Wayang kulit#Indigenous origin in Java

The term {{tlit|jv|wayang}} ({{langx|jv|ꦮꦪꦁ|label=none}}) is the Javanese word in the ngoko register for "shadow"Mair, Victor H. Painting and Performance: Picture Recitation and Its Indian Genesis. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1988. p. 58. or "imagination". Its equivalent in Indonesian is {{lang|id|bayang}}. In modern daily Javanese and Indonesian vocabulary, {{tlit|jv|wayang}} can refer to the puppet itself or the whole puppet theatre performance. {{tlit|jv|Kulit}} ({{langx|jv|ꦏꦸꦭꦶꦠ꧀}}) means "skin" or "leather",{{Harvcoltxt|Robson|Wibisono|2002|pp=409}} the material from which the figures are carved.

File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Wajang kulit voorstelling begeleid door een gamelanorkest TMnr 10017906.jpg, between 1862 and 1872]]

{{tlit|jv|Wayang}} is the traditional puppet theatre of Indonesia.{{cite book |author=James R. Brandon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g-tAlBV5_LkC |title=Theatre in Southeast Asia |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-674-02874-6 |pages=143–145, 352–353}}{{cite encyclopedia |year=2012 |title=Wayang: Indonesian Theatre |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/wayang}}{{cite book |author1=Don Rubin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=maGU4ziPQJQC&pg=PA184 |title=The World Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre: Asia/Pacific |author2=Chua Soo Pong |author3=Ravi Chaturvedi |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-26087-9 |pages=184–186 |display-authors=etal}} It is an ancient form of storytelling known for its elaborate puppets and complex musical styles.{{cite web |title="Wayang puppet theatre", Inscribed in 2008 (3.COM) on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (originally proclaimed in 2003) |url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00011&RL=00063 |access-date=10 October 2014 |publisher=UNESCO}} The earliest evidence of {{tlit|jv|wayang}} comes from medieval-era texts and archeological sites dating from the late 1st millennium CE. There are four theories concerning where {{tlit|jv|wayang}} originated (indigenous to Java; Java–India; India; and China), but of these, two are more favored: Java and India.

Regardless of its origins, states Brandon, {{tlit|jv|wayang}} developed and matured into a Javanese phenomenon. There is no true contemporary puppet shadow artwork in either China or India with the sophistication, depth, and creativity expressed in {{tlit|jv|wayang}} in Java, Indonesia.

According to academic James R. Brandon, the puppets of {{tlit|jv|wayang}} are native to Java. He states {{tlit|jv|wayang}} is closely related to Javanese social culture and religious life, and presents parallel developments from ancient Indonesian culture, such as gamelan, the monetary system, metric forms, batik, astronomy, wet rice field agriculture, and government administration. He asserts that {{tlit|jv|wayang}} was not derived from any other type of shadow puppetry of mainland Asia, but was an indigenous creation of the Javanese. Indian puppets differ from {{tlit|jv|wayang}}, and all {{tlit|jv|wayang}} technical terms are Javanese, not Sanskrit. Similarly, some of the other technical terms used in the {{tlit|jv|wayang kulit}} found in Java and Bali are based on local languages, even when the play overlaps with Buddhist or Hindu mythologies.{{cite book |author=James R. Brandon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g-tAlBV5_LkC |title=Theatre in Southeast Asia |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-674-02874-6 |pages=42–44, 65, 92–94, 278}}

G. A. J. Hazeu{{who|date=October 2023}} also says that {{tlit|jv|wayang}} came from Java. The puppet structure, puppeteering techniques, storytelling voices, language, and expressions are all composed according to old traditions. The technical design, the style, and the composition of the Javanese play grew from the worship of ancestors.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}

Kats{{who|date=March 2023}} argues that the technical terms come from Java and that {{tlit|jv|wayang}} was born without the help of India. Before the 9th century, it belonged to the Javanese. It was closely related to religious practices, such as incense and night / wandering spirits. Panakawan uses a Javanese name, different from the Indian heroes.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}

