Wine#Islam

File:Georgian Kvevri.jpg, historically used in wine making.]]

File:Areni-1 cave entrance.jpg in Armenia is home to the world's oldest known winery.]]

{{Main|History of wine}}

The earliest known traces of wine are from Georgia ({{circa|6000 BCE}}).{{cite journal |last=Doce |first=Elisa Guerra |year=2004 |title=The Origins of Inebriation: Archaeological Evidence of the Consumption of Fermented Beverages and Drugs in Prehistoric Eurasia |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-014-9205-z |journal=Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=751–782 |doi=10.1007/s10816-014-9205-z |s2cid=143750976 |issn=1072-5369|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41977709|title=Georgia made 'world's oldest wine'|publisher=BBC News|date=13 November 2017|access-date=21 July 2018|archive-date=14 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114041222/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41977709|url-status=live}}{{cite news |title='World's oldest wine' found in 8,000-year-old jars in Georgia |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41977709 |publisher=BBC News |date=13 November 2017 |access-date=21 July 2018 |archive-date=14 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114041222/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41977709 |url-status=live}}{{cite journal |last1=McGovern |first1=Patrick |last2=Jalabadze |first2=Mindia |last3=Batiuk |first3=Stephen |last4=Callahan |first4=Michael P. |last5=Smith |first5=Karen E. |last6=Hall |first6=Gretchen R. |last7=Kvavadze |first7=Eliso |last8=Maghradze |first8=David |last9=Rusishvili |first9=Nana |last10=Bouby |first10=Laurent |last11=Failla |first11=Osvaldo |last12=Cola |first12=Gabriele |last13=Mariani |first13=Luigi |last14=Boaretto |first14=Elisabetta |last15=Bacilieri |first15=Roberto |last16=This |first16=Patrice |last17=Wales |first17=Nathan |last18=Lordkipanidze |first18=David |title=Early Neolithic wine of Georgia in the South Caucasus |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=28 November 2017 |volume=114 |issue=48 |pages=E10309–E10318 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1714728114|pmid=29133421 |pmc=5715782 |bibcode=2017PNAS..11410309M |display-authors=2|doi-access=free}} Both archaeological and genetic evidence suggest that the earliest production of wine outside Georgia was relatively later, likely having taken place elsewhere in the Southern Caucasus or the region between Eastern Anatolia and northern Iran.{{cite web |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-beer-archaeologist-17016372/?no-ist |title=The Beer Archaeologist |first=Abigail |last=Tucker |date=August 2011 |work=Smithsonian Magazine |access-date=19 February 2022 |archive-date=2 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202085143/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-beer-archaeologist-17016372/?no-ist |url-status=live}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.penn.museum/sites/biomoleculararchaeology/?page_id=82 |title=Grape Wine |last=McGovern |first=Patrick E. |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology |access-date=19 February 2022 |archive-date=6 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100906045247/https://www.penn.museum/sites/biomoleculararchaeology/?page_id=82 |url-status=live}} The earliest known winery, from 4100 BCE, is the Areni-1 winery in Armenia.{{cite web |date=12 January 2011 |title=Earliest Known Winery Found in Armenian Cave |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/01/110111-oldest-wine-press-making-winery-armenia-science-ucla/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224072812/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/01/110111-oldest-wine-press-making-winery-armenia-science-ucla/ |archive-date=24 February 2017 |access-date=28 March 2011}}{{Cite web |title=Backdirt | UCLA Cotsen Institute of Archaeology |url=https://ioa.ucla.edu/content/backdirt |website=ioa.ucla.edu |access-date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=30 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130205739/https://ioa.ucla.edu/content/backdirt |url-status=live}}

The spread of wine culture in the Mediterranean was probably due to the influence of the Phoenicians from about 1000 BCE.{{cite book |last=McGovern |first=Patrick E. |date=2003 |title=Ancient wine: the search for the origins of viniculture |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691070803}}{{page needed|date=March 2025}}{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Hugh |last2=Robinson |first2=Jancis |title=The World Atlas of Wine |date=2019 |publisher=Mitchell Beazley |location=London |isbn=9781784724030 |edition=8th |pages=10–11}} The wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean.{{cite book | last=Johnson |first=Hugh | title=Vintage: The Story of Wine | page=[https://archive.org/details/vintagestoryofwi00john/page/32 32] | publisher=Simon and Schuster | year=1989 | isbn=978-0-671-68702-1 | url=https://archive.org/details/vintagestoryofwi00john/page/32}} Industrialized production of wine in ancient Greece began around 600 BCE and spread across the Italian peninsula and to southern Gaul. The ancient Romans further increased the scale of wine production and trade networks, especially in Gaul around the time of the Gallic Wars, and many famous vineyards date from Roman occupation.{{cite book |first=Hugh |last=Johnson |title=Vintage: The Story of Wine |pages=86–87 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |date=1992 |ol=7665276M}} The Romans discovered that burning sulfur candles inside empty wine vessels kept them fresh and free from a vinegar smell, due to the antioxidant effects of sulfur dioxide.{{cite web|url=http://www.practicalwinery.com/janfeb09/page1.htm |work=Practical Winery & Vineyard Journal |issue=January/February 2009 |last=Henderson |first=Pat |title=Sulfur Dioxide: Science behind this anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, wine additive |date=1 February 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928111625/http://www.practicalwinery.com/janfeb09/page1.htm|archive-date=28 September 2013}}

In medieval Europe, Catholic monks grew grapes and made wine for the Eucharist.{{cite book |last=Phillips |first=Rod |title=A Short History of Wine |date=12 November 2002 |publisher=Harper Perennial |isbn=978-0-06-093737-9 |pages=62–63}} Monasteries expanded their land holdings over time and established vineyards in many of today's most successful wine regions. Bordeaux was a notable exception, being a purely commercial enterprise serving the Duchy of Aquitaine and by association Britain between the 12th and 15th centuries.

European wine grape traditions were incorporated into New World wine. Mission grapes were brought by Franciscan monks to New Mexico in 1628, beginning the New Mexico wine heritage. These grapes were also brought to California which started the California wine industry. These two regions eventually evolved into the oldest and largest producers, respectively, of wine of the United States.{{cite web |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |url=http://www.fas.usda.gov/agx/ISMG/Global%20Wine%20Report%20Final%20Aug2006.pdf |title=Global Wine Report August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408235146/http://www.fas.usda.gov/agx/ISMG/Global%20Wine%20Report%20Final%20Aug2006.pdf |archive-date=8 April 2008 |pages=7–9}}{{cite book | last1=Birchell | first1=D.B. | last2=Steel | first2=G. | title=New Mexico Wine: An Enchanting History | publisher=American Palate | series=American Palate Series | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-60949-643-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5f0kvgAACAAJ | language=it | access-date=15 November 2019}}{{page needed|date=March 2025}}

File:Word for Wine in European languages.svg

{{Contains special characters |section=section|special=Linear B Unicode characters |fix= Help:Multilingual_support#Linear B |characters=Linear B}}

