Winter solstice

There is evidence that the winter solstice was deemed an important moment of the annual cycle for some cultures as far back as the Neolithic (New Stone Age). Astronomical events were often used to guide farming activities, such as the mating of animals, the sowing of crops and the monitoring of winter reserves of food. Livestock were slaughtered so they would not have to be fed during the winter, so it was almost the only time of year when a plentiful supply of fresh meat was available.{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/topics/christmas/history-of-christmas | title=History of Christmas |publisher=History.com |access-date=January 2, 2017}}

The winter solstice is the reversal of the Sun's apparent ebbing in the sky; the daytime stops becoming shorter and begins to lengthen again. In parts of ancient Europe, this was symbolized as the death and rebirth of the Sun, or of a Sun god.Krupp, E C. Echoes of the Ancient Skies: The Astronomy of Lost Civilizations. Courier Corporation, 2012. pp. 119, 125, 195North, John. Stonehenge. The Free Press, 1996. p. 530Hadingham, Evan. Early Man and the Cosmos. University of Oklahoma Press, 1985. p. 50

Sunlight entering the passage of [[Newgrange in Ireland on the winter solstice|thumb|upright]]

Some important Neolithic and early Bronze Age archaeological sites in Europe are associated with the winter solstice, such as Stonehenge in England and Newgrange in Ireland. The primary axes of both of these monuments seem to have been carefully aligned on a sight-line pointing to the winter solstice sunrise (Newgrange) and the winter solstice sunset (Stonehenge). It is significant that at Stonehenge the Great Trilithon was oriented outwards from the middle of the monument, i.e. its smooth flat face was turned towards the midwinter sunset.{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Anthony |title=Solving Stonehenge: The New Key to an Ancient Enigma |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2008 |isbn=978-0500051559 |pages=252–253}}

Several ancient Egyptian temples are aligned with the winter solstice sunrise, including the Temple of Amun-Ra at Karnak, the chapel of Ra-Horakhty at Abu Simbel, and the Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut at Luxor.{{cite book |last1=Magli |first1=Giulio |title=The Oxford Handbook of Light in Archaeology |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=272–275}}

Plutarch wrote in the Moralia (first century AD) that the Egyptians believed the goddess Isis gave birth to Harpocrates (Horus the Child) at the winter solstice.Plutarch. Moralia, with an [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0239%3Asection%3D65 English translation by Frank Cole Babbitt]. Harvard University Press, 1936. Macrobius wrote in the fourth century that the Sun appears small at the winter solstice, and on this shortest day, the Egyptians brought a child Sun god out of a shrine.{{cite book |last1=Beck |first1=Roger |title=A Brief History of Ancient Astrology |date=2008 |publisher=Wiley |page=57}} In his Panarion, also from the fourth century, Epiphanius of Salamis wrote that the winter solstice was celebrated on 25 December in Alexandria as the Kikellia. Epiphanius says that thirteen days after the solstice, on 5–6 January, they celebrated the birth of Aion, son of the virgin goddess Kore. At the temple of Kore (the Koreion) in Alexandria, an all-night vigil was held, and at dawn an idol of the child god was brought out of an underground chapel. This idol was carried around the temple seven times, accompanied by music, hymns and revelry.{{cite book |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Paul |title=The Origins of Feasts, Fasts and Seasons |date=2011 |publisher=Liturgical Press |page=23}}{{cite book |last1=Roll |first1=Susan |title=Toward the Origins of Christmas |date=1995 |publisher=Kok Pharos Publishing |page=120}}