Kruyt{{who|date=March 2023}} argues that {{tlit|jv|wayang}} originated from shamanism, and makes comparisons with ancient archipelago ceremonial forms which aim to contact the spirit world by presenting religious poetry praising the greatness of the soul.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}

The movement of the Javanese across Maritime Southeast Asia right up to the 20th century has also spread art form beyond its insular origin; this may come directly performed in areas where many Javanese settled such as western Selangor in Peninsular Malaysia,{{cite journal|journal=Paramita: Historical Studies Journal|pages=52, 54–5|volume=28|issue=1|year=2018|issn=0854-0039|doi=10.15294/paramita.v28i1.10923|title=Tracing Javanese Identity And Culture In Malaysia Asimilation And Adaptation Of Javanese In Malaysia|author1=Linda Sunarti|author2=Teuku Reza Fadeli|doi-broken-date=10 June 2025 }} or indirectly integrating local elements, such as the Wayang Kulit Kelantan performed in Kelantan north of the Peninsular where Kelantanese dalang was said to have learned from original masters themselves in Java.{{cite journal|title=Malay Theatre: Intangible Cultural Heritage and Islam: Wayang Kulit Kelantan and Mak Yong by Kathy Foley and Patricia Hardwick, and: Tradition in Transition: Intangible Heritage in South and Southeast Asia (review) |author=Maho A. Ishiguro|journal=Asian Theatre Journal|volume=35|number=1|date=Spring 2018|pages=216–21|doi=10.1353/atj.2018.0024 }}

File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Messingen wandlamp in de vorm van een gekroonde Garuda het heilige rijdier van de hindoe-god Vishnu TMnr 235-2.jpg bird for {{tlit|jv|wayang kulit}} performances, before 1924]]

Hinduism and Buddhism arrived on the Indonesian islands in the early centuries of the 1st millennium, and along with theology, the peoples of Indonesia and the Indian subcontinent exchanged culture, architecture, and traded goods.{{cite journal |last=Miyao |first=J. |year=1977 |title=P. L. Amin Sweeney and Akira Goto (ed.) An International Seminar on the Shadow Plays of Asia |journal=Southeast Asia: History and Culture |publisher=Japan Society for Southeast Asian Studies |volume=1977 |issue=7 |pages=142–146 |doi=10.5512/sea.1977.142 |doi-access=free}}{{cite book |author=Yves Bonnefoy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r4I-FsZCzJEC&pg=PA162 |title=Asian Mythologies |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-226-06456-7 |page=162}} Puppet arts and dramatic plays have been documented in ancient Indian texts, dating to the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE and the early centuries of the Common Era.{{cite book |author=Kathy Foley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1iFCwAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook of Asian Theatre |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-27886-3 |editor=Siyuan Liu |pages=181–182}} Further, the eastern coastal region of India (Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu), which most interacted with Indonesian islands, has had traditions of intricate, leather-based puppet arts called tholu bommalata, tholpavakoothu, and rabana chhaya, which share many elements with {{tlit|jv|wayang}}.{{cite book |author=Kathy Foley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1iFCwAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook of Asian Theatre |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-27886-3 |editor=Siyuan Liu |pages=182–184}}

Some characters such as the Vidusaka in Sanskrit drama and Semar in {{tlit|jv|wayang}} are very similar. Indian mythologies and characters from the Hindu epics feature in many major {{tlit|jv|wayang}} plays, which suggests possible Indian origins, or at least an influence in the pre-Islamic period of Indonesian history. Jivan Pani states that {{tlit|jv|wayang}} developed from two art forms from Odisha in eastern India: the Ravana Chhaya puppet theatre and the Chhau dance.{{cite book |last=Varadpande |first=Manohar Laxman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyxOHOCVcVkC&pg=PA75 |title=History of Indian Theatre, Volume 1 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |year=1987 |isbn=9788170172215 |location=New Delhi |page=75}}

The oldest known record concerning {{tlit|jv|wayang}} is from the 9th century. Old Javanese (Kawi) inscriptions called Jaha Inscriptions, dating from around 840 CE and issued by Maharaja Sri Lokapala from the Mataram Kingdom in Central Java, mention three sorts of performers: {{tlit|kaw|atapukan}} ({{lit|mask dance show}}), {{tlit|kaw|aringgit}} ({{lit|wayang puppet show}}), and {{tlit|kaw|abanwal}} / {{tlit|kaw|abanol}} ({{lit|joke art}}). {{tlit|kaw|Ringgit}} is described in an 11th-century Javanese poem as a leather shadow figure.

