluminium|journal=Transactions of the IMF|volume=60|issue=1|pages=25–30|doi=10.1080/00202967.1982.11870598|issn=0020-2967}} Cathodic electrodeposition resins dominate and they have revolutionised corrosion protection in the automotive industry. Ceramics as well as metals may be coated this way.{{Cite journal |last=Zhitomirsky |first=I. |date=2002-03-29 |title=Cathodic electrodeposition of ceramic and organoceramic materials. Fundamental aspects |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001868601000689 |journal=Advances in Colloid and Interface Science |language=en |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=279–317 |doi=10.1016/S0001-8686(01)00068-9 |pmid=12027023 |issn=0001-8686}} They are applied as OEM (Original Equipment Manufacture) rather than as a refinishing system. Cathodic resins contain amines on the polymer backbone which are neutralized by acids groups such as acetic acid to give a stable aqueous dispersion. When an electric current is passed through a car body that is dipped in a bath containing a paint based on a cathodic electrodeposition resin, the hydroxyl ions formed near the cathode deposit the paint on the car body. The electric current needed for this is determined by the number of ionic centers.

Dispersions of waterborne resins for electrocoating usually contain some co-solvents such as butyl glycol and isopropanol and are usually very low in solids content i.e. 15%. They usually have molecular weights in the region of 3000–4000. Paints based on them tend to have PVCs of less than 10 i.e. a very high binder to pigment ratio.

Cathodic electrophoretic deposition coatings can be made that are self-healing even at room temperature. The base polymer used for this synthesis is, a waterborne Polyurethane Dispersion (PUD) that is cationic rather than anionic.{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Yingyu |last2=He |first2=Jingwei |last3=Luo |first3=Hongfeng |last4=He |first4=Xiaoling |last5=Liu |first5=Fang |date=2022-09-01 |title=Synthesis and property of room-temperature self-healable cathodic electrophoretic deposition coatings based on cationic waterborne polyurethane |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-022-00634-w |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=1621–1633 |doi=10.1007/s11998-022-00634-w |s2cid=250120281 |issn=1935-3804}}

Many resins are available waterborne but can be hybrids or blends. An example would be polyurethane dispersions blended or hybridized with acrylic resins,{{Cite web |last=Tyre |first=C. Ivan |title=Utilization of Polyurethane-Acrylic blends to achieve optimum performance in 1K Water-Based Wood floor coating |url=https://www.paint.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Utilization-of-Polyurethane-Acrylic-Blends-to-Achieve-Optimum-Performance-in-a-1K-Water-Based-Wood-Floor-Coating.pdf |website=American Coatings Association |pages=60–64 |publication-date=May 2008}}{{Cite web|url=https://insights.basf.com/home|title=BASF Insights {{!}} Where business meets science|website=insights.basf.com|access-date=2020-03-31|archive-date=2020-03-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200331074555/https://insights.basf.com/home|url-status=live}} which are commonly used in automotive paint. Such systems can be made by using acrylic monomers and a polyurethane dispersion which will polymerise simultaneously to give an interpenetrating polymer network, without the need for NMP as a cosolvent. This combines the lower cost of acrylic with the high performance of a polyurethane.{{Cite web |title=Coatings World - April 2022 - page34 |url=https://coatingsworld.texterity.com/coatingsworld/april_2022?pg=34 |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=coatingsworld.texterity.com |language=en}} Waterborne epoxy resins may be modified with acrylate and then further modified with side chains having many fluorine atoms on them.{{Cite journal|last=Shi|first=Hongyi|date=2020|title=Waterborne epoxy resins modified by reactive polyacrylate modifier with fluorinated side chains|journal=J. Coat. Technol. Res.|volume=17|issue=2|pages=427–437|doi=10.1007/s11998-019-00288-1|s2cid=209392485 }} Waterborne resins are also available that use both water and renewable raw materials.{{Cite web|title=CoatingsTech - May 2020 - page20|url=http://www.coatingstech-digital.org/coatingstech/may_2020?pg=20|website=www.coatingstech-digital.org|language=en|access-date=2020-05-14|archive-date=2022-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128164510/https://www.coatingstech-digital.org/coatingstech/may_2020/MobilePagedReplica.action?pg=20|url-status=live}} Another example is to combine alkyd resins with acrylics to make them waterborne. Using hyperbranched alkyds and modifying them with acrylic monomers and using mini emulsion polymerization, suitable hybrids maybe formed.{{Cite journal|last=Murillo, Percino and Lopez|date=September 2019|title=Colloidal, morphological, thermal, rheological and film properties of waterborne hyperbranched alkyd-acrylic resins|journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research|volume=16|issue=5|pages=1223–1232|doi=10.1007/s11998-019-00205-6|s2cid=149769647 }} As well as hybridization of the resins, a combination of techniques maybe employed. As an example, ultraviolet curing coatings that can be electrodeposited and are waterborne hybrids of epoxy and acrylic resins maybe produced.{{Cite journal|last=Chen, Yuan, Tu, Peng, Hu and Wang|date=September 2019|title=Electrophoretic deposition of waterborne ultraviolet (UV)-curable coatings based on microgels|journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research|volume=16|issue=5|pages=1367–1378|doi=10.1007/s11998-019-00219-0|s2cid=189973324 }}{{Cite journal|last=Shi, Liu, Liu, He, Jang and Wang|date=September 2019|title=UV-curable waterborne epoxy acrylate coating modified by monomethacryloyloxy-terminated fluorinated oligomer|journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research|volume=16|issue=5|pages=1305–1316|doi=10.1007/s11998-019-00209-2|s2cid=150036770 }}