The modern English word "wine" comes from the Old English wīn, descended from the Latin vīnum and adopted while the latin v was still pronounced as a modern {{IPA|[w]}}. The Latin vītis and vīnea led to the French {{lang|fr|vigne}}, which was subsequently introduced to England during the Norman Conquest, becoming wīngeard (eventually "vineyard") and "vine".{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=768}}

vītis is related to an Indo-European verb-root meaning to "wind" or "twine", but the origins of vīnum and vīnea are unclear.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=768}} Some scholars have noted the similarities between the words for wine in Indo-European languages (e.g. Armenian gini, Ancient Greek οἶνος, Russian вино {{IPA|ru|vʲɪˈno|}}), Kartvelian (e.g. Georgian ღვინო {{IPA|ka|ˈɣvino|}}), and Semitic (*wayn; Hebrew יין {{IPA|he|jajin|}}), pointing to the possibility of a common origin of the word denoting "wine" in these language families.{{cite book |first=Benjamin W. |last=Fortson IV |title=Indo-European Language and Culture, an introduction |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |date=2010 |page=42 |isbn=9781405188968 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_kn5c5dJmNUC&q=wine |via=Google books}} The Georgian word goes back to Proto-Kartvelian *ɣwino-,{{cite book |last=Klimov |first=Georgij |date=1998 |title=Etymological Dictionary of the Kartvelian Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3B1ryOyFPFkC |location=Berlin |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |page=227 |isbn=978-3-11-015658-4 |access-date=26 April 2015}} which is either a borrowing from Proto-Indo-European{{Cite book |last=Whitehead |first=Benedicte Nielsen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vm2SugMy8C0C&dq=%C9%A3wino&pg=PA505 |title=The Sound of Indo-European: Phonetics, Phonemics, and Morphophonemics |date=2012 |publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press |isbn=978-87-635-3838-1 |pages=505 |language=en}} or the lexeme was specifically borrowed from Proto-Armenian *ɣʷeinyo-, whence Armenian gini.{{cite book|last=Martirosyan|first=Hrach|author-link=Hrach Martirosyan|title=Etymological Dictionary of the Armenian Inherited Lexicon|url=https://archive.org/details/etymologicaldict00mart|url-access=limited|year=2010|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|location=Leiden, Boston|page=[https://archive.org/details/etymologicaldict00mart/page/n227 214]|isbn=9789004173378}}{{cite book|last=Adjarian|first=Hrachia |authorlink=Hrachia Acharian |title=Hayerēn armatakan baṙaran [Dictionary of Armenian Root Words]|publisher=Yerevan State University|location=Yerevan|page=559|volume=I|url=http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=7&pageNumber=564|language=hy|access-date=6 April 2014|archive-date=26 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226011243/http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=7&pageNumber=564|url-status=live}}{{cite web|last=Starostin|first=Sergei|title=Kartvelian Etymology database|url=http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=config&morpho=0&basename=%5Cdata%5Ckart%5Ckartet&first=1&text_proto=%C9%A3wino&method_proto=substring|access-date=6 April 2014|archive-date=7 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407095237/http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=config&morpho=0&basename=%5Cdata%5Ckart%5Ckartet&first=1&text_proto=%C9%A3wino&method_proto=substring|url-status=live}}{{cite book|first=Robert S. P.|last=Beekes|author-link=Robert S. P. Beekes|year=2010|title=Etymological Dictionary of Greek|location=Leiden, Boston|publisher=Brill|page=1059|volume=II|series=Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, volume 10|others=with the assistance of Lucien van Beek}}{{verification needed|date=December 2023}} An alternative hypothesis by Fähnrich supposes *ɣwino-, a native Kartvelian word derived from the verbal root *ɣun- ('to bend').{{cite book|last=Fähnrich|first=Heinz|title=Kartwelisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch|url=https://archive.org/details/kartwelischesety00fhnr|url-access=limited|year=2007|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden, Boston|page=[https://archive.org/details/kartwelischesety00fhnr/page/n485 486]|isbn=9789004161092|language=de}}See *ɣwino- for more.

{{also|Wine color}}

Wine is made in many ways from different fruits. The term does not typically include drinks made from starches (e.g. beer), honey (mead), apples (cider) or pears (perry), or a liquid which is subsequently distilled to make liquor. The unqualified term "wine" typically refers to a drink made from fermented grape juice;{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=768}} alcoholic drinks from other fruits are generically called fruit wine.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=291}}

Most fruits other than grapes lack sufficient fermentable sugars, are overly acidic, and do not have enough nutrients for yeast, necessitating winemaker intervention. They do not typically improve with age, and last less than a year after bottling. Fruit wines are particularly popular in North America and Scandinavia.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=291}}

The type of grape used and the amount of skin contact while the juice is being extracted determines the color and general style of the wine. The color has no relation to a wine's sweetness—all may be made sweet or dry.

{{Main|Red wine}}

Red wine is made from dark-colored red grape varieties, and the actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=564}} Red wine gains its color and flavor (notably, tannins) from the grape skin, by allowing the grapes to soak in the extracted juice.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=414}} The juice from most red grapes is actually pale gray;{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=322}} the red color comes from anthocyanins present in the skin of the grape.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=414}} Exceptions to this include the family of teinturier varieties and some versions of Gamay, which actually have red flesh.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|pp=688-689}}

{{Main|White wine}}

White wine is typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. However, red grapes may be used to make a white wine if the winemaker separates the skins from the juice quickly after pressing to minimize skin contact, and white champagne commonly uses red grapes in this way.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|pp=765-766}} When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor, or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours;{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=632}} any longer leads to astringency and bitterness. Consequently, unlike red wines, whites lack anthocyanins and pigmented tannins.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|pp=765-766}}

{{Main|Rosé wine}}

A rosé wine gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=593}}

There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of skin contact after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine. This practise is not allowed in most controlled wine regions, although Champagne is a notable exception.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=593}}

{{Main|Orange wine}}

Sometimes called amber wines, these are wines made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent end result.{{sfn|Johnson|Robinson|2019|p=33}}

{{Main|Sparkling wine}}

These are effervescent wines, made in any of the above styles (i.e, orange, red, rosé, white). They must undergo secondary fermentation to create carbon dioxide, which remains dissolved in the wine under pressure in the sealed container.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=657}}

Two common methods of accomplishing this are the traditional method, used for Cava, Champagne, and more expensive sparkling wines, and the Charmat method, used for Prosecco, Asti, and less expensive wines. A hybrid transfer method is also used, yielding intermediate results, and simple addition of carbon dioxide is used in the cheapest of wines.{{Cite journal|last1=Culbert|first1=Julie|last2=Cozzolino|first2=Daniel|last3=Ristic|first3=Renata|last4=Wilkinson|first4=Kerry|date=2015-05-08|title=Classification of Sparkling Wine Style and Quality by MIR Spectroscopy|journal=Molecules|language=en|volume=20|issue=5|pages=8341–8356|doi=10.3390/molecules20058341|pmid=26007169|pmc=6272211|doi-access=free}}

The bottles used for sparkling wine must be thick to withstand the pressure of the gas behind the cork, which can be up to {{Convert|6|atm|psi}}.{{Cite web|title=How much pressure is there in a champagne bottle?|url=https://www.sciencefocus.com/science/how-much-pressure-is-there-in-a-champagne-bottle/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=BBC Science Focus Magazine|date=22 July 2009 |language=en|archive-date=4 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604204135/https://www.sciencefocus.com/science/how-much-pressure-is-there-in-a-champagne-bottle/|url-status=live}}

{{main|Dessert wine}}

{{also|Sweetness of wine|Sugars in wine}}

Dessert wines have a high level of residual sugar remaining after fermentation. There are several ways of making sweet wines, the most common being the use of grapes affected by noble rot (e.g. Sauternes), freezing (e.g. icewine), or drying (e.g. Vin Santo).{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=671}}

{{Main|Viticulture}}

{{See also|List of grape varieties}}

File:Moldova_Competitiveness_Project,_USAID_Moldova_(48121804303).jpg

Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the European species Vitis vinifera,{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Jancis |title=Jancis Robinson's Wine Course: A Guide to the World of Wine |date=2003 |publisher=Abbeville Press |isbn=978-0-7892-0883-5 |pages=96–97 |ol=8153962M}} such as Pinot noir, Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon blanc. Most of the world's vineyards are planted with European Vitis vinifera vines that have been grafted onto North American species' rootstock, a common practice due to their resistance to phylloxera, a root louse that eventually kills the vine.

