Volatile organic compound

Diverse definitions of the term VOC are in use. Some examples are presented below.

Health Canada classifies VOCs as organic compounds that have boiling points roughly in the range of {{Cvt|50|to|250|C}}. The emphasis is placed on commonly encountered VOCs that would have an effect on air quality.[http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/air/office_building-immeubles_bureaux/organic-organiques-eng.php Health Canada] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207142918/http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/air/office_building-immeubles_bureaux/organic-organiques-eng.php |date=February 7, 2009 }}

The European Union defines a VOC as "any organic compound as well as the fraction of creosote, having at 293.15 K a vapour pressure of 0.01 kPa or more, or having a corresponding volatility under the particular conditions of use;".Industrial Emissions Directive, article 3(45). The VOC Solvents Emissions Directive was the main policy instrument for the reduction of industrial emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the European Union. It covers a wide range of solvent-using activities, e.g. printing, surface cleaning, vehicle coating, dry cleaning and manufacture of footwear and pharmaceutical products. The VOC Solvents Emissions Directive requires installations in which such activities are applied to comply either with the emission limit values set out in the Directive or with the requirements of the so-called reduction scheme. Article 13 of The Paints Directive, approved in 2004, amended the original VOC Solvents Emissions Directive and limits the use of organic solvents in decorative paints and varnishes and in vehicle finishing products. The Paints Directive sets out maximum VOC content limit values for paints and varnishes in certain applications.[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/archives/air/stationary/solvents/legislation.htm The VOC solvent emission directive] EUR-Lex, European Union Publications Office. Retrieved on 2010-09-28.[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32004L0042 The Paints Directive] EUR-Lex, European Union Publications Office. The Solvents Emissions Directive was replaced by the Industrial Emissions Directive from 2013.

The People's Republic of China defines a VOC as those compounds that have "originated from automobiles, industrial production and civilian use, burning of all types of fuels, storage and transportation of oils, fitment finish, coating for furniture and machines, cooking oil fume and fine particles (PM 2.5)", and similar sources.eBeijing.gov.cn The Three-Year Action Plan for Winning the Blue Sky Defence War released by the State Council in July 2018 creates an action plan to reduce 2015 VOC emissions 10% by 2020.{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2018-07/03/content_5303158.htm|title=国务院关于印发打赢蓝天保卫战三年行动计划的通知(国发〔2018〕22号)_政府信息公开专栏|website=gov.cn|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190309213632/http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2018-07/03/content_5303158.htm |archive-date=2019-03-09 |url-status=live }}

The Central Pollution Control Board of India released the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act in 1981, amended in 1987, to address concerns about air pollution in India.{{cite web| url=http://cpcb.nic.in/displaypdf.php?id=aG9tZS9haXItcG9sbHV0aW9uL05vLTE0LTE5ODEucGRm | title=THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981}} While the document does not differentiate between VOCs and other air pollutants, the CPCB monitors "oxides of nitrogen (NO_x), sulphur dioxide (SO₂), fine particulate matter (PM10) and suspended particulate matter (SPM)".{{cite web|url=http://cleanairindiamovement.com/|title=Air Pollution in IndiaClean Air India Movement|website=Clean Air India Movement}}

File:Thermal-oxidizer-rto.jpg provide an air pollution abatement option for VOCs from industrial air flows.EPA. [https://www3.epa.gov/ttnchie1/mkb/documents/fthermal.pdf "Air Pollution Control Technology Fact Sheet: Thermal Incinerator."] EPA-452/F-03-022. A thermal oxidizer is an EPA-approved device to treat VOCs.]]

The definitions of VOCs used for control of precursors of photochemical smog used by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state agencies in the US with independent outdoor air pollution regulations include exemptions for VOCs that are determined to be non-reactive, or of low-reactivity in the smog formation process. Prominent is the VOC regulation issued by the South Coast Air Quality Management District in California and by the California Air Resources Board (CARB).{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofins.com/carb-consumer-products-voc.aspx |title=CARB regulations on VOC in consumer products |author= |date=2016-08-19 |website=Consumer Product Testing |publisher=Eurofins Scientific}} However, this specific use of the term VOCs can be misleading, especially when applied to indoor air quality because many chemicals that are not regulated as outdoor air pollution can still be important for indoor air pollution.

Following a public hearing in September 1995, California's ARB uses the term "reactive organic gases" (ROG) to measure organic gases. The CARB revised the definition of "Volatile Organic Compounds" used in their consumer products regulations, based on the committee's findings.{{Cite web |url=http://www.arb.ca.gov/ei/speciate/voc_rog_dfn_11_04.pdf |title=Definitions of VOC and ROG |date=November 2004 |author= |publisher=California Air Resources Board |location=Sacramento, CA}}

In addition to drinking water, VOCs are regulated in pollutant discharges to surface waters (both directly and via sewage treatment plants)For example, discharges from chemical and plastics manufacturing plants: {{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/eg/organic-chemicals-plastics-and-synthetic-fibers-effluent-guidelines |title=Organic Chemicals, Plastics and Synthetic Fibers Effluent Guidelines |author= |date=2016-02-01 |publisher=EPA}} as hazardous waste,Under the CERCLA ("Superfund") law and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. but not in non-industrial indoor air.{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/volatile-organic-compounds-impact-indoor-air-quality |title=Volatile Organic Compounds' Impact on Indoor Air Quality |publisher=EPA |date=2016-09-07}} The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulates VOC exposure in the workplace. Volatile organic compounds that are classified as hazardous materials are regulated by the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration while being transported.

File:Limonene-2D-skeletal.svg|Limonene, a common biogenic VOC, is emitted into the atmosphere primarily by trees which grow in coniferous forests.

Most VOCs in Earth's atmosphere are biogenic, largely emitted by plants.

Biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) encompass VOCs emitted by plants, animals, or microorganisms, and while extremely diverse, are most commonly terpenoids, alcohols, and carbonyls (methane and carbon monoxide are generally not considered).{{cite journal |author1=J. Kesselmeier |author2=M. Staudt |title=Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC): An Overview on Emission, Physiology and Ecology |year=1999|journal=Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry|volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=23–88 |doi=10.1023/A:1006127516791|bibcode=1999JAtC...33...23K |s2cid=94021819 }} Not counting methane, biological sources emit an estimated 760 teragrams of carbon per year in the form of VOCs.{{cite journal |doi=10.5194/acp-14-9317-2014 |title=Global data set of biogenic VOC emissions calculated by the MEGAN model over the last 30 years |year=2014 |last1=Sindelarova |first1=K. |last2=Granier |first2=C. |last3=Bouarar |first3=I. |last4=Guenther |first4=A. |last5=Tilmes |first5=S. |last6=Stavrakou |first6=T. |last7=Müller |first7=J.-F. |last8=Kuhn |first8=U. |last9=Stefani |first9=P. |last10=Knorr |first10=W. |journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics |volume=14 |issue=17 |pages=9317–9341 |bibcode=2014ACP....14.9317S |doi-access=free |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0023-F4FB-B |hdl-access=free }} The majority of VOCs are produced by plants, the main compound being isoprene. Small amounts of VOCs are produced by animals and microbes.{{Cite journal | last1 = Terra | first1 = W. C. | last2 = Campos | first2 = V. P. | last3 = Martins| first3 = S. J. | title = Volatile organic molecules from Fusarium oxysporum strain 21 with nematicidal activity against Meloidogyne incognita | doi = 10.1016/j.cropro.2017.12.022 | journal = Crop Protection | volume = 106 | pages = 125–131 | year = 2018 | bibcode = 2018CrPro.106..125T }} Many VOCs are considered secondary metabolites, which often help organisms in defense, such as plant defense against herbivory. The strong odor emitted by many plants consists of green leaf volatiles, a subset of VOCs. Although intended for nearby organisms to detect and respond to, these volatiles can be detected and communicated through wireless electronic transmission, by embedding nanosensors and infrared transmitters into the plant materials themselves.{{cite journal |last1=Kwak |first1=Seon-Yeong |last2=Wong |first2=Min Hao |last3=Lew |first3=Tedrick Thomas Salim |last4=Bisker |first4=Gili |last5=Lee |first5=Michael A. |last6=Kaplan |first6=Amir |last7=Dong |first7=Juyao |last8=Liu |first8=Albert Tianxiang |last9=Koman |first9=Volodymyr B. |last10=Sinclair |first10=Rosalie |last11=Hamann |first11=Catherine |last12=Strano |first12=Michael S. |name-list-style=and |date=2017-06-12 |title=Nanosensor Technology Applied to Living Plant Systems |journal=Annual Review of Analytical Chemistry |publisher=Annual Reviews |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=113–140 |doi=10.1146/annurev-anchem-061516-045310 |issn=1936-1327 |pmid=28605605}}