In 903 CE, the Mantyasih inscription (Balitung charter) was created by King Balitung of the Sanjaya dynasty of the Ancient Mataram Kingdom. They state, "{{tlit|kaw|Si Galigi Mawayang Buat Hyang Macarita Bimma Ya Kumara}}", which means 'Galigi held a puppet show for gods by taking the story of Bima Kumara'.{{cite web |title=Keragaman Wayang Indonesia |url=https://indonesia.go.id/ragam/seni/seni/keragaman-wayang-indonesia |access-date=12 December 2020 |publisher=indonesia.go.id}} It seems certain features of traditional puppet theatre have survived from that time. Galigi was an itinerant performer who was requested to perform for a special royal occasion. At that event, he performed a story about the hero Bhima from the Mahabharata.

File:Arjunawiwaha canto 5.jpg is written by Mpu Kanwa in 1035 CE|center]]

Mpu Kanwa, the poet of Airlangga's court of the Kahuripan kingdom, writes in 1035 CE in his kakawin (narrative poem) Arjunawiwaha, "{{tlit|kaw|santoṣâhĕlĕtan kĕlir sira sakêng sang hyang Jagatkāraṇa}}", which means, "He is steadfast and just a {{tlit|kaw|wayang}} screen away from the 'Mover of the World'." As {{tlit|kaw|kĕlir}} is the Javanese word for the {{tlit|kaw|wayang}} screen, the verse eloquently compares actual life to a {{tlit|kaw|wayang}} performance where the almighty {{tlit|kaw|Jagatkāraṇa}} (the mover of the world) as the ultimate {{tlit|kaw|dalang}} (puppet master) is just a thin screen away from mortals. This reference to {{tlit|jv|wayang}} as shadow plays suggested that {{tlit|jv|wayang}} performance was already familiar in Airlangga's court and {{tlit|jv|wayang}} tradition had been established in Java, perhaps even earlier. An inscription from this period also mentions some occupations such as {{tlit|jv|awayang}} and {{tlit|jv|aringgit}}.{{cite book |author=Drs. R. Soekmono |title=Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2, 2nd ed. 5th reprint edition in 1988 |publisher=Penerbit Kanisius |year=1973 |location=Yogyakarta |page=56}}

{{tlit|jv|Wayang kulit}} is a unique form of theatre employing light and shadow. The puppets are crafted from buffalo hide and mounted on bamboo sticks. When held up behind a piece of white cloth, with an electric bulb or an oil lamp as the light source, shadows are cast on the screen. The plays are typically based on romantic tales and religious legends, especially adaptations of the classic Indian epics, the Mahabharata, and the Ramayana. Some of the plays are also based on local stories like Panji tales.{{cite web |title=Cerita Panji, Pusaka Budaya Nusantara yang tidak Habis Digali |url=https://mediaindonesia.com/weekend/293393/cerita-panji-pusaka-budaya-nusantara-yang-tidak-habis-digali |access-date=13 February 2021 |publisher=www.mediaindonesia.com}}

File:Pertunjukan Wayang Kulit.jpg in Javanese wayang kulit performance, marked the opening and the separations between scenes. The perforated wayang creates an exquisite shadow.]]