In the context of wine production, {{lang|fr|terroir}} is a concept that encompasses the varieties of grapes used, elevation and shape of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, climate and seasonal conditions, and the local yeast cultures.{{cite journal|last1=Fraga|first1=Helder|last2=Malheiro|first2=Aureliano C.|last3=Moutinho-Pereira|first3=José|last4=Cardoso|first4=Rita M.|last5=Soares|first5=Pedro M. M.|last6=Cancela|first6=Javier J.|last7=Pinto|first7=Joaquim G.|last8=Santos|first8=João A.|last9=Álvarez|first9=Inés| display-authors = 8|title=Integrated Analysis of Climate, Soil, Topography and Vegetative Growth in Iberian Viticultural Regions|journal=PLOS ONE|date=24 September 2014|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108078|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108078|pmid=25251495|pmc=4176712|bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j8078F|doi-access=free}} The range of possible combinations of these factors can result in great differences among wines, influencing the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes as well. Many wineries use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate the aroma and taste influences of their unique {{lang|fr|terroir}}.{{sfn|Johnson|Robinson|2019|p=24}} However, flavor differences are less desirable for producers of mass-market table wine or other cheaper wines, where consistency takes precedence. Such producers try to minimize differences in sources of grapes through production techniques such as micro-oxygenation, tannin filtration, cross-flow filtration, thin-film evaporation, and spinning cones.{{cite web |url=http://winegeeks.com/articles/85 |title=High Alcohol is a Wine Fault... Not a Badge of Honor |access-date=25 June 2008 |last=Citriglia |first=Matthew |date=14 May 2006 |publisher=GeekSpeak, LLC |archive-date=5 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080505010850/http://winegeeks.com/articles/85 |url-status=live}}

{{Main|Winemaking}}

{{See also|Sparkling wine production}}

There are a number of different ways of making wine in a modern winery, each decision affecting the final outcome. The first step is harvesting the grapes, the timing of which depends on sugar and acid levels, any diseases affecting the crop, and the weather, among other things. Grapes are harvested by hand or machine, sorted to select those of sufficient quality, and then typically destemmed and crushed to release the juice. The liquid may macerate for a few hours before being pressed and clarified.{{sfn|Johnson|Robinson|2019|pp=32-35}}

The liquid is then transferred to a container for fermentation, which is typically made of oak, stainless steel or concrete, and either open or closed. Yeast is naturally present on grape skins, but most producers choose to use a specific strain to benefit from behaviors such as speed of fermentation, and to control the flavors produced. For red wines, winemakers may choose to encourage the extraction of tannins and flavor from the grape skins by agitating the mixture. Additives such as sugar (to increase the ultimate alcohol content) may be added if permitted by law. Some wines undergo a secondary, malolactic fermentation, in which the harsher malic acid is converted into lactic acid by bacteria. Finally the wine may be filtered to remove microbes and yeast, and sulfites may be added as a preservative.{{sfn|Johnson|Robinson|2019|pp=32-35}}

{{See also|Wine bottle|Closure (bottle)|Screw cap (wine)}}

File:Corks019.jpgs]]

Most wines are sold in glass bottles, traditionally sealed with corks. Most cork for this purpose comes from Alentejo, but a decline in quality in the late 20th century and an increase in demand spurred development of alternatives. An increasing number of wine producers use alternative closures such as screwcaps and synthetic "corks".{{sfn|Johnson|Robinson|2019|p=37}} Although alternative closures reduce the risk of cork taint,{{sfn|Johnson|Robinson|2019|p=37}} they have been blamed for such problems as excessive reduction.{{Cite journal |last1=Wirth |first1=J. |last2=Caillé |first2=S. |last3=Souquet |first3=J. M. |last4=Samson |first4=A. |last5=Dieval |first5=J. B. |last6=Vidal |first6=S. |last7=Fulcrand |first7=H. |last8=Cheynier |first8=V. |date=2012-06-15 |title=Impact of post-bottling oxygen exposure on the sensory characteristics and phenolic composition of Grenache rosé wines |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308814611017742 |journal=Food Chemistry |series=6th International Conference on Water in Food |volume=132 |issue=4 |pages=1861–1871 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.12.019 |issn=0308-8146|url-access=subscription }}

Box wines, also known as "bag-in-box" or "cask" wines, are packaged in plastic bags within cardboard boxes. Wine is poured from a tap affixed to the bag. Box wine can stay acceptably fresh for several weeks after opening because the bladder limits contact with air and, thus, slowing the rate of oxidation.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=101}} Box wine is popular in northern Europe and especially Australia and New Zealand, and is generally used to package inexpensive wines intended for early drinking.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=101}}

Canned wine is one of the fastest-growing forms of alternative wine packaging on the market.{{cite news |title=Canned Wine Comes of Age |language=en |website=Wine Spectator |date=22 May 2019 |author=Weed, Augustus |url=https://www.winespectator.com/articles/canned-wine-comes-of-age |access-date=23 May 2019 |archive-date=23 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190523013513/https://www.winespectator.com/articles/canned-wine-comes-of-age |url-status=live}}

Environmental considerations of wine packaging reveal the benefits and drawbacks of both bottled and box wines. The glass used to make bottles is a nontoxic, naturally occurring substance that is completely recyclable, but its production may cause air pollution. A New York Times editorial suggested that box wine, being lighter in package weight, has a reduced carbon footprint from its distribution; however, box-wine plastics, even though possibly recyclable, can be more labor-intensive (and therefore expensive) to process than glass bottles.{{cite web|last=Muzaurieta |first=Annie Bell |website=thedailygreen.com |date=1 October 2008 |url=http://www.thedailygreen.com/healthy-eating/eat-safe/glass-wine-bottles-environment-44100108 |title=Holy Hangover! Wine Bottles Cause Air Pollution |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204104606/http://www.thedailygreen.com:80/healthy-eating/eat-safe/glass-wine-bottles-environment-44100108 |archive-date=4 December 2008}} Canned wine has the advantage of recyclable packaging.

Some wine is sold in stainless steel kegs and is referred to as wine on tap.