Emissions are affected by a variety of factors, such as temperature, which determines rates of volatilization and growth, and sunlight, which determines rates of biosynthesis. Emission occurs almost exclusively from the leaves, the stomata in particular. VOCs emitted by terrestrial forests are often oxidized by hydroxyl radicals in the atmosphere; in the absence of NO_x pollutants, VOC photochemistry recycles hydroxyl radicals to create a sustainable biosphere–atmosphere balance.{{cite journal |author1=J. Lelieveld |author2=T. M. Butler |author3=J. N. Crowley |author4=T. J. Dillon |author5=H. Fischer |author6=L. Ganzeveld |author7=H. Harder |author8=M. G. Lawrence |author9=M. Martinez |author10=D. Taraborrelli |author11=J. Williams |title=Atmospheric oxidation capacity sustained by a tropical forest |year=2008|journal=Nature|volume=452 |issue=7188 |pages=737–740 |doi=10.1038/nature06870|pmid=18401407 |bibcode=2008Natur.452..737L |s2cid=4341546 }} Due to recent climate change developments, such as warming and greater UV radiation, BVOC emissions from plants are generally predicted to increase, thus upsetting the biosphere–atmosphere interaction and damaging major ecosystems.{{cite journal |author1=Josep Peñuelas |author2=Michael Staudt |title=BVOCs and global change |year=2010|journal=Trends in Plant Science|volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=133–144 |doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2009.12.005|pmid=20097116 |bibcode=2010TPS....15..133P }} A major class of VOCs is the terpene class of compounds, such as myrcene.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2004.02.006 |title=Physiological and physicochemical controls on foliar volatile organic compound emissions |year=2004 |last1=Niinemets |first1=Ülo |last2=Loreto |first2=Francesco |last3=Reichstein |first3=Markus |journal=Trends in Plant Science |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=180–6 |pmid=15063868|bibcode=2004TPS.....9..180N }}

Providing a sense of scale, a forest {{convert|62000|km2}} in area, the size of the U.S. state of Pennsylvania, is estimated to emit {{convert|3.4|e6kg|e6lb|abbr=unit}} of terpenes on a typical August day during the growing season.{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/cssc.200900186 |title=Myrcene as a Natural Base Chemical in Sustainable Chemistry: A Critical Review |year=2009 |last1=Behr |first1=Arno |last2=Johnen |first2=Leif |journal=ChemSusChem |volume=2 |issue=12 |pages=1072–95 |pmid=20013989|bibcode=2009ChSCh...2.1072B }} Maize produces the VOC (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol and other plant hormones.{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s00425-004-1404-5 |title=(Z)-3-Hexenol induces defense genes and downstream metabolites in maize |year=2004 |last1=Farag |first1=Mohamed A. |last2=Fokar |first2=Mohamed |last3=Abd |first3=Haggag |last4=Zhang |first4=Huiming |last5=Allen |first5=Randy D. |last6=Paré |first6=Paul W. |s2cid=21739942 |journal=Planta |volume=220 |issue=6 |pages=900–9 |pmid=15599762}}

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File:Fuel dispenser in use.jpg

{{Pollution sidebar|Air}}

Anthropogenic sources emit about 142 teragrams (1.42 × 10¹¹ kg, or 142 billion kg) of carbon per year in the form of VOCs.{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/es072476p |title=Known and Unexplored Organic Constituents in the Earth's Atmosphere |year=2007 |last1=Goldstein |first1=Allen H. |last2=Galbally |first2=Ian E. |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=41 |issue=5 |pages=1514–21 |pmid=17396635|bibcode=2007EnST...41.1514G |doi-access=free }}

The major source of man-made VOCs are:{{cite book |last1=Reimann |first1=Stefan |title=Volatile Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere |last2=Lewis |first2=Alastair C. |year=2007 |isbn=9780470988657 |editor-last=Koppmann |editor-first=Ralf |chapter=Anthropogenic VOCs |doi=10.1002/9780470988657}}

• Fossil fuel use and production, e.g. incompletely combusted fossil fuels or unintended evaporation of fuels. The most prevalent VOC is ethane, a relatively inert compound.
• Solvents used in coatings, paints, and inks. Approximately 12 billion litres of paint are produced annually. Typical solvents include aliphatic hydrocarbons, ethyl acetate, glycol ethers and acetone. Motivated by cost, environmental concerns, and regulation, the paint and coating industries are increasingly shifting toward aqueous solvents.{{Ullmann | last1 = Stoye | first1 = D. | last2 = Funke | first2 = W. | last3 = Hoppe | first3 = L. | last4 = Hasselkus | first4 = J. R. | last5 = Curtis | first5 = L. G. | last6 = Hoehne | first6 = K. | last7 = Zech | first7 = H. J. | last8 = Heiling | first8 = P. | last9 = Yamabe | first9 = M. | last10 = Dören | first10 = K. | last11 = Schupp | first11 = H. | last12 = Küchenmeister | first12 = R. | last13 = Schmitthenner | first13 = M. | last14 = Kremer | first14 = W. | last15 = Wieczorrek | first15 = W. | last16 = Gempeler | first16 = H. | last17 = Schneider | first17 = W. | last18 = White | first18 = J. W. | last19 = Short | first19 = A. G. | last20 = Blank | first20 = W. J. | last21 = Calbo | first21 = L. J. | last22 = Plath | first22 = D. | last23 = Wagner | first23 = F. | last24 = Haller | first24 = W. | last25 = Rödder | first25 = K. M. | last26 = Streitberger | first26 = H. J. | last27 = Urbano | first27 = E. | last28 = Laible | first28 = R. | last29 = Meyer | first29 = B. D. | last30 = Bagda | first30 = E. | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1002/14356007.a18_359.pub2 | isbn = 3527306730 | title= Paints and Coatings | display-authors = 3 }}
• Compressed aerosol products, mainly butane and propane, estimated to contribute 1.3 million tonnes of VOC emissions per year globally.{{Cite journal|last1=Yeoman|first1=Amber M.|last2=Lewis|first2=Alastair C.|date=2021-04-22|title=Global emissions of VOCs from compressed aerosol products|url=https://online.ucpress.edu/elementa/article/9/1/00177/116770/Global-emissions-of-VOCs-from-compressed-aerosol|journal=Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene|language=en|volume=9|issue=1|pages=00177|doi=10.1525/elementa.2020.20.00177|issn=2325-1026|doi-access=free|bibcode=2021EleSA...9..177Y }}
• Biofuel use, e.g., cooking oils in Asia and bioethanol in Brazil.
• Biomass combustion, especially from rain forests. Although combustion principally releases carbon dioxide and water, incomplete combustion affords a variety of VOCs.