Hybrid resins include among others, PUDs that are both waterborne and UV curable. They are being researched and many papers published.{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Zhenglong |last2=Wicks |first2=Douglas A. |last3=Yuan |first3=Junjie |last4=Pu |first4=Hongting |last5=Liu |first5=Yongsheng |date=2010-03-24 |title=Newly UV-curable polyurethane coatings prepared by multifunctional thiol- and ene-terminated polyurethane aqueous dispersions: Photopolymerization properties |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032386110001229 |journal=Polymer |language=en |volume=51 |issue=7 |pages=1572–1577 |doi=10.1016/j.polymer.2010.02.003 |issn=0032-3861}}{{Cite journal |last1=Yuan |first1=Caideng |last2=Wang |first2=Mengyao |last3=Li |first3=Haitao |last4=Wang |first4=Zhongwei |date=2017-09-10 |title=Preparation and properties of UV-curable waterborne polyurethane-acrylate emulsion: ARTICLE |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/app.45208 |journal=Journal of Applied Polymer Science |language=en |volume=134 |issue=34 |pages=45208 |doi=10.1002/app.45208}}{{Cite journal |last1=Song |first1=Sam Cha |last2=Kim |first2=Suk Joon |last3=Park |first3=Kyung-Kyu |last4=Oh |first4=Joong-Geul |last5=Bae |first5=Seong-Guk |last6=Noh |first6=Geon Ho |last7=Lee |first7=Won-Ki |date=2017-12-12 |title=Synthesis and properties of waterborne UV-curable polyurethane acrylates using functional isocyanate |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15421406.2018.1450824 |journal=Molecular Crystals and Liquid Crystals |volume=659 |issue=1 |pages=40–45 |doi=10.1080/15421406.2018.1450824 |bibcode=2017MCLC..659...40S |s2cid=102697178 |issn=1542-1406}}{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Heping |last2=Qiu |first2=Fengxian |last3=Wang |first3=Yingying |last4=Wu |first4=Wenling |last5=Yang |first5=Dongya |last6=Guo |first6=Qing |date=2012-01-01 |title=UV-curable waterborne polyurethane-acrylate: preparation, characterization and properties |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0300944011002505 |journal=Progress in Organic Coatings |language=en |volume=73 |issue=1 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.porgcoat.2011.08.019 |issn=0300-9440}}{{Cite journal |last1=Llorente |first1=O. |last2=Fernández-Berridi |first2=M. J. |last3=González |first3=A. |last4=Irusta |first4=L. |date=2016-10-01 |title=Study of the crosslinking process of waterborne UV curable polyurethane acrylates |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0300944016302843 |journal=Progress in Organic Coatings |language=en |volume=99 |pages=437–442 |doi=10.1016/j.porgcoat.2016.06.020 |issn=0300-9440}}{{Cite journal |last1=Dall Agnol |first1=Lucas |last2=Dias |first2=Fernanda Trindade Gonzalez |last3=Ornaghi |first3=Heitor Luiz |last4=Sangermano |first4=Marco |last5=Bianchi |first5=Otávio |date=2021-05-01 |title=UV-curable waterborne polyurethane coatings: A state-of-the-art and recent advances review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0300944021000266 |journal=Progress in Organic Coatings |language=en |volume=154 |pages=106156 |doi=10.1016/j.porgcoat.2021.106156 |s2cid=233544254 |issn=0300-9440}} PUD- acrylics using epoxidized soybean oil have been produced that are UV curable.