{{See also|List of wine-producing regions}}

Wine grapes grow mainly between 30 and 50 degrees latitude north and south of the equator, although the effects of climate change and advances in viticulture are increasing the area under vine elsewhere.{{sfn|Johnson|Robinson|2019|pp=48-49}} The world's southernmost vineyard is in Sarmiento, Argentina, near the 46th parallel south.{{cite web |last1=Robinson |first1=Jancis |title=The world's most southerly vineyard? |url=https://www.jancisrobinson.com/articles/worlds-most-southerly-vineyard |website=jancisrobinson.com |access-date=16 April 2025 |language=en |date=13 July 2017}} The northernmost wine region is Okanagan Valley which reaches up to the 50th parallel north.{{cite web |last1=Simon |first1=Joanna |title=Discovering a little-known gem: Okanagan Valley, the world's northernmost wine region |url=https://www.joannasimon.com/post/2018/07/26/discovering-a-little-known-gem-okanagan-valley-the-worlds-northernmost-wine-region |website=Joanna Simon |access-date=16 April 2025 |language=en |date=26 July 2018}}{{cite web |last1=King |first1=Rachel |title=5 Underrated Wine Regions You Should Explore Now |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/rachelking/2025/01/03/5-underrated-wine-regions-you-should-explore-now/ |website=Forbes |access-date=16 April 2025 |language=en |date=3 January 2025}}

{{Main|Classification of wine|Wine law}}

{{See also|Wine label}}

Regulations govern the classification and sale of wine in many regions of the world. European wines tend to be classified by region (e.g. Bordeaux, Rioja and Chianti), with restrictions on grape varieties, yields and vinification methods, while non-European classifications are generally limited to indications of geographical areas, such as in the American Viticultural Area and Australian Wine Geographical Indications systems.{{sfn|Johnson|Robinson|2019|p=40}}{{cite web |title=Australian Wine Geographical Indications |url=https://www.wineaustralia.com/labelling/register-of-protected-gis-and-other-terms/australian-wine-geographical-indications |website=Wine Australia |access-date=6 May 2025}} Some New World producers have created voluntary schemes to allow producers to indicate adherence to a stricter set of criteria than required by law, such as Appellation Marlborough Wine in New Zealand and Meritage in the USA.{{cite web |title=Appellation Marlborough Wine: About |url=https://www.appellationmarlboroughwine.co.nz/#About |website=Appellation Marlborough Wine |access-date=6 May 2025 |language=en}}{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=437}}

When one variety of grape is predominantly used,{{efn|Defined by law as 85% in the European Union,{{cite web |title=Regulation of wine labeling in the EU |url=https://www.casalonga.com/documentation/secteur-vitivinicole-et-agroalimentaire/reglementation-du-secteur-des-boissons-alcoolisees/?lang=en |website=Casalonga |access-date=15 April 2025}} South Africa,{{cite web |title=South African Wine Styles |url=https://www.wosa.co.za/The-Industry/Varieties-and-Styles/Wine-Styles/ |website=Wines of South Africa |access-date=15 April 2025}} New Zealand,{{cite web |title=Guide to meet grape wine labelling requirements |url=https://www.mpi.govt.nz/dmsdocument/870/direct |website=Ministry for Primary Industries |access-date=15 April 2025 |date=June 2013}} and Australia;{{cite web |title=The blending rules |url=https://www.wineaustralia.com/labelling/further-information/the-blending-rules |website=Wine Australia |access-date=15 April 2025}} 75% in Chile{{cite web |title=Chile |url=https://www.ttb.gov/import-export/itd/international-trade-resources-for-chile |website=Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau |publisher=US Department of the Treasury |access-date=15 April 2025 |date=1 April 2024}} and the US.{{cite web |title=Grape Variety Designations on American Wine Labels |url=https://www.ttb.gov/regulated-commodities/beverage-alcohol/wine/grape-variety-designations-on-american-wine-labels |website=Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau |publisher=US Department of the Treasury |access-date=15 April 2025 |date=11 March 2025}}}} the wine may be marketed as a "varietal" as opposed to a "blended" wine.{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/01/dining/drinks/wine-school-california-grenache.html|title=Don't Judge a Wine by the Grape on Its Label|date=2018-02-01|work=The New York Times|access-date=2018-04-09|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=9 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180409181539/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/01/dining/drinks/wine-school-california-grenache.html|url-status=live}} Similarly, in order to state a vintage, a percentage of the grapes must have been harvested in the declared year.{{efn|85% in the EU,{{cite web |title=Labelling of wine and certain other wine sector products |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM%3Al21303 |website=EUR-Lex |publisher=European Union |access-date=6 May 2025 |language=en |date=20 August 2007}} US,{{cite web |title=27 CFR § 4.27 - Vintage wine. |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/27/4.27 |website=Legal Information Institute |access-date=6 May 2025 |language=en}} Australia,{{cite web |title=The blending rules |url=https://www.wineaustralia.com/labelling/further-information/the-blending-rules |website=Wine Australia |access-date=6 May 2025}} and New Zealand.{{cite web |title=Labelling requirements for wine and other alcoholic drinks |url=https://www.mpi.govt.nz/food-business/labelling-composition-food-drinks/specific-product-labelling/labelling-requirements-alcoholic-drinks-including-wine/ |website=Ministry for Primary Industries |access-date=6 May 2025 |language=en-NZ |date=21 October 2024}}}}

{{main|European Union wine regulations}}

File:Moscato d'Asti.jpg, a DOCG wine]]

Since 2009, wine from the European Union has been classified under the geographical indicators "protected geographical indication" (PGI) and "protected designation of origin" (PDO), which protect product names in order to promote the products of a specific area and the methods used.{{cite web |last1=Gibb |first1=Rebecca |title=New EU wine regulations in force |url=https://www.decanter.com/wine-news/new-eu-wine-regulations-in-force-66537/ |website=Decanter |access-date=16 April 2025 |language=en |date=3 August 2009}}{{cite web |title=Geographical indications and quality schemes explained - European Commission |url=https://agriculture.ec.europa.eu/farming/geographical-indications-and-quality-schemes/geographical-indications-and-quality-schemes-explained_en |website=Agriculture and rural development |publisher=European Commission |access-date=16 April 2025 |language=en |date=24 October 2023}} National regulations correspond to these designations and subdivide them, such as in Germany's German_wine_classification#Geographic_classification_for_Deutscher_Wein_(formerly_Tafelwein)_and_Landwein, Italy's Denominazione di origine controllata, and the French system of {{lang|fr|Appellation d'origine contrôlée}}.{{cite web |last1=Karlsson |first1=Per |title=The European wine classification system, AOP, DOC, PGI, PDO etc {{!}} BKWine Magazine {{!}} |url=https://www.bkwine.com/features/more/european-wine-classification-system/ |website=BKWine Magazine |access-date=16 April 2025 |date=17 April 2021}}

The classification of Swiss wine was historically complex due to its system of federalism, but was due to be simplified and made consistent with EU rules {{asof|2019|alt=in 2022}}.{{sfn|Johnson|Robinson|2019|p=251}} Similar to the EU, regulations regarding English wine denote rules for PGI and PDO products.{{cite web |title=ENGLISH REGIONAL WINE - PROTECTED GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATION (PGI) |url=https://wsa.ukva.org.uk/docs/DEFRA-GUIDANCE-PGI-ENGLISH%20rev%202019-09.pdf |publisher=Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs |access-date=16 April 2025 |date=September 2019}}{{cite web |title=ENGLISH WINE - PROTECTED DESIGNATION OF ORIGIN (PDO |url=https://wsa.ukva.org.uk/docs/DEFRA-GUIDANCE-PDO-ENGLISH%20rev%202019-09.pdf |publisher=Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs |access-date=16 April 2025 |date=September 2019}}

According to Canadian Food and Drug Regulations, wine in Canada is an alcoholic drink that is produced by the complete or partial alcoholic fermentation of fresh grapes, grape must, products derived solely from fresh grapes, or any combination of them. There are many materials added during the course of the manufacture, such as yeast, concentrated grape juice, dextrose, fructose, glucose or glucose solids, invert sugar, sugar, or aqueous solutions. Calcium sulphate in such quantity that the content of soluble sulphates in the finished wine shall not exceed 0.2 percent weight by volume calculated as potassium sulphate. Calcium carbonate in such quantity that the content of tartaric acid in the finished wine shall not be less than 0.15 percent weight by volume. Also, sulphurous acid, including salts thereof, in such quantity that its content in the finished wine shall not exceed 70 parts per million in the free state, or 350 parts per million in the combined state, calculated as sulphur dioxide. Caramel, amylase and pectinase at a maximum level of use consistent with good manufacturing practice. Prior to final filtration may be treated with a strongly acid cation exchange resin in the sodium ion form, or a weakly basic anion exchange resin in the hydroxyl ion form.{{cite web|url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/C.R.C.,_c._870/page-31.html#h-62|title=Consolidated federal laws of canada, Food and Drug Regulations|last=Branch|first=Legislative Services|website=laws.justice.gc.ca|language=en|access-date=2017-07-19|archive-date=17 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170717042107/http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/C.R.C.,_c._870/page-31.html#h-62|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Vintage}}