{{See also|Indoor air quality}}

Due to their numerous sources indoors, concentrations of VOCs indoors are consistently higher in indoor air (up to ten times higher) than outdoors due to the many sources.{{Cite journal |last1=You |first1=Bo |last2=Zhou |first2=Wei |last3=Li |first3=Junyao |last4=Li |first4=Zhijie |last5=Sun |first5=Yele |date=November 4, 2022 |title=A review of indoor Gaseous organic compounds and human chemical Exposure: Insights from Real-time measurements |journal=Environment International |language=en |volume=170 |pages=107611 |bibcode=2022EnInt.17007611Y |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2022.107611 |pmid=36335895 |doi-access=free}} VOCs are emitted by thousands of indoor products. Examples include: paints, varnishes, waxes and lacquers, paint strippers, cleaning and personal care products, pesticides, building materials and furnishings, office equipment such as copiers and printers, correction fluids and carbonless copy paper, graphics and craft materials including glues and adhesives, permanent markers, and photographic solutions.{{cite web |date=August 5, 2010 |title=U.S. EPA IAQ – Organic chemicals |url=http://www.epa.gov/iaq/voc.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909090046/http://www.epa.gov/iaq/voc.html |archive-date=September 9, 2015 |access-date=March 2, 2012 |publisher=Epa.gov}} Human activities such as cooking and cleaning can also emit VOCs.{{Cite journal |last1=Davies |first1=Helen L. |last2=O'Leary |first2=Catherine |last3=Dillon |first3=Terry |last4=Shaw |first4=David R. |last5=Shaw |first5=Marvin |last6=Mehra |first6=Archit |last7=Phillips |first7=Gavin |last8=Carslaw |first8=Nicola |date=August 14, 2023 |title=A measurement and modelling investigation of the indoor air chemistry following cooking activities |url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=D3EM00167A |journal=Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts |language=en |volume=25 |issue=9 |pages=1532–1548 |doi=10.1039/D3EM00167A |issn=2050-7887 |pmid=37609942|doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Harding-Smith |first1=Ellen |last2=Shaw |first2=David R. |last3=Shaw |first3=Marvin |last4=Dillon |first4=Terry J. |last5=Carslaw |first5=Nicola |date=January 23, 2024 |title=Does green mean clean? Volatile organic emissions from regular versus green cleaning products |url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=D3EM00439B |journal=Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts |language=en |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=436–450 |doi=10.1039/D3EM00439B |issn=2050-7887 |pmid=38258874|doi-access=free }} Cooking can release long-chain aldehydes and alkanes when oil is heated and terpenes can be released when spices are prepared and/or cooked. Cleaning products contain a range of VOCs, including monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, alcohols and esters. Once released into the air, VOCs can undergo reactions with ozone and hydroxyl radicals to produce other VOCs, such as formaldehyde.

Some VOCs are emitted directly indoors, and some are formed through the subsequent chemical reactions.{{Cite journal |last1=Weschler |first1=Charles J. |last2=Carslaw |first2=Nicola |date=March 6, 2018 |title=Indoor Chemistry |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.7b06387 |url-status=live |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |language=en |volume=52 |issue=5 |pages=2419–2428 |bibcode=2018EnST...52.2419W |doi=10.1021/acs.est.7b06387 |issn=0013-936X |pmid=29402076 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231115234323/http://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.7b06387 |archive-date=November 15, 2023 |access-date=April 11, 2024|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Carter |first1=Toby J. |last2=Poppendieck |first2=Dustin G. |last3=Shaw |first3=David |last4=Carslaw |first4=Nicola |date=January 16, 2023 |title=A Modelling Study of Indoor Air Chemistry: The Surface Interactions of Ozone and Hydrogen Peroxide |journal=Atmospheric Environment |language=en |volume=297 |pages=119598 |bibcode=2023AtmEn.29719598C |doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2023.119598 |doi-access=free }} The total concentration of all VOCs (TVOC) indoors can be up to five times higher than that of outdoor levels.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00272-1 |title=Indoor air quality and health |year=1999 |last1=Jones |first1=A.P. |journal=Atmospheric Environment |volume=33 |issue=28 |pages=4535–64|bibcode=1999AtmEn..33.4535J }}

New buildings experience particularly high levels of VOC off-gassing indoors because of the abundant new materials (building materials, fittings, surface coverings and treatments such as glues, paints and sealants) exposed to the indoor air, emitting multiple VOC gases.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2007.02.011 |title=Volatile organic compounds in indoor environment and photocatalytic oxidation: State of the art |year=2007 |last1=Wang |first1=S. |last2=Ang |first2=H. M. |last3=Tade |first3=M. O. |journal=Environment International |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=694–705 |pmid=17376530|bibcode=2007EnInt..33..694W |url=https://doaj.org/article/c006d47ee7bd43b586bcfc86931ffd0f |url-access=subscription }} This off-gassing has a multi-exponential decay trend that is discernible over at least two years, with the most volatile compounds decaying with a time-constant of a few days, and the least volatile compounds decaying with a time-constant of a few years.{{cite journal | last1 = Holøs | first1 = S. B. | last2 = Yang | first2 = A. | last3 = Lind | first3 = M. | last4 = Thunshelle | first4 = K. | last5 = Schild | first5 = P. G. | last6 = Mysen | first6 = M. | title = VOC emission rates in newly built and renovated buildings, and the influence of ventilation – a review and meta-analysis | journal = Int. J. Of Ventilation | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 153–166 | year = 2019 | doi = 10.1080/14733315.2018.1435026 | display-authors = 1 | hdl = 10642/6247 | s2cid = 56370102 | hdl-access = free }}

New buildings may require intensive ventilation for the first few months, or a bake-out treatment. Existing buildings may be replenished with new VOC sources, such as new furniture, consumer products, and redecoration of indoor surfaces, all of which lead to a continuous background emission of TVOCs, and requiring improved ventilation.

There are strong seasonal variations in indoors VOC emissions, with emission rates increasing in summer. This is largely due to the rate of diffusion of VOC species through materials to the surface, increasing with temperature. This leads to generally higher concentrations of TVOCs indoors in summer.

Measurement of VOCs from the indoor air is done with sorption tubes e. g. Tenax (for VOCs and SVOCs) or DNPH-cartridges (for carbonyl-compounds) or air detector. The VOCs adsorb on these materials and are afterwards desorbed either thermally (Tenax) or by elution (DNPH) and then analyzed by GC–MS/FID or HPLC. Reference gas mixtures are required for quality control of these VOC measurements.{{cite web|url=http://www.key-vocs.eu/|title=KEY-VOCs|website=KEY-VOCs|access-date=23 April 2018}} Furthermore, VOC emitting products used indoors, e.g. building products and furniture, are investigated in emission test chambers under controlled climatic conditions.{{cite web|title=ISO 16000-9:2006 Indoor air – Part 9: Determination of the emission of volatile organic compounds from building products and furnishing – Emission test chamber method|url=http://www.iso.org/iso/rss.xml?csnumber=38203&rss=detail|website=Iso.org|access-date=24 April 2018}} For quality control of these measurements round robin tests are carried out, therefore reproducibly emitting reference materials are ideally required. Other methods have used proprietary Silcosteel-coated canisters with constant flow inlets to collect samples over several days.{{Cite journal |last1=Heeley-Hill |first1=Aiden C. |last2=Grange |first2=Stuart K. |last3=Ward |first3=Martyn W. |last4=Lewis |first4=Alastair C. |last5=Owen |first5=Neil |last6=Jordan |first6=Caroline |last7=Hodgson |first7=Gemma |last8=Adamson |first8=Greg |date=2021 |title=Frequency of use of household products containing VOCs and indoor atmospheric concentrations in homes|url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=D0EM00504E|journal=Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts|volume=23|issue=5|language=en|pages=699–713|doi=10.1039/D0EM00504E|pmid=34037627|issn=2050-7887|doi-access=free}} These methods are not limited by the adsorbing properties of materials like Tenax.