The wayang comes in sizes from 25 cm to 75 cm. The important characters are usually represented by several puppets each. The wayang is usually made out of water buffalo and goat hide and mounted onto bamboo sticks. However, the best wayang is typically made from young female buffalo parchment, cured for up to ten years. The carving and punching of the rawhide, which is most responsible for the character's image and the shadows that are cast, are guided by this sketch. A mallet is used to tap special tools, called tatah, to punch the holes through the rawhide. Making the wayang sticks from the horn is a complicated process of sawing, heating, hand-molding, and sanding until the desired effect is achieved. When the materials are ready, the artist attaches the handle by precisely molding the ends of the horn around the individual wayang figure and securing it with thread. A large character may take months to produce.

There are important differences between the three islands where {{tlit|jv|wayang kulit}} is played (due to local religious canon).

Claire Holt. Art in Indonesia, Continuities and Changes. Cornell University Press.

Guenter Spitzing. Das Indonesische Schattenspiel. Dumont Taschenbuecher.

In Java (where Islam is predominant), the puppets (named ringgit) are elongated, the play lasts all night and the lamp ({{tlt|jv|bléncong}}) is, nowadays, almost always electric. A full gamelan with (pe)sinden is typically used.James R. Brandon. On Thrones of Gold, Javanese Shadow Plays. Harvard University Press.

COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Wajang kulit pop voorstellende Kumbakarna. TMnr 8-276.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang Kulit}} (Shadow Puppet) Kumbakarna, Tropenmuseum Collections, Indonesia, before 1914

COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Wajangfiguur van perkament voorstellende Gatot Kaca TMnr 8-273.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang Kulit}} (Shadow Puppet) Gatot Kaca, Tropenmuseum Collections, Indonesia, before 1914

COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Wajangpop van karbouwenhuid voorstellende Wibisana TMnr 809-29a.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang Kulit}} (Shadow Puppet) Wibisana, Tropenmuseum Collections, Indonesia before 1933

COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Wajangpop TMnr 4833-101.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang Kulit}} (Shadow Puppet) Princess Shinta, Tropenmuseum Collections, Indonesia before 1983

COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Wajang kulit pop voorstellende Yudhistira TMnr 8-264.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang Kulit}} (Shadow Puppet) Yudhishthira, Tropenmuseum Collections, Indonesia before 1914

COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Wajangfiguur voorstellende de hemelnymf Dewi Tari TMnr 883-13.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang Kulit}} (Shadow Puppet) Princess Tari, Tropenmuseum Collections, Indonesia before 1934

In Bali (where Hinduism is predominant), the puppets look more realistic, the play lasts a few hours, and, at night, the lamp uses coconut oil. Music is mainly by the four-gender wayang, with drums only if the story is from the Ramayana. There are no sinden. The dalang does the singing. Balinese dalangs are often also priests (amangku dalang). As such, they may also perform during daylight, for religious purposes (exorcism), without a lamp and screen (wayang sakral, or "lemah")[https://books.google.com/books?id=qbz-WGBustUC&dq=amangku+dalang&pg=PA14 Religion in Bali, by C. Hooykaas, University of Leiden]

File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Wajangfiguur voorstellende Anggada TMnr 15-954-31.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang Kulit}} (Shadow Puppet) Anggada, Tropenmuseum Collections, Indonesia, before 1900

File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Wajangfiguur voorstellende Jayadrata TMnr 15-954-23.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang Kulit}} (Shadow Puppet) Jayadrata, Tropenmuseum Collections, Indonesia, before 1900

File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Wajangfiguur voorstellende Kendran TMnr 15-954-13.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang Kulit}} (Shadow Puppet) Kendran, Tropenmuseum Collections, Indonesia, before 1900

File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Wajangfiguur voorstellende Sangruda TMnr 15-954-40.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang Kulit}} (Shadow Puppet) Sangruda, Tropenmuseum Collections, Indonesia, before 1900

File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Wajangfiguur voorstellende Duryadana TMnr 15-954-91.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang Kulit}} (Shadow Puppet) Duryadana, Tropenmuseum Collections, Indonesia, before 1900

File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Wajangfiguur voorstellende Gatakaca TMnr 15-954-93.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang Kulit}} (Shadow Puppet) Gatakaca, Tropenmuseum Collections, Indonesia, before 1900

In Lombok (where Islam is predominant and Bali's influence is strong), vernacular {{tlit|jv|wayang kulit}} is known as wayang sasak, with puppets similar to Javanese ringgits, a small orchestra with no sinden, but flutes, metallophones and drums. The repertoire is unique to the island and is based on the Muslim Menak Cycle (the adventures of Amir Hamzah).