File:Champagne millésimé 1995.JPG

For wines produced in the European Union, if a bottle of wine indicates a vintage, then at least 85% of the grapes must have been harvested in that year.{{cite web |title=Wines and wine sector products |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM%3Asa0026 |website=EUR-Lex |access-date=9 February 2025 |language=en}} In the United States, for a wine to be vintage-dated and labeled with a country of origin or American Viticultural Area (AVA; e.g., Sonoma Valley), 95% of its volume must be from grapes harvested in that year.Title 27 of the United States Code, Code of Federal Regulations [http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=33fc0c0194b58b6fe95208945b5c637a&rgn=div5&view=text&node=27:1.0.1.1.2&idno=27#27:1.0.1.1.2.3.25.8 § 4.27] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070217043053/http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=33fc0c0194b58b6fe95208945b5c637a&rgn=div5&view=text&node=27:1.0.1.1.2&idno=27 |date=17 February 2007}} If a wine is not labeled with a country of origin or AVA the percentage requirement is lowered to 85%.

Vintage wines are generally bottled in a single batch so that each bottle will have a similar taste. Climate's impact on the character of a wine can be significant enough to cause different vintages from the same vineyard to vary dramatically in flavor and quality.{{cite web |url=http://www.frenchscout.com/wine-vintages |title=Wine vintages, vintage charts |access-date=26 June 2008 |last=Breton |first=Félicien |publisher=French Scout |archive-date=13 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113212824/http://www.frenchscout.com/wine-vintages |url-status=live}}{{unreliable source|reason=Self-published (blog)|date=February 2025}} Thus, vintage wines are produced to be individually characteristic of the particular vintage and to serve as the flagship wines of the producer. Superior vintages from reputable producers and regions will often command much higher prices than their average ones. Some vintage wines (e.g. Brunello), are only made in better-than-average years.

For consistency, non-vintage wines can be blended from more than one vintage, which helps wine-makers sustain a reliable market image and maintain sales even in bad years.{{cite news |first=Clive |last=Platman |title=Wine: Lovely bubbly |date=2 October 2002 |url=http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:AWNB:BPOC&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=0F671027250245CB&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated4&req_dat=0D0CB57AB53DF815 |work=Birmingham Post |access-date=26 June 2008 |archive-date=10 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110080330/http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004 |url-status=live}}{{cite journal |date=May 2006 |title=Change to Vintage Date Requirements (2005R-212P) |journal=Federal Register |volume=71 |issue=84 |url=http://regulations.justia.com/view/43285/ |access-date=26 June 2008 |page=25748 |author=Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau |archive-date=16 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216145300/http://regulations.justia.com/view/43285/ |url-status=live}} One recent study suggests that for the average wine drinker, the vintage year may not be as significant for perceived quality as had been thought, although wine connoisseurs continue to place great importance on it.{{cite web |url=http://www.liquidasset.com/WEILVDQS.PDF |title=Parker v. Prial: The Death of the Vintage Chart |access-date=26 June 2008 |last=Weil |first=Roman L. |author-link=Roman L. Weil |date=25 May 2001 |archive-date=25 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625002705/http://www.liquidasset.com/WEILVDQS.PDF |url-status=live}}

{{Main|Wine fraud}}

{{See also|List of food contamination incidents}}

Incidents of fraud, such as mislabeling the origin or quality of wines, have resulted in regulations on labeling. "Wine scandals" that have received media attention include:

• The 1985 diethylene glycol wine scandal, in which diethylene glycol was used as a sweetener in some Austrian wines.
• In 1986, methanol (a toxic type of alcohol) was used to alter certain wines manufactured in Italy.
• In 2008, some Italian wines were found to include sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid.{{Cite web |date=2008-04-04 |title=Italian wine under investigation for adulteration |url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20080404/world/italian-wine-under-investigation-for-adulteration.202817 |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=Times of Malta |language=en-gb}}
• In 2010, some Chinese red wines were found to be adulterated, and as a consequence China's Hebei province shut down nearly 30 wineries.{{cite web |author=Xinhua and Staff Reporter |date=24 December 2010 |title=Chinese Government Shuts Down Fake Wine Producers |url=http://www.wantchinatimes.com/news-subclass-cnt.aspx?cid=1102&MainCatID=11&id=20101224000156 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102200621/http://www.wantchinatimes.com/news-subclass-cnt.aspx?cid=1102&MainCatID=11&id=20101224000156 |archive-date=2 January 2014 |access-date=17 May 2014 |publisher=Wantchinatimes.com}}{{cite web |date=27 December 2010 |title=Adulterated Chinese wine seized |url=http://drinkingny.wordpress.com/2010/12/27/%E2%80%A2-adulterated-chinese-wine-seized/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104163826/http://drinkingny.wordpress.com/2010/12/27/%e2%80%a2-adulterated-chinese-wine-seized/ |archive-date=4 January 2014 |access-date=17 May 2014 |publisher=Drinkingny.wordpress.com}}{{cite news |date=16 March 2018 |title=– Massive Côte du Rhône fine-wine fraud uncovered by French police |newspaper=The Local France |url=https://www.thelocal.fr/20180316/massive-cte-du-rhne-fine-wine-fraud-smashed-by-french-police |url-status=live |access-date=26 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426174323/https://www.thelocal.fr/20180316/massive-cte-du-rhne-fine-wine-fraud-smashed-by-french-police |archive-date=26 April 2021}}{{cite news |last1=Paris |first1=Charles Bremner |title=Vintage scam: 66 million bottles of French wine said to be fake |url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/crime/article/vintage-scam-66-million-bottles-of-french-wine-said-to-be-fake-nwrswg0vp |url-status=live |access-date=26 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426183210/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/vintage-scam-66-million-bottles-of-french-wine-said-to-be-fake-nwrswg0vp |archive-date=26 April 2021}}

{{Redirect|Drink wine|the Adele song|I Drink Wine}}

File:Tempranillowine.jpg is the first step in tasting a wine.]]