In most countries, a separate definition of VOCs is used with regard to indoor air quality that comprises each organic chemical compound that can be measured as follows: adsorption from air on Tenax TA, thermal desorption, gas chromatographic separation over a 100% nonpolar column (dimethylpolysiloxane). VOC (volatile organic compounds) are all compounds that appear in the gas chromatogram between and including n-hexane and n-hexadecane. Compounds appearing earlier are called VVOC (very volatile organic compounds); compounds appearing later are called SVOC (semi-volatile organic compounds).

France, Germany (AgBB/DIBt), Belgium, Norway (TEK regulation) and Italy (CAM Edilizia) have enacted regulations to limit VOC emissions from commercial products. European industry has developed numerous voluntary ecolabels and rating systems, such as EMICODE,{{cite web|url=http://www.eurofins.com/emicode.aspx|title=emicode – Eurofins Scientific|website=Eurofins.com}} M1,{{cite web|url=http://www.eurofins.com/m1.aspx|title=m1 – Eurofins Scientific|website=Eurofins.com}} Blue Angel,{{cite web|url=http://www.eurofins.com/blue-angel.aspx|title=blue-angel – Eurofins Scientific|website=Eurofins.com}} GuT (textile floor coverings),{{cite web|url=https://gut-prodis.eu/en/|title=GuT-label|website=gut-prodis.eu}} Nordic Swan Ecolabel,{{cite web|url=https://www.nordic-ecolabel.org/|title=Nordic Swan Ecolabel|website=nordic-ecolabel.org}} EU Ecolabel,{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/ecolabel/|title=EU Ecolable homepage|website=ec.europa.eu}} and Indoor Air Comfort.{{cite web|url=http://www.indoor-air-comfort.com/|title=indoor-air-comfort.com – Eurofins Scientific|website=Indoor-air-comfort.com}} In the United States, several standards exist; California Standard CDPH Section 01350{{cite web|url=http://www.eurofins.com/section-1350.aspx|title=cdph – Eurofins Scientific|website=Eurofins.com}} is the most common one. These regulations and standards changed the marketplace, leading to an increasing number of low-emitting products.

{{See also|Chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy|Substance-induced psychosis}}

Respiratory, allergic, or immune effects in infants or children are associated with man-made VOCs and other indoor or outdoor air pollutants.{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0668.2007.00478.x |title=Indoor residential chemical emissions as risk factors for respiratory and allergic effects in children: A review |year=2007 |last1=Mendell |first1=M. J. |journal=Indoor Air |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=259–77 |pmid=17661923|doi-access=free |bibcode=2007InAir..17..259M }}

Some VOCs, such as styrene and limonene, can react with nitrogen oxides or with ozone to produce new oxidation products and secondary aerosols, which can cause sensory irritation symptoms.{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0668.2005.00393.x |title=Organic compounds in office environments – sensory irritation, odor, measurements and the role of reactive chemistry |year=2006 |last1=Wolkoff |first1=P. |last2=Wilkins |first2=C. K. |last3=Clausen |first3=P. A. |last4=Nielsen |first4=G. D. |journal=Indoor Air |volume=16 |pages=7–19 |pmid=16420493 |issue=1|doi-access=free |bibcode=2006InAir..16....7W }} VOCs contribute to the formation of tropospheric ozone and smog."What is Smog?", Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, [http://www.ccme.ca/assets/pdf/pn_1257_e.pdf CCME.ca] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928160543/http://www.ccme.ca/assets/pdf/pn_1257_e.pdf |date=September 28, 2011 }}{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/ozone-pollution/basic-information-about-ozone#what%20where%20how|title=Basic Information about Ozone {{!}} US EPA|last=EPA,OAR|first=US|website=US EPA|date=29 May 2015|language=en|access-date=2018-01-23}}

Health effects include eye, nose, and throat irritation; headaches, loss of coordination, nausea, hearing disorders{{Cite journal |last=Roggia |first=Simone Mariotti |last2=de França |first2=Aline Gomes |last3=Morata |first3=Thais C. |last4=Krieg |first4=Edward |last5=Earl |first5=Brian R. |date=2019 |title=Auditory system dysfunction in Brazilian gasoline station workers |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31017499 |journal=International Journal of Audiology |volume=58 |issue=8 |pages=484–496 |doi=10.1080/14992027.2019.1597286 |issn=1708-8186 |pmc=8480536 |pmid=31017499}} and damage to the liver, kidney, and central nervous system.{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2014-08-18 |title=Volatile Organic Compounds' Impact on Indoor Air Quality |url=https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/volatile-organic-compounds-impact-indoor-air-quality |access-date=2024-05-23 |website=United States Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}} Some VOCs are suspected or known to cause cancer in humans. Key signs or symptoms associated with exposure to VOCs include conjunctival irritation, nose and throat discomfort, headache, allergic skin reaction, dyspnea, declines in serum cholinesterase levels, nausea, vomiting, nose bleeding, fatigue, dizziness.{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/volatile-organic-compounds-impact-indoor-air-quality|title=Volatile Organic Compounds' Impact on Indoor Air Quality|last=US EPA|first=OAR|date=2014-08-18|website=US EPA|language=en|access-date=2019-04-04}}

The ability of organic chemicals to cause health effects varies greatly from those that are highly toxic to those with no known health effects. As with other pollutants, the extent and nature of the health effect will depend on many factors including level of exposure and length of time exposed. Eye and respiratory tract irritation, headaches, dizziness, visual disorders, and memory impairment are among the immediate symptoms that some people have experienced soon after exposure to some organics. At present, not much is known about what health effects occur from the levels of organics usually found in homes.{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/iaq/voc.html |title=Volatile Organic Compounds' Impact on Indoor Air Quality |date=2017-04-19 |publisher=EPA}}

While null in comparison to the concentrations found in indoor air, benzene, toluene, and methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) were found in samples of human milk and increase the concentrations of VOCs that we are exposed to throughout the day.{{Cite journal|last1=Kim|first1=Sung R.|last2=Halden|first2=Rolf U.|last3=Buckley|first3=Timothy J.|date=2007-03-01|title=Volatile Organic Compounds in Human Milk: Methods and Measurements|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/es062362y|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|language=en|volume=41|issue=5|pages=1662–1667|doi=10.1021/es062362y|pmid=17396657|bibcode=2007EnST...41.1662K|issn=0013-936X|url-access=subscription}} A study notes the difference between VOCs in alveolar breath and inspired air suggesting that VOCs are ingested, metabolized, and excreted via the extra-pulmonary pathway.{{Cite journal|last1=Phillips|first1=M|last2=Greenberg|first2=J|last3=Awad|first3=J|date=1994-11-01|title=Metabolic and environmental origins of volatile organic compounds in breath.|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|language=en|volume=47|issue=11|pages=1052–1053|doi=10.1136/jcp.47.11.1052|issn=0021-9746|pmc=503075|pmid=7829686}} VOCs are also ingested by drinking water in varying concentrations. Some VOC concentrations were over the EPA's National Primary Drinking Water Regulations and China's National Drinking Water Standards set by the Ministry of Ecology and Environment.{{Cite journal|last1=Cao|first1=Fengmei|last2=Qin|first2=Pan|last3=Lu|first3=Shaoyong|last4=He|first4=Qi|last5=Wu|first5=Fengchang|last6=Sun|first6=Hongwen|last7=Wang|first7=Lei|last8=Li|first8=Linlin|date=December 2018|title=Measurement of volatile organic compounds and associated risk assessments through ingestion and dermal routes in Dongjiang Lake, China|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0147651318308479|journal=Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety|language=en|volume=165|pages=645–653|doi=10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.08.108|pmid=30243211|bibcode=2018EcoES.165..645C |s2cid=52821729|url-access=subscription}}