{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Xiu |last2=Wang |first2=Di |last3=Zhao |first3=Longying |last4=Hou |first4=Xingzhou |last5=Liu |first5=Li |last6=Feng |first6=Bin |last7=Li |first7=Mengxin |last8=Zheng |first8=Pai |last9=Zhao |first9=Xuan |last10=Wei |first10=Shuangying |date=2021-02-01 |title=UV LED curable epoxy soybean-oil-based waterborne PUA resin for wood coatings |journal=Progress in Organic Coatings |language=en |volume=151 |pages=105942 |doi=10.1016/j.porgcoat.2020.105942 |s2cid=225111943 |issn=0300-9440|doi-access=free }} The structure and type of acrylate will affect the properties.{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmed |first1=Aziz |last2=Sarkar |first2=Preetom |last3=Ahmad |first3=Imtiaz |last4=Das |first4=Neeladri |last5=Bhowmick |first5=Anil K. |date=2015-01-14 |title=Influence of the Nature of Acrylates on the Reactivity, Structure, and Properties of Polyurethane Acrylates |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ie502953u |journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research |language=en |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=47–54 |doi=10.1021/ie502953u |issn=0888-5885}} Hybrid resins used in coatings that are vegetable based, waterborne and UV curable are considered very green and have also been investigated.{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Chunhong |last2=Xiao |first2=Hang |last3=Wang |first3=Xianfeng |last4=Zhao |first4=Tao |date=2018-04-10 |title=Development of green waterborne UV-curable vegetable oil-based urethane acrylate pigment prints adhesive: Preparation and application |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652618302154 |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |language=en |volume=180 |pages=272–279 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.01.193 |bibcode=2018JCPro.180..272L |issn=0959-6526}}{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Kaibin |last2=Shen |first2=Yiding |last3=Fei |first3=Guiqiang |last4=Wang |first4=Haihua |last5=Li |first5=Jingyi |date=2015-01-01 |title=Preparation and properties of castor oil/pentaerythritol triacrylate-based UV curable waterborne polyurethane acrylate |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0300944014003208 |journal=Progress in Organic Coatings |language=en |volume=78 |pages=146–154 |doi=10.1016/j.porgcoat.2014.09.012 |issn=0300-9440}} Similarly, UV-curable waterborne fluorinated polyurethane-acrylate resins can be designed and used in coatings.{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Jicheng |last2=Jiang |first2=Yan |last3=Zhang |first3=Tao |last4=Dai |first4=Yuting |last5=Yang |first5=Dongya |last6=Qiu |first6=Fengxian |last7=Yu |first7=Zongping |last8=Yang |first8=Pengfei |date=2018-05-01 |title=Fabrication of UV-curable waterborne fluorinated polyurethane-acrylate and its application for simulated iron cultural relic protection |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-017-0009-4 |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=535–541 |doi=10.1007/s11998-017-0009-4 |s2cid=102688999 |issn=1935-3804}} As well as acrylic PUD hybridization, further modification with silane monomers can be undertaken.{{Cite journal |last1=Javaheriannaghash |first1=Hamid |last2=Ghazavi |first2=Nasrin |date=2012-05-01 |title=Preparation and characterization of water-based polyurethane–acrylic hybrid nanocomposite emulsion based on a new silane-containing acrylic macromonomer |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-011-9373-7 |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=323–336 |doi=10.1007/s11998-011-9373-7 |s2cid=97951035 |issn=1935-3804 |access-date=2023-03-09 |archive-date=2023-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314202624/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11998-011-9373-7 |url-status=live }}