{{Main|Wine tasting}}

{{See also|Wine tasting descriptors}}

Wine tasting is the sensory examination and evaluation of wine. Wines contain many chemical compounds similar or identical to those in fruits, vegetables, and spices. The sweetness of wine is determined by the amount of residual sugar in the wine after fermentation, relative to the acidity present in the wine. Dry wine, for example, has only a small amount of residual sugar.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

Decanting involves pouring the wine into an intermediate container before serving it in a glass, which allows the removal of undesirable sediments that may have formed in the wine. Sediment is more common in older bottles, but aeration in a decanter may benefit younger wines as well.{{sfn|Johnson|Robinson|2019|pp=44-45}} During aeration, a younger wine's exposure to air often "relaxes" the drink, making it smoother and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Older wines generally lose their character and flavor intensity with extended aeration.{{cite news | title =Fruity character and breathing times | date =18 September 2005 | url =http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:AWNB:KLSC&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=10CBABDF8E627AD8&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated4&req_dat=0D0CB57AB53DF815 | work =The New Straits Times | access-date =24 October 2007 | archive-date =10 November 2013 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20131110080330/http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004 | url-status =live}}{{failed verification|date=May 2025}}

When tasting wine, individual flavors may also be detected, due to the complex mix of organic molecules (e.g. esters and terpenes) that grape juice and wine can contain. Experienced tasters can distinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grape and flavors that result from other factors in wine-making. Typical intentional flavor elements in wine—chocolate, vanilla, or coffee—are those imparted by aging in oak casks rather than the grape itself.{{cite web |url=http://www.frenchscout.com/types-of-wine |title=Types of wine |access-date=26 June 2008 |last=Breton |first=Félicien |publisher=French Scout |archive-date=25 April 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060425213221/http://www.frenchscout.com/types-of-wine |url-status=live}}{{better source needed|date=May 2025}}

Vertical and horizontal tasting involves a range of vintages within the same grape and vineyard, or the latter in which there is one vintage from multiple vineyards.

"Banana" flavors (isoamyl acetate) are the product of yeast metabolism, as are aromas such as "medicinal" or "Band-Aid" (4-ethylphenol), "spicy" or "smoky" (4-ethylguaiacol),{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219204946/http://www.etslabs.com/scripts/ets/pagetemplate/blank.asp?pageid=193 | archive-date=19 February 2008 |url=http://www.etslabs.com/scripts/ets/pagetemplate/blank.asp?pageid=193 |title=Brettanomyces Monitoring by Analysis of 4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol |access-date=26 June 2008 |author=ETS Laboratories |date=15 March 2001}} and rotten egg (hydrogen sulfide).{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219205658/http://www.etslabs.com/scripts/ets/pagetemplate/blank.asp?pageid=350 |archive-date=19 February 2008 |url=http://www.etslabs.com/scripts/ets/pagetemplate/blank.asp?pageid=350 |title=Sulfides in Wine |author=ETS Laboratories |date=15 May 2002}} Some varieties can also exhibit a mineral flavor due to the presence of water-soluble salts as a result of limestone's presence in the vineyard's soil.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

Wine aroma comes from volatile compounds released into the air.{{cite journal |last=Gómez-Míguez |first=M. José |author2=Manuela Gómez-Mígueza |author3=Isabel M. Vicarioa |author4=Francisco J. Heredia |date=April 2007 |title=Assessment of colour and aroma in white wines vinifications: Effects of grape maturity and soil type |journal=Journal of Food Engineering |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=758–764 |doi=10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2006.02.038}} Vaporization of these compounds can be accelerated by serving at room temperature. Many drinkers prefer to chill red wines that are already highly aromatic, like Beaujolais.{{sfn|Johnson|Robinson|2019|pp=44-45}}

The ideal temperature for serving a particular wine is a matter of debate by wine enthusiasts and sommeliers, but some broad guidelines have emerged that will generally enhance the experience of tasting certain common wines. White wine should foster a sense of coolness, achieved by serving at "cellar temperature" ({{convert|13|C|F|disp=or}}). Light red wines drunk young should also be brought to the table at this temperature, where they will quickly rise a few degrees. Red wines are generally perceived best when served at room temperature. However, this does not mean the temperature of the dining room—often around {{convert|21|C|F}}—but rather the coolest room in the house and, therefore, always slightly cooler than the dining room itself. Pinot noir should be brought to the table for serving at {{convert|16|C|F}} and will reach its full bouquet at {{convert|18|C|F}}. Cabernet Sauvignon, zinfandel, and Rhone varieties should be served at {{convert|18|C|F}} and allowed to warm on the table to {{convert|21|C|F}} for best aroma.{{cite book |title=The great book of French cuisine |last=Pellaprat |first=Henri-Paul |year=2003 |publisher=Vendome |place=New York |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d-9DBtWQUL0C&q=%22wine+cooler%22+temperature&pg=PT81 |isbn=978-0-86565-231-6}}{{page needed|date=May 2025}}

Research has shown that the social context and quality of wine can affect the experience of drinking wine.{{cite journal |last1=Danner |first1=Lukas |last2=Ristic |first2=Renata |last3=Johnson |first3=Trent E. |last4=Meiselman |first4=Herbert L. |last5=Hoek |first5=Annet C. |date=Nov 2016 |title=Context and wine quality effects on consumers' mood, emotions, liking and willingness to pay for Australian Shiraz wines |journal=Food Research International |volume=89 |issue=Pt 1 |pages=254–265 |doi=10.1016/j.foodres.2016.08.006 |pmid=28460912}}

Wine-consumption-per-person-global-2019.png|Wine consumption per person, 2019

Wine-as-share-alcohol-consumption-global-2016.png|Wine as a share of total alcohol consumption, 2016

{{Further|Wine and food pairing}}

Wine is a popular and important drink that accompanies and enhances a wide range of cuisines, from the simple and traditional stews to the most sophisticated and complex haute cuisines. Wine is often served with dinner. Sweet dessert wines may be served with the dessert course. In fine restaurants in Western countries, wine typically accompanies dinner. At a restaurant, patrons are helped to make good food-wine pairings by the restaurant's sommelier or wine waiter. Individuals dining at home may use wine guides to help make food–wine pairings. Wine is also drunk without the accompaniment of a meal in wine bars or with a selection of cheeses (at a wine and cheese party). Wines are also used as a theme for organizing various events such as festivals around the world; the city of Kuopio in North Savonia, Finland is known for its annual Kuopio Wine Festivals (Kuopion viinijuhlat).{{Cite web|url=http://www.kuopiowinefestival.fi/|title=Kuopion Viinijuhlat » Kuopio Wine Festival|publisher=Kuopio Wine Festival|access-date=2020-07-25|language=fi|archive-date=26 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726025917/https://kuopiowinefestival.fi/|url-status=live}}

Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a drink, but as a flavor agent, primarily in stocks and braising, since its acidity lends balance to rich savoury or sweet dishes.{{Cite web|url=https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/features/6-secrets-of-cooking-with-wine|title=6 Secrets of Cooking With Wine|website=WebMD|access-date=4 May 2020|archive-date=14 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614071208/https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/features/6-secrets-of-cooking-with-wine|url-status=live}} Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient.{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bHp1GJk8IMcC&pg=PA15 | title=Parker's Wine Buyer's Guide, 7th Edition | publisher=Simon and Schuster | author=Parker, Robert M. | year=2008 | page=15 | isbn=978-1-4391-3997-4}} Unfortified wines exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, the vast majority being between 9% and 16% ABV, with most in the 12.5–14.5% range.{{sfn|Robinson|2006|p=10}} Fortified wines (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.

{{main|Health effects of wine}}

{{See also|Short-term effects of alcohol consumption|Long-term effects of alcohol consumption|Red wine headache}}

{{nutritionalvalue

| name = Red table wine

| kJ = 355

| fat = 0.0 g

| protein = 0.1 g

| carbs = 2.6 g

| sugars = 0.6 g

| alcohol = 10.6 g

| source_usda = 1

| noRDA = 1

| note = 10.6 g alcohol is 13%vol.
100 g wine is approximately 100 ml (3.4 fl oz.)
Sugar and alcohol content can vary.