In the ancient Roman calendar, December 25 was the date of the winter solstice.{{cite book |last1=O'Neill |first1=William Matthew |title=Time and the Calendars |date=1976 |publisher=Manchester University Press |page=85}}{{cite book |last1=Forsythe |first1=Gary |title=Time in Roman Religion: One Thousand Years of Religious History |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |pages=113, 123, 141}} Marcus Terentius Varro wrote in the first century BC that this was regarded as the middle of winter.{{cite book |last1=Forsythe |first1=Gary |title=Time in Roman Religion: One Thousand Years of Religious History |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |pages=123, 182 |quote=Varro places the equinoxes and solstices at the midpoints of the seasons ... His dating for the beginnings of the four seasons are as follows: February 7 for spring, May 9 for summer, August 11 for autumn, and November 10 for winter.}} In the same century, Ovid wrote in the Fasti that the winter solstice is the first day of the "new Sun".Ovid, Fasti, translated by A. Wiseman and P. Wiseman. Oxford University Press, 2013, p.5 The Calendar of Antiochus of Athens, {{circa}} second century AD, marks it as the "birthday of the Sun".{{cite book |last1=Beck |first1=Roger |title=The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire: Mysteries of the Unconquered Sun |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=209–210, 254}} In AD 274, the emperor Aurelian made this the date of the festival {{lang|la|Dies Natalis Solis Invicti}}, the birthday of Sol Invictus or the 'Invincible Sun'.{{cite book |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Paul |editor1-last=Larsen |editor1-first=Timothy |title=The Oxford Handbook of Christmas |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=4–10 |chapter=The Dating of Christmas}} Gary Forsythe, Professor of Ancient History, says "This celebration would have formed a welcome addition to the seven-day period of the Saturnalia (December 17–23), Rome's most joyous holiday season since Republican times, characterized by parties, banquets, and exchanges of gifts".

Liturgical historians generally accept that the winter solstice had some influence on the choice of December 25 as the date of Christmas.{{cite book |last1=Roll |first1=Susan |title=Toward the Origins of Christmas |date=1995 |publisher=Kok Pharos Publishing |page=107}} A widely-held theory is that the Church chose it as Christ's birthday ({{lang|la|Dies Natalis Christi}}) specifically to appropriate the Roman festival of the sun god's birthday ({{lang|la|Dies Natalis Solis Invicti}}).{{Cite journal |last=Nothaft |first=C. P. E. |date=December 2012 |title=The Origins of the Christmas Date: Some Recent Trends in Historical Research |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/church-history/article/abs/origins-of-the-christmas-date-some-recent-trends-in-historical-research/3767138672A4C2DFBED6BD1B004FB78A |journal=Church History |language=en |volume=81 |issue=4 |pages=903–911 |doi=10.1017/S0009640712001941 |s2cid=145151430 |issn=0009-6407}} According to C. Philipp E. Nothaft, a professor at Trinity College Dublin, a historically Protestant University, though this "is nowadays used as the default explanation for the choice of 25 December as Christ's birthday, few advocates of this theory seem to be aware of how paltry the available evidence actually is".{{cite journal |last1=Nothaft |first1=C. Philipp E. |title=Early Christian Chronology and the Origins of the Christmas Date |journal=Questions Liturgiques/Studies in Liturgy |date=2013 |volume=94 |issue=3 |page=248 |doi=10.2143/QL.94.3.3007366 |publisher=Peeters|quote=Although HRT is nowadays used as the default explanation for the choice of 25 December as Christ's birthday, few advocates of this theory seem to be aware of how paltry the available evidence actually is.}}

{{main|Midwinter}}

[[Neolithic site of Goseck circle in Germany. The yellow lines indicate the directions in which sunrise and sunset are seen on the day of the winter solstice.|thumb|upright]]

Discussing the Heruli, the Greek historian Procopius wrote in the sixth century that the people of Scandinavia (which he calls Thule) held their greatest festival shortly after the winter solstice, to celebrate the return of daylight.{{cite journal |last1=Gunnell |first1=Terry |title=The Season of the Dísir: The Winter Nights and the Dísarblót in Early Scandinavian Belief |journal=Cosmos: The Journal of the Traditional Cosmology Society |date=2005 |volume=16 |pages=121–122}}

In Anglo-Saxon England the winter solstice was generally deemed to be December 25, and in Old English, midwinter could mean both the winter solstice and Christmas.{{cite book |last1=Karasawa |first1=Kazutomo |title=The Old English Metrical Calendar (Menologium) |date=2015 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |pages=36–37}}{{cite book |last1=Parker |first1=Eleanor |title=Winters in the World: A Journey through the Anglo-Saxon Year |date=2023 |publisher=Reaktion Books |pages=69–71}} In the eighth century, Bede wrote that the pagan Anglo-Saxons had celebrated the festival {{lang|ang|Mōdraniht}} ('Mothers' Night') at the winter solstice, which marked the start of the Anglo-Saxon year.