The presence of VOCs in the air and in groundwater has prompted more studies. Several studies have been performed to measure the effects of dermal absorption of specific VOCs. Dermal exposure to VOCs like formaldehyde and toluene downregulate antimicrobial peptides on the skin like cathelicidin LL-37, human β-defensin 2 and 3.{{Cite journal|last1=Ahn|first1=Kangmo|last2=Kim|first2=Jihyun|last3=Kim|first3=Ji-Yun|date=February 2019|title=Volatile Organic Compounds Dysregulate the Expression of Antimicrobial Peptides in Human Epidermal Keratinocytes|journal=Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology|language=en|volume=143|issue=2|pages=AB132|doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2018.12.402|s2cid=86509634|doi-access=free}} Xylene and formaldehyde worsen allergic inflammation in animal models.{{Cite journal|last1=Bönisch|first1=Ulrike|last2=Böhme|first2=Alexander|last3=Kohajda|first3=Tibor|last4=Mögel|first4=Iljana|last5=Schütze|first5=Nicole|last6=von Bergen|first6=Martin|last7=Simon|first7=Jan C.|last8=Lehmann|first8=Irina|last9=Polte|first9=Tobias|date=2012-07-03|editor-last=Idzko|editor-first=Marco|title=Volatile Organic Compounds Enhance Allergic Airway Inflammation in an Experimental Mouse Model|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=7|issue=7|pages=e39817|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0039817|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3389035|pmid=22802943|bibcode=2012PLoSO...739817B|doi-access=free}} Toluene also increases the dysregulation of filaggrin: a key protein in dermal regulation.{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hana|last2=Shin|first2=Jung Jin|last3=Bae|first3=Hyun Cheol|last4=Ryu|first4=Woo-In|last5=Son|first5=Sang Wook|date=January 2017|title=Toluene downregulates filaggrin expression via the extracellular signal-regulated kinase and signal transducer and activator of transcription-dependent pathways|journal=Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology|language=en|volume=139|issue=1|pages=355–358.e5|doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2016.06.036|pmid=27498358|doi-access=free}} this was confirmed by immunofluorescence to confirm protein loss and western blotting to confirm mRNA loss. These experiments were done on human skin samples. Toluene exposure also decreased the water in the trans-epidermal layer allowing for vulnerability in the skin's layers.{{Cite journal|last1=Huss-Marp|first1=J.|last2=Eberlein-Konig|first2=B.|last3=Breuer|first3=K.|last4=Mair|first4=S.|last5=Ansel|first5=A.|last6=Darsow|first6=U.|last7=Kramer|first7=U.|last8=Mayer|first8=E.|last9=Ring|first9=J.|last10=Behrendt|first10=H.|date=March 2006|title=Influence of short-term exposure to airborne Der p 1 and volatile organic compounds on skin barrier function and dermal blood flow in patients with atopic eczema and healthy individuals|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2222.2006.02448.x|journal=Clinical & Experimental Allergy|language=en|volume=36|issue=3|pages=338–345|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2222.2006.02448.x|pmid=16499645|s2cid=23522130|issn=0954-7894|url-access=subscription}}

Limit values for VOC emissions into indoor air are published by AgBB,{{cite web | title=Ausschuss zur gesundheitlichen Bewertung von Bauprodukten | website=Umweltbundesamt | date=2013-04-08 | url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/gesundheit/kommissionen-arbeitsgruppen/ausschuss-zur-gesundheitlichen-bewertung-von | language=de | ref={{sfnref | Umweltbundesamt | 2013}} | access-date=2019-05-24}} AFSSET, California Department of Public Health, and others. These regulations have prompted several companies in the paint and adhesive industries to adapt with VOC level reductions their products.{{citation needed|date=August 2013}} VOC labels and certification programs may not properly assess all of the VOCs emitted from the product, including some chemical compounds that may be relevant for indoor air quality.{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/technical-overview-volatile-organic-compounds|title=Technical Overview of Volatile Organic Compounds {{!}} US EPA|last=EPA,OAR,ORIA,IED|first=US|website=US EPA|date=18 August 2014|language=en|access-date=2018-04-23}} Each ounce of colorant added to tint paint may contain between 5 and 20 grams of VOCs. A dark color, however, could require 5–15 ounces of colorant, adding up to 300 or more grams of VOCs per gallon of paint.{{Cite news|url=https://www.consumer.ftc.gov/articles/0253-you-buy-paint|title=Before You Buy Paint|date=2012-10-09|work=Consumer Information|access-date=2018-04-30|language=en}}

VOCs are also found in hospital and health care environments. In these settings, these chemicals are widely used for cleaning, disinfection, and hygiene of the different areas.{{Cite journal|last1=Virji|first1=M Abbas|last2=Liang|first2=Xiaoming|last3=Su|first3=Feng-Chiao|last4=Lebouf|first4=Ryan F|last5=Stefaniak|first5=Aleksandr B|last6=Stanton|first6=Marcia L|last7=Henneberger|first7=Paul K|last8=Houseman|first8=E Andres|date=2019-10-28|title=Corrigendum to: Peaks, Means, and Determinants of Real-Time TVOC Exposures Associated with Cleaning and Disinfecting Tasks in Healthcare Settings|journal=Annals of Work Exposures and Health|volume=64|issue=9|pages=1041|doi=10.1093/annweh/wxz059|pmid=31665213|issn=2398-7308|doi-access=free}} Thus, health professionals such as nurses, doctors, sanitation staff, etc., may present with adverse health effects such as asthma; however, further evaluation is required to determine the exact levels and determinants that influence the exposure to these compounds.{{Cite journal|last1=Charlier|first1=Bruno|last2=Coglianese|first2=Albino|last3=De Rosa|first3=Federica|last4=De Caro|first4=Francesco|last5=Piazza|first5=Ornella|last6=Motta|first6=Oriana|last7=Borrelli|first7=Anna|last8=Capunzo|first8=Mario|last9=Filippelli|first9=Amelia|last10=Izzo|first10=Viviana|date=2021-03-24|title=Chemical risk in hospital settings: Overview on monitoring strategies and international regulatory aspects|url=https://jphres.org/index.php/jphres/article/view/1993|journal=Journal of Public Health Research|volume=10|issue=1|pages=jphr.2021.1993 |doi=10.4081/jphr.2021.1993|issn=2279-9036|pmc=8018262|pmid=33849259}}{{Cite journal|last1=Su|first1=Feng-Chiao|last2=Friesen|first2=Melissa C|last3=Stefaniak|first3=Aleksandr B|last4=Henneberger|first4=Paul K|last5=LeBouf|first5=Ryan F|last6=Stanton|first6=Marcia L|last7=Liang|first7=Xiaoming|last8=Humann|first8=Michael|last9=Virji|first9=M Abbas|date=2018-08-13|title=Exposures to Volatile Organic Compounds among Healthcare Workers: Modeling the Effects of Cleaning Tasks and Product Use|url=https://academic.oup.com/annweh/article/62/7/852/5042050|journal=Annals of Work Exposures and Health|language=en|volume=62|issue=7|pages=852–870|doi=10.1093/annweh/wxy055|issn=2398-7308|pmc=6248410|pmid=29931140}}