Other examples of hybridization include modifying waterborne epoxy with latex dispersions. The latex-modified epoxy aqueous dispersions are treated by evaporation techniques. Nitrile latices were used in the study.{{Cite journal |last1=Phillips |first1=Sidney L. |last2=Troy Davis |first2=M. |last3=Phillips |first3=Daniel J. |date=2004-10-01 |title=Mass transport mechanism for the formation of latex-modified epoxy coatings by evaporation from aqueous dispersions |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-004-0033-z |journal=JCT Research |language=en |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=315–327 |doi=10.1007/s11998-004-0033-z |s2cid=98657583 |issn=1935-3804}}

Modification of soybean oil that has been epoxidized and then reacted with acrylic acid will produce waterborne epoxy acrylates that are also based on some renewable content. The corrosion resistance properties are improved using this technique.{{Cite journal |last1=Pradhan |first1=Sukanya |last2=Mohanty |first2=Smita |last3=Nayak |first3=Sanjay K. |date=2018-05-01 |title=Effect of acrylation on the properties of waterborne epoxy: evaluation of physicochemical, thermal, mechanical and morphological properties |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-017-0006-7 |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=515–526 |doi=10.1007/s11998-017-0006-7 |s2cid=139477266 |issn=1935-3804}}

Alkyds can likewise be hybridised and made water reducible. This may be achieved by acrylic modification.{{Cite journal |last1=Büyükyonga |first1=Özge Naz |last2=Akgün |first2=Nagihan |last3=Acar |first3=Işıl |last4=Güçlü |first4=Gamze |date=2017-01-01 |title=Synthesis of four-component acrylic-modified water-reducible alkyd resin: investigation of dilution ratio effect on film properties and thermal behaviors |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-016-9835-z |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=117–128 |doi=10.1007/s11998-016-9835-z |s2cid=99743427 |issn=1935-3804}} Waterborne epoxy resins may also be acrylated and hybridized and much research has gone into these systems.{{Cite journal |last1=Yu |first1=Jianfeng |last2=Pan |first2=Hongxia |last3=Zhou |first3=Xiaodong |date=2014-05-01 |title=Preparation of waterborne phosphated acrylate–epoxy hybrid dispersions and their application as coil coating primer |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-013-9556-5 |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=361–369 |doi=10.1007/s11998-013-9556-5 |s2cid=95541611 |issn=1935-3804 |access-date=2023-03-08 |archive-date=2023-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314202633/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11998-013-9556-5 |url-status=live }}{{Cite journal |last1=Zhu |first1=Ke |last2=Li |first2=Xiaorui |last3=Li |first3=Jingyi |last4=Wang |first4=Haihua |last5=Fei |first5=Guiqiang |date=2017-11-01 |title=Properties and anticorrosion application of acrylic ester/epoxy core–shell emulsions: effects of epoxy value and crosslinking monomer |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-017-9930-9 |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=1315–1324 |doi=10.1007/s11998-017-9930-9 |s2cid=103886023 |issn=1935-3804 |access-date=2023-02-20 |archive-date=2023-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314202624/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11998-017-9930-9 |url-status=live }}{{Cite journal |last=Nichols |first=Mark |date=2014-03-01 |title=Waterborne coatings: continuing innovations |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=109 |doi=10.1007/s11998-014-9574-y |s2cid=136553869 |issn=1935-3804 |doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Xie |first1=Andong |last2=Chen |first2=Hongxiang |last3=Xu |first3=Caixia |last4=Chen |first4=Hailun |last5=Zhou |first5=Yu |last6=Lin |first6=Yinli |last7=Yang |first7=Minghua |date=2015-03-01 |title=Synthesis and characterization of waterborne polyurethane thickeners based on hyperbranched polyester |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-014-9636-1 |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=325–332 |doi=10.1007/s11998-014-9636-1 |s2cid=95395939 |issn=1935-3804 |access-date=2023-03-08 |archive-date=2023-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314203210/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11998-014-9636-1 |url-status=live }} Research is also taking place using waterborne alkyd resins hybridized with styrene-acrylic emulsions. These then find use in waterborne exterior decorative and architectural paints.{{Cite journal |last1=Kartaloğlu |first1=Nurullah |last2=Akçin |first2=Suna Elif |last3=Eren |first3=Mesut |last4=Delibaş |first4=Ali |date=2023-09-01 |title=Waterborne hybrid (alkyd/styrene acrylic) emulsion polymers and exterior paint applications |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-023-00767-6 |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=1621–1637 |doi=10.1007/s11998-023-00767-6 |issn=1935-3804}}