The North Germanic peoples celebrated a winter holiday called Yule. The Heimskringla, written in the 13th century by the Icelander Snorri Sturluson, describes a Yule feast hosted by the Norwegian king Haakon the Good (c. 920–961). According to Snorri, the Christian Haakon had moved Yule from "midwinter" and aligned it with the Christian Christmas celebration. Historically, this has made some scholars believe that Yule originally was a sun festival on the winter solstice. Modern scholars generally do not believe this, as midwinter in medieval Iceland was a date about four weeks after the solstice.{{cite book |last=Nordberg |first=Andreas |year=2006 |url=https://www.academia.edu/1366945 |title=Jul, disting och förkyrklig tideräkning: Kalendrar och kalendariska riter i det förkristna Norden |series=Acta Academiae Regiae Gustavi Adolphi |language=sv |volume=91 |publisher=Kungl. Gustav Adolfs Akademien för svensk folkkultur |pages=120–121 |isbn=91-85352-62-4 |issn=0065-0897 }} During the Christianisation of the Germanic peoples, Yule was incorporated into the Christmas celebrations and the term and its cognates remain used to refer to Christmas in modern Northern European languages such as Swedish.

Albanian traditional festivities around the winter solstice celebrate the return of the Sun (Dielli) for summer and the lengthening of the days.{{cite book|last=Xhemaj|first=Ukë|chapter=Zjarri në besimet popullore shqiptare|trans-chapter=The Fire in Albanian Folk Beliefs|title=Trashëgimia dhe tranformimi i kulturës popullore: materiala nga sesioni shkencor, mbajtur në Prishtinë më 7-8 shtator 1979|editor=Mark Krasniqi, Ukë Xhemaj|publisher=Albanological Institute of Prishtina|year=1983|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lGgKAQAAIAAJ|pages=104–121}}{{cite book|last=Qafleshi|first=Muharrem|title=Opoja dhe Gora ndër shekuj|trans-title=Opoja and Gora During Centuries|publisher=Albanological Institute of Pristina|year=2011|isbn=978-9951-596-51-0}} pp. 43–71.{{cite book|last=Tirta|first=Mark|title=Mitologjia ndër shqiptarë|language=sq|editor=Petrit Bezhani|publisher=Mësonjëtorja|year=2004|place=Tirana|isbn=99927-938-9-9}} pp. 249–251.{{cite book|last=Poghirc|first=Cicerone|title=The Encyclopedia of Religion|volume=1|chapter=Albanian Religion|editor=Mircea Eliade|place=New York|publisher=MacMillan Publishing Co|year=1987|pages=178–180}} The Albanian traditional rites during the winter solstice period are pagan, and very ancient. Albanologist Johann Georg von Hahn (1811 – 1869) reported that Christian clergy, during his time and before, have vigorously fought the pagan rites that were practiced by Albanians to celebrate this festivity, but without success.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=250}}

The old rites of this festivity were accompanied by collective fires (zjarre) based on the house, kinship or neighborhood, a practice performed in order to give strength to the Sun according to the old beliefs. The rites related to the cult of vegetation, which expressed the desire for increased production in agriculture and animal husbandry, were accompanied by animal sacrifices to the fire, lighting pine trees at night, luck divination tests with crackling in the fire or with coins in ritual bread, making and consuming ritual foods, performing various magical ritualistic actions in livestock, fields, vineyards and orchards, and so on.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=250}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}}