Concentration levels of individual VOCs such as halogenated and aromatic hydrocarbons vary substantially between areas of the same hospital. Generally, ethanol, isopropanol, ether, and acetone are the main compounds in the interior of the site.{{Cite journal |last1=Bessonneau |first1=Vincent |last2=Mosqueron |first2=Luc |last3=Berrubé |first3=Adèle |last4=Mukensturm |first4=Gaël |last5=Buffet-Bataillon |first5=Sylvie |last6=Gangneux |first6=Jean-Pierre |last7=Thomas |first7=Olivier |name-list-style=and |date=2013-02-05 |editor-last=Levin |editor-first=Jan-Olof |title=VOC Contamination in Hospital, from Stationary Sampling of a Large Panel of Compounds, in View of Healthcare Workers and Patients Exposure Assessment |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=e55535 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...855535B |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0055535 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=3564763 |pmid=23393590 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |last1=LeBouf |first1=Ryan F |last2=Virji |first2=M Abbas |last3=Saito |first3=Rena |last4=Henneberger |first4=Paul K |last5=Simcox |first5=Nancy |last6=Stefaniak |first6=Aleksandr B |name-list-style=and |date=September 2014 |title=Exposure to volatile organic compounds in healthcare settings |journal=Occupational and Environmental Medicine |language=en |volume=71 |issue=9 |pages=642–650 |doi=10.1136/oemed-2014-102080 |issn=1351-0711 |pmc=4591534 |pmid=25011549}} Following the same line, in a study conducted in the United States, it was established that nursing assistants are the most exposed to compounds such as ethanol, while medical equipment preparers are most exposed to 2-propanol.

In relation to exposure to VOCs by cleaning and hygiene personnel, a study conducted in 4 hospitals in the United States established that sterilization and disinfection workers are linked to exposures to d-limonene and 2-propanol, while those responsible for cleaning with chlorine-containing products are more likely to have higher levels of exposure to α-pinene and chloroform. Those who perform floor and other surface cleaning tasks (e.g., floor waxing) and who use quaternary ammonium, alcohol, and chlorine-based products are associated with a higher VOC exposure than the two previous groups, that is, they are particularly linked to exposure to acetone, chloroform, α-pinene, 2-propanol or d-limonene.

Other healthcare environments such as nursing and age care homes have been rarely a subject of study, even though the elderly and vulnerable populations may spend considerable time in these indoor settings where they might be exposed to VOCs, derived from the common use of cleaning agents, sprays and fresheners.{{Cite journal|last1=Reddy|first1=Manasa|last2=Heidarinejad|first2=Mohammad|last3=Stephens|first3=Brent|last4=Rubinstein|first4=Israel|date=April 2021|title=Adequate indoor air quality in nursing homes: An unmet medical need|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0048969720378049|journal=Science of the Total Environment|language=en|volume=765|pages=144273|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144273|pmid=33401060|bibcode=2021ScTEn.76544273R|s2cid=230782257|url-access=subscription}}{{Cite journal|last1=Belo|first1=Joana|last2=Carreiro-Martins|first2=Pedro|last3=Papoila|first3=Ana L.|last4=Palmeiro|first4=Teresa|last5=Caires|first5=Iolanda|last6=Alves|first6=Marta|last7=Nogueira|first7=Susana|last8=Aguiar|first8=Fátima|last9=Mendes|first9=Ana|last10=Cano|first10=Manuela|last11=Botelho|first11=Maria A.|date=2019-10-15|title=The impact of indoor air quality on respiratory health of older people living in nursing homes: spirometric and exhaled breath condensate assessments|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10934529.2019.1637206|journal=Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A|language=en|volume=54|issue=12|pages=1153–1158|doi=10.1080/10934529.2019.1637206|pmid=31274053|bibcode=2019JESHA..54.1153B |s2cid=195807320|issn=1093-4529|url-access=subscription}} In one study, more than 200 chemicals were identified, of which 41 have adverse health effects, 37 of them being VOCs. The health effects include skin sensitization, reproductive and organ-specific toxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, and endocrine-disrupting properties. Furthermore, in another study carried out in the same European country, it was found that there is a significant association between breathlessness in the elderly population and elevated exposure to VOCs such as toluene and o-xylene, unlike the remainder of the population.{{Cite journal|last1=Bentayeb|first1=Malek|last2=Billionnet|first2=Cécile|last3=Baiz|first3=Nour|last4=Derbez|first4=Mickaël|last5=Kirchner|first5=Séverine|last6=Annesi-Maesano|first6=Isabella|date=October 2013|title=Higher prevalence of breathlessness in elderly exposed to indoor aldehydes and VOCs in a representative sample of French dwellings|journal=Respiratory Medicine|language=en|volume=107|issue=10|pages=1598–1607|doi=10.1016/j.rmed.2013.07.015|pmid=23920330|doi-access=free}}

Workers in hospitality are also exposed to VOCs from a variety of sources including cleaning products (air fresheners, floor cleaners, disinfectants, etc.), building materials and furnishings, as well as fragrances.{{Cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=Nan |last2=Rosemberg |first2=Marie-Anne |last3=Li |first3=Wei |last4=Meza-Wilson |first4=Emily |last5=Godwin |first5=Christopher |last6=Batterman |first6=Stuart |date=January 2021 |title=Occupational exposure and health risks of volatile organic compounds of hotel housekeepers: Field measurements of exposure and health risks |journal=Indoor Air |language=en |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=26–39 |doi=10.1111/ina.12709 |issn=0905-6947 |pmc=8020495 |pmid=32609907|bibcode=2021InAir..31...26L }} One of the most common VOC found in hospitality settings are alkanes, which are a major ingredient in cleaning products (35%). Other products present in hospitality that contain alkanes are laundry detergents, paints, and lubricants. Housekeepers in particular may also be exposed to formaldehyde,{{Cite journal |last1=De Groot |first1=Anton C. |last2=Le Coz |first2=Christophe J. |last3=Lensen |first3=Gerda J. |last4=Flyvholm |first4=Mari-Ann |last5=Maibach |first5=Howard I. |last6=Coenraads |first6=Pieter-Jan |date=May 2010 |title=Formaldehyde-releasers: relationship to formaldehyde contact allergy. Formaldehyde-releasers in clothes: durable press chemical finishes. Part 1 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0536.2009.01675.x |journal=Contact Dermatitis |language=en |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=259–271 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0536.2009.01675.x |pmid=20384733 |issn=0105-1873|url-access=subscription }} which is present in some fabrics used to make towels and bedding, however exposure decreases after several washes.{{Cite journal |last1=Novick |first1=Rachel M. |last2=Nelson |first2=Mindy L. |last3=McKinley |first3=Meg A. |last4=Anderson |first4=Grace L. |last5=Keenan |first5=James J. |date=2013-07-18 |title=The Effect of Clothing Care Activities on Textile Formaldehyde Content |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15287394.2013.821439 |journal=Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A |language=en |volume=76 |issue=14 |pages=883–893 |doi=10.1080/15287394.2013.821439 |pmid=24053365 |bibcode=2013JTEHA..76..883N |issn=1528-7394|url-access=subscription }} Some hotels still use bleach to clean, and this bleach can form chloroform and carbon tetrachloride.{{Cite journal |last1=Odabasi |first1=Mustafa |last2=Elbir |first2=Tolga |last3=Dumanoglu |first3=Yetkin |last4=Sofuoglu |first4=Sait C. |date=2014-08-01 |title=Halogenated volatile organic compounds in chlorine-bleach-containing household products and implications for their use |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1352231014003215 |journal=Atmospheric Environment |volume=92 |pages=376–383 |doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.04.049 |bibcode=2014AtmEn..92..376O |issn=1352-2310|hdl=11147/4607 |hdl-access=free }} Fragrances are often used in hotels and are composed of many different chemicals.