High bio-based content or renewability of materials is highly prized as there is a trend in some parts of the world to a low-carbon economy.{{Cite journal |last1=Patil |first1=Deepak M. |last2=Phalak |first2=Ganesh A. |last3=Mhaske |first3=S. T. |date=2017-03-01 |title=Synthesis of bio-based epoxy resin from gallic acid with various epoxy equivalent weights and its effects on coating properties |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-016-9853-x |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=355–365 |doi=10.1007/s11998-016-9853-x |s2cid=100338583 |issn=1935-3804}} Waterborne resins are already perceived as environmentally friendly but work is ongoing to improve this further by using non-petroleum based raw materials where possible.{{Cite journal |last1=Dai |first1=Jinyue |last2=Ma |first2=Songqi |last3=Wu |first3=Yonggang |last4=Zhu |first4=Jin |last5=Liu |first5=Xiaoqing |date=2015-10-01 |title=High bio-based content waterborne UV-curable coatings with excellent adhesion and flexibility |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030094401500168X |journal=Progress in Organic Coatings |language=en |volume=87 |pages=197–203 |doi=10.1016/j.porgcoat.2015.05.030 |issn=0300-9440}} Waterborne epoxies are one such area of research.{{Cite journal |last1=Pradhan |first1=Sukanya |last2=Pandey |first2=Priyanka |last3=Mohanty |first3=Smita |last4=Nayak |first4=Sanjay K. |date=2017-07-01 |title=Synthesis and characterization of waterborne epoxy derived from epoxidized soybean oil and bioderived C-36 dicarboxylic acid |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-016-9884-3 |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=915–926 |doi=10.1007/s11998-016-9884-3 |s2cid=99038923 |issn=1935-3804}} Since waterborne resins are usually considered green and environmentally friendly, techniques are being researched that include capturing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to make the raw materials and then further synthesis.{{Cite journal |last1=Ding |first1=Zhu |last2=Chen |first2=Jiahui |last3=He |first3=Zonglin |last4=Wang |first4=Chaozhi |last5=Li |first5=Hualin |last6=Huang |first6=Zhenhong |last7=Liu |first7=Baohua |last8=Song |first8=Lina |date=2023-09-01 |title=Two-component UV-curable waterborne CO2-based polyurethane dispersion with outstanding flexibility |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-023-00763-w |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=1569–1578 |doi=10.1007/s11998-023-00763-w |issn=1935-3804}}

{{main article|Water}}

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| image1 = Water_drop_001.jpg

| caption1 = A globule of liquid water, and the concave depression and rebound in water caused by something dropping through the water surface

| image2 = Ice Block, Canal Park, Duluth (32752478892).jpg

| caption2 = A block of solid water (ice)

| image3 = Monterrey Mexico Clouds.jpg

| caption3 = Clouds in Earth's atmosphere condense from gaseous water vapor.

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Water is in some ways an unusual chemical. It is a very powerful and universal solvent. Most liquids decrease in volume on freezing, but water expands. It occurs naturally on earth in all three states of solid (ice), liquid (water) and gas(water vapour and steam). At 273.16 K or 0.16 °C (known as the triple point) it can coexist in all three states simultaneously. It has a very low molecular weight of 18 and yet a relatively high boiling point of 100 ⁰ C. This is due to inter molecular forces and in particular hydrogen bonding. The surface tension is also high at 72 dynes/cm (mN/metre) which affects its ability to wet certain surfaces. It evaporates (latent heat of evaporation 2260 kJ per kg) very slowly in comparison to some solvents and hardly at all when the relative humidity is very high. It has a very high specific heat capacity (4.184 kJ/kg/K ) and that is why it is used in central heating systems in the United Kingdom and Europe. These factors have to be borne in mind when formulating waterborne resins and other water based systems such as adhesives and coatings.{{cite book|last=Franks|first=Felix |title=The Physics and Physical Chemistry of Water|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5f_xBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA376|year=2012|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4684-8334-5}}{{cite book|last=Lide|first=David R. |title=CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WDll8hA006AC&pg=SA6-15|edition=85th|year=2004|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-8493-0485-9}}