File:ZP 05 Repatmaja 00.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang Kulit}} (Shadow Puppet) Repatmaja, Indonesia, 2006

File:ZP 05 Jin Jaswadi 00.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang Kulit}} (Shadow Puppet) Jin Jaswadi, Indonesia, 2003

File:ZP 05 Selandir 00.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang Kulit}} (Shadow Puppet) Selandir, Indonesia, 2003

File:ZP 05 Kuraisin 00.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang Kulit}} (Shadow Puppet) Kuraisin, Indonesia, 2003

File:ZP 05 Umarmaya 00.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang Kulit}} (Shadow Puppet) Umarmaya, Indonesia, 2006

File:ZP 05 Putri Munigarim 01.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang Kulit}} (Shadow Puppet) Putri Munigarim, Indonesia, 2006

In the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, members of Javanese diaspora communities continued the art form from the nineteenth century, until the death of Nek Ichang, the island's dalang (puppeteer) in 1949.{{Cite book|last=Ricasa|first=Lourdes Odette Aquitania|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v70xEAAAQBAJ&dq=pulu+cocos+museum&pg=PT216|title=Love Echoes...Share and Inspire|date=2020-12-21|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-6655-0940-4|language=en}}{{Cite web|title=Cocos (Keeling) Islands Shadow Puppets|url=https://australiapostcollectables.com.au/stamp-issues/cocos-keeling-islands-shadow-puppets|access-date=2021-09-04|website=Australia Post Collectables|language=en}} Examples of the {{tlit|jv|wayang kulit}} are in the collection of Pulu Cocos Museum and were featured on a set of Australian $1 and $2 stamps in 2018.

File:Dalang Cilik di Ibu Kota.jpg.]]

The stage of a {{tlit|jv|wayang}} performance includes several components. A stretched linen canvas ({{langx|jv|ꦏꦼꦭꦶꦂ|translit=kelir}}){{Harvcoltxt|Robson|Wibisono|2002|pp=350}} acts as a canvas, dividing the {{lang|id|dalang}} (puppeteer) and the spectator. A coconut oil lamp ({{langx|jv|ꦧ꧀ꦭꦺꦚ꧀ꦕꦺꦴꦁ|translit=bléncong}};{{Harvcoltxt|Robson|Wibisono|2002|pp=102}} {{langx|ban|damar}}) – which in modern times is usually replaced with electric light – casts shadows onto the screen. A banana trunk ({{langx|jv|ꦒꦼꦢꦼꦧꦺꦴꦒ꧀|translit=gedebog}};{{Harvcoltxt|Robson|Wibisono|2002|pp=236}} {{langx|ban|gedebong}}) lies on the ground between the screen and the {{lang|id|dalang}}, where the figures are stuck to hold them in place. To the right of the {{lang|id|dalang}} sits the puppet chest, which the {{lang|id|dalang}} uses as a drum during the performance, hitting it with a wooden mallet. In a Javanese {{tlit|jv|wayang kulit}} performance, the {{lang|id|dalang}} may use a cymbal-like percussion instrument at his feet to cue the musicians. The musicians sit behind the {{lang|id|dalang}} in a gamelan orchestra setting. The gamelan orchestra is an integral part of the Javanese {{tlit|jv|wayang kulit}} performance. The performance is accompanied by female singers ({{tlit|jv|pasindhèn}}) and male singers (wirasuara).