There are many negative health outcomes associated with VOC exposure in hospitality. VOCs present in cleaning supplies can cause skin, eye, nose, and throat irritation, which can develop into dermatitis.{{Cite journal |last1=Hsieh |first1=Yu-Chin (Jerrie) |last2=Apostolopoulos |first2=Yorghos |last3=Sönmez |first3=Sevil |date=2013-05-01 |title=The world at work: hotel cleaners |url=https://oem.bmj.com/content/70/5/360 |journal=Occupational and Environmental Medicine |language=en |volume=70 |issue=5 |pages=360–364 |doi=10.1136/oemed-2012-100986 |issn=1351-0711 |pmid=23343861}} VOCs in cleaning supplies can also cause more serious conditions, such as respiratory diseases and cancer. One study found that n-nonane and formaldehyde were the main drivers of eye and upper respiratory tract irritation while cancer risks were driven by chloroform and formaldehyde. Some solvent-based products have also been shown to cause damage to the kidneys and reproductive organs. One study showed that the star rating of the hotel may influence VOC exposure, as hotels with lower star ratings tend to have lower quality materials for the furnishings.{{Cite journal |last1=Nored |first1=Adam |last2=Fu |first2=Xianqiang |last3=Qi |first3=Rui |last4=Batbaatar |first4=Namuun |last5=Jia |first5=Chunrong |date=November 2024 |title=Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Contamination in Hotel Rooms: A Pilot Study to Understand Sources and Health Risks |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |language=en |volume=21 |issue=11 |pages=1464 |doi=10.3390/ijerph21111464 |doi-access=free |issn=1660-4601|pmc=11594154 }} Additionally, due to a movement among higher-end hotels to be more environmentally friendly, there has been a shift to using less harsh cleaning agents.

Another similar environment that exposes workers to VOCs are retail spaces. Studies have shown that retail spaces have the highest VOC concentrations compared to all other indoor spaces such as residences, offices, and vehicles.{{Cite journal |last1=Loh |first1=Miranda M. |last2=Houseman |first2=E. Andres |last3=Gray |first3=George M. |last4=Levy |first4=Jonathan I. |last5=Spengler |first5=John D. |last6=Bennett |first6=Deborah H. |date=2006-11-01 |title=Measured Concentrations of VOCs in Several Non-Residential Microenvironments in the United States |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/es060197g |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |language=en |volume=40 |issue=22 |pages=6903–6911 |doi=10.1021/es060197g |issn=0013-936X|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Sexton |first1=Ken |last2=Mongin |first2=Steven J. |last3=Adgate |first3=John L. |last4=Pratt |first4=Gregory C. |last5=Ramachandran |first5=Gurumurthy |last6=Stock |first6=Thomas H. |last7=Morandi |first7=Maria T. |date=2007-02-02 |title=Estimating Volatile Organic Compound Concentrations in Selected Microenvironments Using Time–Activity and Personal Exposure Data |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15287390600870858 |journal=Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A |language=en |volume=70 |issue=5 |pages=465–476 |doi=10.1080/15287390600870858 |pmid=17454570 |issn=1528-7394|url-access=subscription }} The concentration of VOCs present as well as the types depend on the type of store, but common sources of VOCs in retail spaces include motor vehicle exhaust, building materials, cleaning products, products, and fragrances.{{Cite journal |last1=Nirlo |first1=E. L. |last2=Crain |first2=N. |last3=Corsi |first3=R. L. |last4=Siegel |first4=J. A. |date=October 2014 |title=Volatile organic compounds in fourteen U.S. retail stores |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ina.12101 |journal=Indoor Air |language=en |volume=24 |issue=5 |pages=484–494 |doi=10.1111/ina.12101|pmid=24471978 |url-access=subscription }} One study found that VOC concentrations were higher in retail storage spaces compared to the sales areas, particularly formaldehyde.{{Cite journal |last1=Robert |first1=Laurence |last2=Guichard |first2=Romain |last3=Klingler |first3=Jennifer |date=2020-11-04 |title=Work Exposure to VOC in Storage Areas of Retail Stores |url=https://academic.oup.com/annweh/article/65/3/319/5956110 |journal=Annals of Work Exposures and Health |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=319–331 |doi=10.1093/annweh/wxaa103 |pmid=33147326 |issn=2398-7308|url-access=subscription }} In retail spaces, formaldehyde concentrations ranged from 8.0 to 19.4 μg/m³ compared to 14.2 to 45.0 μg/m³ in storage spaces. Occupational exposure to VOCs also depends on the task. One study found that workers were exposed to peak total VOC concentrations when they were removing the plastic film off of new products. This peak was 7 times higher than total VOC concentration peaks of all other tasks, contributing greatly to retail workers' exposure to VOCs despite being a relatively short task.

One way that VOC concentrations can be kept minimal within retail and hospitality is by ensuring there is proper air ventilation.Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (2011). Indoor air quality in commercial and institutional buildings (OSHA Publication No. 3430-04). U.S. Department of Labor. https://www.osha.gov/sites/default/files/publications/3430indoor-air-quality-sm.pdf Employers can ensure proper ventilation by placing furniture in a way that enhances air circulation, as well as checking that the HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) system is working properly to remove pollutants from the air. Workers can make sure that air vents are not blocked.

Obtaining samples for analysis is challenging. VOCs, even when at dangerous levels, are dilute, so preconcentration is typically required. Many components of the atmosphere are mutually incompatible, e.g. ozone and organic compounds, peroxyacyl nitrates and many organic compounds. Furthermore, collection of VOCs by condensation in cold traps also accumulates a large amount of water, which generally must be removed selectively, depending on the analytical techniques to be employed.

Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) techniques are used to collect VOCs at low concentrations for analysis.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.chroma.2003.11.069 |title=Identification of volatile organic compounds emitted by a naturally aged book using solid-phase microextraction/gas chromatography/mass spectrometry |year=2004 |last1=Lattuati-Derieux |first1=Agnès |last2=Bonnassies-Termes |first2=Sylvette |last3=Lavédrine |first3=Bertrand |journal=Journal of Chromatography A |volume=1026 |pages=9–18 |pmid=14870711 |issue=1–2}} As applied to breath analysis, the following modalities are employed for sampling: gas sampling bags, syringes, evacuated steel and glass containers.

In the U.S., standard methods have been established by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and another by U.S. OSHA. Each method uses a single component solvent; butanol and hexane cannot be sampled, however, on the same sample matrix using the NIOSH or OSHA method.[http://galsonlabs.com/services/referenceinfo/technical_bulletins.php?tb_id=42 Who Says Alcohol and Benzene Don't Mix?] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415162950/http://galsonlabs.com/services/referenceinfo/technical_bulletins.php?tb_id=42 |date=April 15, 2008 }}

VOCs are quantified and identified by two broad techniques. The major technique is gas chromatography (GC). GC instruments allow the separation of gaseous components. When coupled to a flame ionization detector (FID) GCs can detect hydrocarbons at the parts per trillion levels. Using electron capture detectors, GCs are also effective for organohalide such as chlorocarbons.