}}

Some studies have shown an association between moderate wine consumption and a decrease in cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. However, alcohol consumption is also associated with an increased risk of a number of other health conditions, such as cancer.{{cite journal |last=Lindberg |first=Matthew L. |author2=Ezra A. Amsterdam |year=2008 |title=Alcohol, wine, and cardiovascular health |journal=Clinical Cardiology |volume=31 |issue=8 |pages=347–51 |doi=10.1002/clc.20263 |pmc=6653665 |pmid=18727003}}{{cite journal |last1=Barbería-Latasa |first1=María |last2=Gea |first2=Alfredo |last3=Martínez-González |first3=Miguel A. |date=7 May 2022 |title=Alcohol, Drinking Pattern, and Chronic Disease |journal=Nutrients |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=1954 |doi=10.3390/nu14091954 |pmc=9100270 |pmid=35565924 |doi-access=free}}

The stilbene resveratrol has shown cardioprotective attributes in humans.{{cite journal |last1=Tomé-Carneiro |first1=J |last2=Gonzálvez |first2=M |last3=Larrosa |first3=M |last4=Yáñez-Gascón |first4=MJ |last5=García-Almagro |first5=FJ |last6=Ruiz-Ros |first6=JA |last7=Tomás-Barberán |first7=FA |last8=García-Conesa |first8=MT |last9=Espín |first9=JC |date=July 2013 |title=Resveratrol in primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a dietary and clinical perspective. |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=1290 |issue=1 |pages=37–51 |bibcode=2013NYASA1290...37T |doi=10.1111/nyas.12150 |pmid=23855464 |s2cid=206223647}} Grape skins naturally produce resveratrol in response to fungal infection, including exposure to yeast during fermentation. White wine generally contains lower levels of the chemical as it has minimal contact with grape skins during this process.{{cite journal |last=Frémont |first=Lucie |date=January 2000 |title=Biological effects of resveratrol |journal=Life Sciences |volume=66 |issue=8 |pages=663–673 |doi=10.1016/S0024-3205(99)00410-5 |pmid=10680575}} Nevertheless, the potential harms of regular alcohol consumption are considered to outweigh any such benefits.{{cite journal |last1=O'Keefe |first1=JH |last2=Bhatti |first2=SK |last3=Bajwa |first3=A |last4=DiNicolantonio |first4=JJ |last5=Lavie |first5=CJ |date=March 2014 |title=Alcohol and cardiovascular health: the dose makes the poison...or the remedy. |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |volume=89 |issue=3 |pages=382–93 |doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.11.005 |pmid=24582196 |doi-access=free}}

Research by Pesticide Action Network found that European wines contains large amounts of PFAS ("forever chemicals"), particularly TFA, which have long-term negative health consequences.{{Cite news |date=2025-04-23 |title=Höga halter av miljögiftet PFAS i vin – "explosionsartad ökning" |url=https://www.dn.se/varlden/hoga-halter-av-miljogiftet-pfas-i-vin-explosionsartad-okning/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250423083232/https://www.dn.se/varlden/hoga-halter-av-miljogiftet-pfas-i-vin-explosionsartad-okning/ |archive-date=2025-04-23 |access-date=2025-05-29 |work=Dagens Nyheter |language=sv-se |quote=Vår undersökning visar på höga halter TFA i alla viner utom de allra äldsta. Före 1988 ser vi ingenting. Men efter 2020 hittar vi halter från 21 000 nanogram per liter ända upp till 320 000 nanogram. Det är skrämmande, säger Elin Engdahl. |trans-quote=Our research shows high levels of TFA in all but the oldest wines. Before 1988, we see nothing. But after 2020, we find levels ranging from 21,000 nanograms per liter up to 320,000 nanograms. This is scary, says Elin Engdahl.}}

{{Main|Storage of wine}}

Many wines improve with age; conversely, wines can reduce in quality over time by suboptimal storage conditions, such as being exposed to strong light and heat. Optimal conditions are provided by wine cellars and wine caves, as well as temperature-controlled cabinets.{{sfn|Johnson|Robinson|2019|pp=38-39}}

The ideal temperature for wine storage is {{convert|12|-|13|C|F}} with a humidity of 65–70%. Lower humidity levels and temperature fluctuations can dry out or stress a cork over time, allowing oxygen to enter the bottle, which reduces the wine's quality through oxidation.{{cite web |last1=Riley-Smith |first1=Sebastian |title=What is the best humidity for storing wine? Ask Decanter |url=https://www.decanter.com/learn/advice/best-humidity-for-storing-wine-ask-decanter-458610/ |website=Decanter |access-date=16 April 2025 |language=en |date=23 June 2021}}{{sfn|Johnson|Robinson|2019|pp=38-39}} Wines with corks are typically stored horizontally to help keep the cork moist, but this is not necessary for screwcaps.{{sfn|Johnson|Robinson|2019|pp=38-39}}

{{See also|Aging of wine|Investment wine}}

File:Margaux94 1.jpg, a First Growth from the Bordeaux region of France, is highly collectible.]]

Outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands of US dollars per bottle, though the broader term "fine wine" covers those typically retailing in excess of US$30–50.For example, Berry Brothers & Rudd, one of the world's largest dealers, start "fine wine" prices at about £25—in March 2009 with a wine from Au Bon Climat [http://www.bbr.com/fine-wine/offers website "Fine wine offers"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120114418/http://www.bbr.com/fine-wine/offers |date=20 January 2012}}.{{needs update|date=April 2025}} "Investment wines" are considered by some{{who|date=April 2025}} to be Veblen goods: those for which demand increases rather than decreases as their prices rise.

Particular selections such as "Verticals", which span multiple vintages of a specific grape and vineyard, may be highly valued. The most notable{{whom|date=April 2025}} was a Château d'Yquem 135-year vertical containing every vintage from 1860 to 2003 sold for $1.5 million.

The most common wines purchased for investment include those from Bordeaux and Burgundy; cult wines from Europe and elsewhere; and vintage port.

Investment in fine wine has attracted those who take advantage of their victims' relative ignorance of this wine market sector.{{Cite news |title=Château Lafake |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2011/06/16/chateau-lafake |access-date=2023-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004234819/https://www.economist.com/business/2011/06/16/chateau-lafake/ |archive-date=2020-10-04 |issn=0013-0613}}

{{See also|Religion and alcohol|Wine in religious communities of the Middle East}}

The use of wine in ancient Near Eastern and Ancient Egyptian religious ceremonies was common. Libations often included wine, and the religious mysteries of Dionysus used wine as a sacramental entheogen to induce a mind-altering state.

{{Main|Kosher wine}}

{{rquote|right|Baruch atah Hashem (Ado-nai) Eloheinu melech ha-olam, boray p'ree hagafen – Praised be the Lord, our God, King of the universe, Creator of the fruit of the vine.|The blessing over wine said before consuming the drink.}}

Wine is an integral part of Jewish laws and traditions. The Kiddush is a blessing recited over wine or grape juice to sanctify the Shabbat. On Pesach (Passover) during the Seder, it is a Rabbinic obligation of adults to drink four cups of wine.{{cite web |url=http://www.jewfaq.org/holidaya.htm |title=Pesach: Passover |last=Rich |first=Tracey R |work=Judaism 101 |access-date=24 April 2006 |archive-date=2 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202135231/http://www.jewfaq.org/holidaya.htm |url-status=live}} In the Tabernacle and in the Temple in Jerusalem, the libation of wine was part of the sacrificial service.{{cite book |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |title=The Halakhah: An Encyclopaedia of the Law of Judaism |publisher=BRILL |year=2000 |location=Boston, Massachusetts |page=[https://archive.org/details/theologyofth_neus_2001_000_7080715/page/n137 82] |url=https://archive.org/details/theologyofth_neus_2001_000_7080715 |url-access=registration |isbn=978-90-04-11617-7}} Note that this does not mean that wine is a symbol of blood, a common misconception that contributes to the Christian beliefs of the blood libel.