Waterborne resins find use in Coatings, Adhesives, Sealants and Elastomers and other applications. Specifically they find use in textile coatings,{{Cite journal |last1=Sultan |first1=Misbah |last2=Islam |first2=Atif |last3=Gull |first3=Nafisa |last4=Bhatti |first4=Haq Nawaz |last5=Safa |first5=Yusra |date=2015-03-20 |title=Structural variation in soft segment of waterborne polyurethane acrylate nanoemulsions |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/app.41706 |journal=Journal of Applied Polymer Science |language=en |volume=132 |issue=12 |doi=10.1002/app.41706 |issn=0021-8995}} industrial coatings,{{Cite web|url=http://wernerblank.com/pdfiles/paper12b.pdf|title=Formulating Polyurethane Dispersions|last=Blank|first=Werner|access-date=2020-03-19|archive-date=2017-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828235238/http://www.wernerblank.com/pdfiles/paper12b.pdf|url-status=live}} UV coatings,{{Cite journal|last1=Asif|first1=Anila|last2=Huang|first2=Chengyu|last3=Shi|first3=Wenfang|date=2003|title=UV curing behaviors and hydrophilic characteristics of UV curable waterborne hyperbranched aliphatic polyesters|journal=Polymers for Advanced Technologies|language=en|volume=14|issue=9|pages=609–615|doi=10.1002/pat.380|issn=1099-1581}} floor coatings,{{cite web|url=https://www.pharosproject.net/uploads/files/sources/1828/1332269830.pdf|title=Floor Coatings with PUD|access-date=2020-03-19|archive-date=2018-11-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181101140128/https://www.pharosproject.net/uploads/files/sources/1828/1332269830.pdf|url-status=live}} hygiene coatings,{{cite journal|last1=Howarth|first1=G A|last2=Manock|first2=H L|date=July 1997|title=Water-borne polyurethane dispersions and their use in functional coatings|journal=Surface Coatings International|volume=80|issue=7|pages=324–328|doi=10.1007/bf02692680|s2cid=137433262 |issn=1356-0751}} wood coatings,{{cite web|url=https://www.pharosproject.net/uploads/files/sources/1828/1332269830.pdf|title=Waterborne Floor Coatings for Wood Floors|access-date=2020-03-19|archive-date=2018-11-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181101140128/https://www.pharosproject.net/uploads/files/sources/1828/1332269830.pdf|url-status=live}} adhesives,{{Cite web|url=https://www.dispersions-pigments.basf.com/portal/basf/ien/dt.jsp?setCursor=1_736943|title=PUD - Polymers - Adhesive Raw Materials - Adhesives - Markets & Industries - BASF Dispersions & Pigments|website=www.dispersions-pigments.basf.com|access-date=2019-04-11|archive-date=2020-03-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319161817/https://www.dispersions-pigments.basf.com/portal/basf/ien/dt.jsp%3FsetCursor%3D1_736943|url-status=live}} concrete coatings,{{cite journal|doi = 10.1007/BF02699621|title = Polyurethanes, polyurethane dispersions and polyureas: Past, present and future|journal = Surface Coatings International Part B: Coatings Transactions|volume = 86|issue = 2|pages = 111–118|year = 2003|last1 = Howarth|first1 = GA| s2cid=93574741 }} automotive coatings,{{Cite patent|title=Waterborne coating compositions for automotive applications|country=US|number=5071904|pubdate=1991-12-10|assign=PPG Industries Inc.|inventor1-last=Martin|inventor1-first=Roxalana L.|inventor2-last=Piccirilli|inventor2-first=Barbara G.|inventor3-last=Faler|inventor3-first=Dennis L.}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.coatings.covestro.com/en/Applications/Automotive-Transportation/OEM-Metal/Metal-basecoat|title=Automotive OEM Metal Metal Basecoat|last=Communications|first=Covestro AG|website=www.coatings.covestro.com|language=en|access-date=2019-04-22|archive-date=2019-04-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422203050/https://www.coatings.covestro.com/en/Applications/Automotive-Transportation/OEM-Metal/Metal-basecoat|url-status=live}} clear coatings{{Cite web|url=https://www.polygem.com/products/ureseal-water-based-high-gloss-polyurethane-coating|title=URESEAL - Water-Based High-Gloss Polyurethane Coating {{!