File:Wayang kulit warisan budaya.jpg

The setting of the banana trunk on the ground and the canvas in the air symbolizes the earth and the sky; the whole composition symbolizes the entire cosmos. When the {{lang|id|dalang}} animates the puppet figures and moves them across the screen, divine forces are understood to be acting in the hands with which he directs the happening. The lamp is a symbol of the sun as well as the eye of the {{lang|id|dalang}}.{{cite journal |last1=Foley |first1=Kathy |title=My Bodies: The Performer in West Java |journal=TDR |date=1990 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=62–80 |doi=10.2307/1146027 |jstor=1146027 }} here p. 75f.

A traditional {{tlit|jv|wayang kulit}} performance begins after dark. The first of the three phases, in which the characters are introduced and the conflict is launched, lasts until midnight. The battles and intrigues of the second phase last about three hours. The third phase of reconciliation and friendship is finished at dawn.{{cite journal |last1=Korsovitis |first1=Constantine |title=Ways of the Wayang |journal=India International Centre Quarterly |date=2001 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=59–68 |jstor=23005511 }} here p. 60.

{{tlit|jv|Wayang}} shadow plays are usually tales from the two major Hindu epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The puppet master contextualizes stories from the plays, making them relevant to current community, national, or global issues. Gamelan players respond to the direction of the {{lang|id|dalang}}.

Wayang kulit lit.jpg|The puppet figures of a Javanese {{tlit|jv|wayang kulit}}

Wayang kulit painter.jpg|Painting the {{tlit|jv|wayang kulit}} in a Yogyakarta factory

Wayang Kulit maker.jpg|Carving the leather in a Yogyakarta factory

Wayang Kulit in Bali.jpg|In the specialized village of Sukawati, Bali

Making of a Ringgit.jpg|All stages of the making of a {{tlit|jv|wayang kulit}}

Wayang Kulit, Central Java.jpg|Central Javanese {{tlit|jv|wayang kulit}}

Wayang Kulit, Bali.jpg|Balinese {{tlit|jv|wayang kulit}}

Pagelaran-wayang-kulit.jpg|{{tlit|jv|Wayang kulit}} performance

{{Portal|Theatre|Indonesia}}

{{Commons category|Wayang kulit}}

• Wayang
• Wayang golek
• Wayang beber
• Culture of Indonesia

{{Reflist}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{cite book

|last1 = Robson |first1 = Stuart

|last2 = Wibisono |first2 = Singgih

|year = 2002

|title = Javanese English Dictionary

|publisher = Periplus Editions

|isbn = 0-7946-0000-X

}}

{{refend}}

• {{Cite web|url=http://www.balibeyond.com/wayang.html|title=Bali & Beyond Educational Resources|website=www.balibeyond.com|access-date=2016-05-21}}
• {{Cite web|url=http://minyos.its.rmit.edu.au/~dwa/WayangKulit.html|title=Wayang Kulit - a shadow play|website=minyos.its.rmit.edu.au|access-date=2016-05-21}}
• Shadow Music of Java, CD with thirteen-page booklet. Rounder CD 5060.
• {{cite journal |last1=Ghani |first1=Dahlan Abdul |last2=Ishak |first2=Sidin Bin Ahmad |title=Relationship Between The Art of Wayang Kulit and Disney's Twelve Principles of Animation |journal=Revista de Cercetare şi Intervenţie Socială |date=2012 |issue=37 |pages=162–179 |url=https://www.rcis.ro/images/documente/rcis37_09.pdf }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Yousof |first1=Ghulam-Sarwar |last2=Khor |first2=Kheng-Kia |title=Wayang Kulit Kelantan: A Study of Characterization and Puppets |journal=Asian Theatre Journal |date=2017 |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=1–25 |doi=10.1353/atj.2017.0002 |s2cid=164974717 }}
• https://www.storiesbysoumya.com/wayang-kulit-indonesian-shadow-puppets/

{{Indonesian drama and theatre}}

{{Indonesia UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage}}

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Kulit

Category:Culture of Indonesia

Category:Javanese culture

Category:Theatre of Indonesia

Category:Traditional drama and theatre of Indonesia

Category:Shadow play