"It has been one of history's cruel ironies that the blood libel—accusations against Jews using the blood of murdered gentile children for the making of wine and matzot—became the false pretext for numerous pogroms. And due to the danger, those who live in a place where blood libels occur are halachically exempted from using red wine, lest it be seized as "evidence" against them."{{cite web|last=Rutman |first=Rabbi Yisrael |title=Pesach: What We Eat and Why We Eat It |url=http://www.torah.org/features/holydays/passover/pesacheat.html |publisher=Project Genesis Inc. |access-date=14 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509103442/http://torah.org/features/holydays/passover/pesacheat.html |archive-date=9 May 2013}}

{{Main|Christian views on alcohol|Alcohol in the Bible}}

{{see also|Eucharist|Eucharistic theology}}

File:The Marriage at Cana - Decani.jpg making wine from water in The Marriage at Cana, a 14th-century fresco from the Visoki Dečani monastery]]

In Christianity, wine is used in a sacred rite called the Eucharist, which originates in the Gospel account of the Last Supper (Gospel of Luke 22:19) describing Jesus sharing bread and wine with his disciples and commanding them to "do this in remembrance of me." Beliefs about the nature of the Eucharist vary among denominations.{{explain|date=April 2025|reason=Expand with specific relevance to wine}}

Many Protestants in the US use pasteurized grape juice as a substitute for wine, a practise dating from the mid-19th century when Methodist prohibitionist Thomas Bramwell Welch applied new pasteurization techniques to stop the natural fermentation process of grape juice. Some Christians who were part of the growing temperance movement popularized the substitution, and it spread quickly over much of the United States.{{cite news |title=Almost Like Wine |date=3 September 1956 |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,824374,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071118114338/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,824374,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 November 2007 |work=Time Magazine |access-date=26 June 2008}}

File:Mei.jpg, although there has been a long tradition of drinking wine in some Islamic areas, especially in Iran.]]

{{Main|Islam and alcohol}}

Alcoholic drinks, including wine, are forbidden under most interpretations of Islamic law.{{cite news |first=Frances |last=Harrison |title=Alcohol fatwa sparks controversy |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7342425.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=11 April 2008 |access-date=31 July 2010 |archive-date=12 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512181043/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7342425.stm |url-status=live}} In many Muslim countries, possession or consumption of alcoholic drinks carry legal penalties. Iran had previously had a thriving wine industry that disappeared after the Islamic Revolution in 1979.{{cite news |first=Robert |last=Tait |title=End of the vine |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/oct/12/worlddispatch.iran |work=The Guardian |date=12 October 2005 |access-date=26 June 2008 |location=London |archive-date=29 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130829184544/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/oct/12/worlddispatch.iran |url-status=live}} In Greater Persia, mey (Persian wine) was a central theme of poetry for more than a thousand years, long before the advent of Islam. Some Alevi sects – one of the two main branches of Islam in Turkey (the other being Sunni Islam) – use wine in their religious services.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}}

Certain exceptions to the ban on alcohol apply. Alcohol derived from a source other than the grape (or its byproducts) and the dateSahih Muslim Book 043, Hadith Number 7186. is allowed in "very small quantities" (loosely defined as a quantity that does not cause intoxication) under the Sunni Hanafi madhab, for specific purposes (such as medicines), where the goal is not intoxication. However, modern Hanafi scholars regard alcohol consumption as totally forbidden.{{cite web |url=http://www.central-mosque.com/fiqh/perfalc.htm |title=Alcohol based Perfumes, Deodrants and Creams, Mufti Muhammad ibn Adam, Darul Iftaa, Leicester |publisher=Central-mosque.com |access-date=17 May 2014 |archive-date=13 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213042003/http://www.central-mosque.com/fiqh/perfalc.htm |url-status=live}}

{{Portal|Wine}}

• Outline of wine
• Glossary of wine terms
• Classification of wine
• Winemaking
• List of grape varieties
• Health effects of wine
• Storage of wine
• Maceration (wine)
• Pressing (wine)
• Vidal blanc
• Hybrid grape
• Wine warehouses of Bercy
• Blue wine

{{notelist}}

{{reflist}}

{{refbegin|30em}}

• {{cite book|last=Colman|first=Tyler|title=Wine Politics: How Governments, Environmentalists, Mobsters, and Critics Influence the Wines We Drink|url={{GBurl|id=vYMhU_vwl2oC}}|year=2008|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25521-0}}
• {{cite book|last=Dominé|first=André|title=Wine|year=2001|publisher=Könemann|location=Cologne|isbn=3-8290-4856-4}}
• {{cite book | last = Foulkes | first = Christopher | year = 2001 | title = Larousse Encyclopedia of Wine | publisher = Larousse | isbn = 978-2-03-585013-3 }}
• {{cite book | title = Hugh Johnson's Wine Companion | author-link = Hugh Johnson (wine writer) | last = Johnson | first = Hugh | publisher = Mitchell Beazley | edition = 5th | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-1-84000-704-6}}
• {{cite book | title = Wine for Dummies | last = McCarthy | first = Ed | author2 = Mary Ewing-Mulligan | author3 = Piero Antinori | publisher = HarperCollins | isbn = 978-0-470-04579-4 | year = 2006 | url = https://archive.org/details/winefordummiesfo00edmc }}
• {{cite book | title = The Wine Bible | last = MacNeil | first = Karen | publisher = Workman | isbn = 978-1-56305-434-1 | year = 2001 | url = https://archive.org/details/winebible00kare }}
• {{cite book | title = Oldman's Guide to Outsmarting Wine | author-link = Mark Oldman | first = Mark| last = Oldman| publisher = Penguin | isbn = 978-0-14-200492-0 | year = 2004 }}
• {{cite book | title = Parker's Wine Buyer's Guide | author-link = Robert M. Parker | first = Robert| last = Parker| publisher = Simon and Schuster | isbn = 978-0-7432-7198-1 | year = 2008 }}
• {{cite book | title = Planet Wine: A Grape by Grape Visual Guide to the Contemporary Wine World | first = Stuart | last = Pigott | publisher = Mitchell Beazley | isbn = 978-1-84000-776-3 | year = 2004 }}
• {{cite book | title = The Oxford Companion to Wine | edition = 3rd | editor-link = Jancis Robinson | editor-last = Robinson | editor-first = Jancis | location = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-860990-2 | year = 2006 | ol=7401546M }}
• {{cite book|author=Simpson, James |title=Creating Wine: The Emergence of a World Industry, 1840–1914|url={{GBurl|id=vAqWNLQkkwUC}} |year=2011|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-3888-2}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20120402080332/http://eh.net/book_reviews/creating-wine-emergence-world-industry-1840-1914 online review]
• {{cite book | title = Windows on the World Complete Wine Course | last = Zraly |first = Kevin | publisher = Sterling | isbn = 978-1-4027-3928-6 | year = 2006 }}

{{refend}}

{{Sister project links|voy=yes|cookbook=Wine}}

• [https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/page/2008/sep/04/1 The Guardian & Observer Guide to Wine]

{{Wines}}

{{Wine by country}}

{{viticulture}}

{{Alcoholic beverages}}

{{Ancient anaesthesia}}

{{Portal bar|Drink|Beer|Wine|Coffee}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Alcoholic drinks

Category:Fermented drinks

Category:Grape drinks

Category:Ceremonial food and drink

Category:Cooking