}} Polygem Epoxy|website=www.polygem.com|access-date=2019-04-26|archive-date=2019-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190426125831/https://www.polygem.com/products/ureseal-water-based-high-gloss-polyurethane-coating|url-status=live}} and anticorrosive applications including waterborne epoxy based anticorrosive primersHowarth  G.A. “Waterborne epoxy resin systems for use in anti-corrosive primers” Pigment and Resin Technology Vol. 24 No 6 Nov./Dec. 1995 pp 3-6Howarth, G.A. and Hayward, G.R., “Waterborne Resins,” OCCA Student Monograph No. 3, Oil and Colour Chemists’ Association, UK, 1996.{{Cite journal|last1=Christopher|first1=Gnanaprakasam|last2=Anbu Kulandainathan|first2=Manickam|last3=Harichandran|first3=Gurusamy|date=2015-07-01|title=Highly dispersive waterborne polyurethane/ZnO nanocomposites for corrosion protection|journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research|language=en|volume=12|issue=4|pages=657–667|doi=10.1007/s11998-015-9674-3|s2cid=136984192 |issn=1935-3804}} They are also used in the design and manufacture of medical devices such as the polyurethane dressing, a liquid bandage based on polyurethane dispersion.{{Cite book|title=The Design and Manufacture of Medical Devices|last=Davim|first=J. Paulo|date=2012-10-16|publisher=Woodhead Publishing|isbn=9781907568725|location=Cambridge, UK|pages=135}} Over the years they have also been used in polymer modified cements and repair mortarsPolymer modified cements and repair mortars. Daniels LJ, PhD thesis Lancaster University 1992 They have also found use in general textile applications including coating nonwovens.{{Cite journal |last1=Sikdar |first1=Partha |last2=Islam |first2=Shafiqul |last3=Dhar |first3=Avik |last4=Bhat |first4=Gajanan |last5=Hinchliffe |first5=Doug |last6=Condon |first6=Brian |date=2022-07-01 |title=Barrier and mechanical properties of water-based polyurethane-coated hydroentangled cotton nonwovens |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-021-00609-3 |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=1255–1267 |doi=10.1007/s11998-021-00609-3 |s2cid=247942460 |issn=1935-3804}} Recent (post 2020) innovations have included producing a waterborne polyurethane that has embedded silver particles to combat COVID.{{Cite journal |last1=Dall Agnol |first1=Lucas |last2=Ornaghi |first2=Heitor Luiz |last3=Ernzen |first3=Juliano Roberto |last4=Dias |first4=Fernanda Trindade Gonzalez |last5=Bianchi |first5=Otávio |date=2023-11-01 |title=Production of a sprayable waterborne polyurethane coating with silver nanoparticles for combating SARS-CoV-2 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-023-00788-1 |journal=Journal of Coatings Technology and Research |language=en |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=1935–1947 |doi=10.1007/s11998-023-00788-1 |issn=1935-3804}} Waterborne polyurethane dispersions with antimicrobial properties have also been developed.{{Cite journal |last1=Wrigglesworth |first1=Emma G. |last2=Tate |first2=Eldon W |date=May 2024 |title=Next-generation Antimicrobial Waterborne Polyurethane |url=https://www.coatingstech-digital.org/coatingstech/library/item/may-june_2024/4189602/ |journal=Coatings Tech (Digital) |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=50–54}}

• Coatings
• Polymer science
• Prepolymer
• Synthetic resin
• Water

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• [https://www.covestro.com/ Covestro]
• [https://www.dsm.com/markets/paint/en/technologies/waterborne.html DSM] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129022751/https://www.dsm.com/markets/paint/en/technologies/waterborne.html |date=2020-11-29 }}
• [https://www.dic-global.com/en/products/waterresin.html DIC]
• [https://polyurethane.americanchemistry.com/polyurethane/Introduction-to-Polyurethanes/Applications/PUDs/ PU General Info]
• [https://incorez.com/products/polyurethane-dispersions Incorez range]
• [https://www.allnex.com//en/technologies/waterborne-resins Allnex website]
• [https://www.hexion.com/en-US/chemistry/epoxy-resins-curing-agents-modifiers/waterborne-resins-and-curing-agents/waterborne-resins Hexion Waterbone Resins]
• [https://www.arkema.com/en/products/product-finder/range-viewer/Waterborne-resins/ ARKEMA Waterborne Resins]
• [https://www.vanhornmetz.com/function/alkyd-emulsions Alkyd Emulsions- Van Horn, Metz & Co. Inc.]

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Category:Polymers

Category:Coatings

Category:Water