The second major technique associated with VOC analysis is mass spectrometry, which is usually coupled with GC, giving the hyphenated technique of GC-MS.{{Cite journal |last1=Fang |first1=Shuting |last2=Liu |first2=Shuqin |last3=Song |first3=Juyi |last4=Huang |first4=Qihong |last5=Xiang |first5=Zhangmin |date=2021-04-01 |title=Recognition of pathogens in food matrixes based on the untargeted in vivo microbial metabolite profiling via a novel SPME/GC × GC-QTOFMS approach |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0963996921001125 |journal=Food Research International |language=en |volume=142 |pages=110213 |doi=10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110213 |pmid=33773687 |s2cid=232407164 |issn=0963-9969|url-access=subscription }}

Direct injection mass spectrometry techniques are frequently utilized for the rapid detection and accurate quantification of VOCs.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.trac.2011.04.005 |title=Direct-injection mass spectrometry adds the time dimension to (B)VOC analysis |year=2011 |last1=Biasioli |first1=Franco |last2=Yeretzian |first2=Chahan |last3=Märk |first3=Tilmann D. |last4=Dewulf |first4=Jeroen |last5=Van Langenhove |first5=Herman |journal=Trends in Analytical Chemistry |volume=30 |pages=1003–1017 |issue=7}} PTR-MS is among the methods that have been used most extensively for the on-line analysis of biogenic and anthropogenic VOCs.{{cite book |last1=Ellis |first1=Andrew M. |last2=Mayhew | first2=Christopher A. |date=2014 |title=Proton Transfer Reaction Mass Spectrometry – Principles and Applications |location=Chichester, West Sussex, UK |publisher=John Wiley & Sons Ltd |isbn=978-1-405-17668-2}} PTR-MS instruments based on time-of-flight mass spectrometry have been reported to reach detection limits of 20 pptv after 100 ms and 750 ppqv after 1 min. measurement (signal integration) time. The mass resolution of these devices is between 7000 and 10,500 m/Δm, thus it is possible to separate most common isobaric VOCs and quantify them independently.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.ijms.2014.05.004 |title=A Proton Transfer Reaction-Quadrupole interface Time-Of-Flight Mass Spectrometer (PTR-QiTOF): High speed due to extreme sensitivity |year=2014 |last1=Sulzer |first1=Philipp |last2=Hartungen |first2=Eugen |last3=Hanel |first3=Gernot |last4=Feil |first4=Stefan |last5=Winkler |first5=Klaus |last6=Mutschlechner |first6=Paul |last7=Haidacher |first7=Stefan |last8=Schottkowsky |first8=Ralf |last9=Gunsch |first9=Daniel |last10=Seehauser |first10=Hans |last11=Striednig |first11=Marcus |last12=Jürschik |first12=Simone |last13=Breiev |first13=Kostiantyn |last14=Lanza |first14=Matteo |last15=Herbig |first15=Jens |last16=Märk |first16=Lukas |last17=Märk |first17=Tilmann D. |last18=Jordan |first18=Alfons |journal=International Journal of Mass Spectrometry |volume=368 |pages=1–5 |bibcode=2014IJMSp.368....1S }}

The exhaled human breath contains a few thousand volatile organic compounds and is used in breath biopsy to serve as a VOC biomarker to test for diseases,{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/acsinfecdis.7b00088|title=Exhaled Volatile Organic Compounds of Infection: A Systematic Review|year=2017|last1=Ahmed|first1=Waqar M.|last2=Lawal|first2=Oluwasola|last3=Nijsen|first3=Tamara M.|last4=Goodacre|first4=Royston|last5=Fowler|first5=Stephen J.|journal=ACS Infectious Diseases|volume=3|issue=10|pages=695–710|pmid=28870074|url=https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/exhaled-volatile-organic-compounds-of-infection-a-systematic-review(4128e0bd-4434-4aef-9e57-c7f2c388c156).html}} such as lung cancer.{{cite journal | last1 = Buszewski | first1 = B. A. | last2 = Kesy | first2 = M. | last3 = Ligor | first3 = T. | last4 = Amann | first4 = A. | title = Human exhaled air analytics: Biomarkers of diseases | journal = Biomedical Chromatography | volume = 21 | issue = 6 | pages = 553–566 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17431933 | doi = 10.1002/bmc.835 | display-authors = 1 | doi-access = free }} One study has shown that "volatile organic compounds ... are mainly blood borne and therefore enable monitoring of different processes in the body."{{cite journal | last1 = Miekisch | first1 = W. | last2 = Schubert | first2 = J. K. | last3 = Noeldge-Schomburg | first3 = G. F. E. | title = Diagnostic potential of breath analysis—focus on volatile organic compounds | journal = Clinica Chimica Acta | volume = 347 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 25–39 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15313139| doi = 10.1016/j.cccn.2004.04.023 }} And it appears that VOC compounds in the body "may be either produced by metabolic processes or inhaled/absorbed from exogenous sources" such as environmental tobacco smoke.{{cite journal | last1 = Mazzone | first1 = P. J. | title = Analysis of Volatile Organic Compounds in the Exhaled Breath for the Diagnosis of Lung Cancer | journal = Journal of Thoracic Oncology | volume = 3 | issue = 7 | pages = 774–780 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18594325 | doi = 10.1097/JTO.0b013e31817c7439 | doi-access = free }} Chemical fingerprinting and breath analysis of volatile organic compounds has also been demonstrated with chemical sensor arrays, which utilize pattern recognition for detection of component volatile organics in complex mixtures such as breath gas.

To achieve comparability of VOC measurements, reference standards traceable to SI units are required. For a number of VOCs gaseous reference standards are available from specialty gas suppliers or national metrology institutes, either in the form of cylinders or dynamic generation methods. However, for many VOCs, such as oxygenated VOCs, monoterpenes, or formaldehyde, no standards are available at the appropriate amount of fraction due to the chemical reactivity or adsorption of these molecules. Currently, several national metrology institutes are working on the lacking standard gas mixtures at trace level concentration, minimising adsorption processes, and improving the zero gas. The final scopes are for the traceability and the long-term stability of the standard gases to be in accordance with the data quality objectives (DQO, maximum uncertainty of 20% in this case) required by the WMO/GAW program.{{cite journal |author=Hoerger, C. C. |author2=Claude, A., Plass-Duelmer, C., Reimann, S., Eckart, E., Steinbrecher, R., Aalto, J., Arduini, J., Bonnaire, N., Cape, J. N., Colomb, A., Connolly, R., Diskova, J., Dumitrean, P., Ehlers, C., Gros, V., Hakola, H., Hill, M., Hopkins, J. R., Jäger, J., Junek, R., Kajos, M. K., Klemp, D., Leuchner, M., Lewis, A. C., Locoge, N., Maione, M., Martin, D., Michl, K., Nemitz, E., O'Doherty, S., Pérez Ballesta, P., Ruuskanen, T. M., Sauvage, S., Schmidbauer, N., Spain, T. G., Straube, E., Vana, M., Vollmer, M. K., Wegener, R., and Wenger, A. |year=2015 |title=ACTRIS non-methane hydrocarbon intercomparison experiment in Europe to support WMO GAW and EMEP observation networks |journal=Atmospheric Measurement Techniques |volume=8 |issue=7 |pages=2715–2736 |bibcode=2015AMT.....8.2715H |doi=10.5194/amt-8-2715-2015 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=1983/f9d95320-dcc6-48d1-a58a-bf310a536b9c}}

• Aroma compound
• Criteria air contaminants
• Fugitive emission
• Non-methane volatile organic compound
• Organic compound
• Trichloroethylene
• Vapor intrusion
• VOC contamination of groundwater
• Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol

{{Reflist}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20040928231843/http://www.ec.gc.ca/nopp/voc/EN/index.cfm Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) web site of the Chemicals Control Branch of Environment Canada]
• [https://www3.epa.gov/region1/airquality/aqi.html EPA New England: Ground-level Ozone (Smog) Information]
• [http://www.envmodels.com/cov.php VOC emissions and calculations]
• [http://www.eurofins.com/ecolabels.aspx Examples of product labels with low VOC emission criteria]
• [http://www.key-vocs.eu/ KEY-VOCS: Metrology for VOC indicators in air pollution and climate change, a European Metrology Research Project.]
• [https://mypaintsprayer.com/voc-in-paint-everything-you-need-to-know/ VOCs in Paints]
• [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/chemicals/about/index.html Chemical Safety in the Workplace], by the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

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