Nata e Buzmit, "Yule log's night", is celebrated between December 22 and January 6.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=249–251}} Buzmi is a ritualistic piece of wood (or several pieces of wood) that is put to burn in the fire (zjarri) of the hearth (vatër) on the night of a winter celebration that falls after the return of the Sun for summer (after the winter solstice), sometimes on the night of Kërshëndella on December 24 (Christmas Eve), sometimes on the night of kolendra, or sometimes on New Year's Day or on any other occasion around the same period, a tradition that is originally related to the cult of the Sun.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=282}}{{sfn|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}}

{{main|Dongzhi Festival}}

File:Origin_of_Iwato_Kagura_Dance_Amaterasu_by_Toyokuni_III_(Kunisada)_1856.png emerging from a cave (by Kunisada)]]

File:Seventeen Arch Bridge at winter solstice sunset (20201222160213).jpg, Beijing around winter solstice]]

In East Asia, the winter solstice has been celebrated as one of the Twenty-four Solar Terms, called Dongzhi (冬至) in Chinese. In Japan, in order not to catch cold in the winter, there is a custom to soak oneself in a yuzu hot bath ({{Langx|ja|柚子湯}} = Yuzuyu).{{Cite web |url=http://goinjapanesque.com/06216/ |title=Goin' Japanesque!: Japanese Winter Solstice Traditions; A Day for Kabocha and Yuzuyu |access-date=March 3, 2018 |archive-date=August 7, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807140225/http://goinjapanesque.com/06216/ |url-status=dead }}

{{main| Makar Sankranti}}

Makara Sankranti, also known as Makara Sankrānti (Sanskrit: मकर संक्रांति) or Maghi, is a festival day in the Hindu calendar, in reference to deity Surya (sun). It is observed each year in January. It marks the first day of Sun's transit into Makara (Capricorn), marking the end of the month with the winter solstice and the start of longer days.{{cite book|author=Kamal Kumar Tumuluru|title=Hindu Prayers, Gods and Festivals|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b2iyCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT30 |year=2015|publisher=Partridge|isbn=978-1-4828-4707-9|page=30}}{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A - M|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNzLMgEACAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-2287-1|page=411}}

{{main|Yaldā Night}}

Iranian people celebrate the night of the Northern Hemisphere's winter solstice as, "Yalda night", which is known to be the "longest and darkest night of the year". Yalda night celebration, or as some call it "Shabe Chelleh" ("the 40th night"), is one of the oldest Iranian traditions that has been present in Persian culture from ancient times. In this night all the family gather together, usually at the house of the eldest, and celebrate it by eating, drinking and reciting poetry (esp. Hafez). Nuts, pomegranates and watermelons are particularly served during this festival.

An Aggadic legend found in tractate Avodah Zarah 8a puts forth the talmudic hypothesis that Adam first established the tradition of fasting before the winter solstice, and rejoicing afterward, which festival later developed into the Roman Saturnalia and Kalendae.

{{blockquote|When the First Man saw that the day was continuously shortening, he said, "Woe is me! Because I have sinned, the world darkens around me, and returns to formlessless and void. This is the death to which Heaven has sentenced me!" He decided to spend eight days in fasting and prayer. When he saw the winter solstice, and he saw that the day was continuously lengthening, he said, "It is the order of the world!" He went and feasted for eight days. The following year, he feasted for both. He established them in Heaven's name, but they established them in the name of idolatry{{Cite web|title=Avodah Zarah 8a:7|url=https://www.sefaria.org/Avodah_Zarah.8a.7}}}}

{{solstice-equinox}}

Although the instant of the solstice can be calculated,{{cite book|last1=Meeus|first1=Jean|title=Astronomical Algorithms|date=2009|publisher=Willmann-Bell, Inc.|location=Richmond, Virginia|isbn=978-0-943396-61-3|edition=2nd English Edition with corrections as of August 10, 2009}} direct observation of the moment by visual perception is elusive. The Sun moves too slowly or appears to stand still (the meaning of "solstice"). However, by use of astronomical data tracking, the precise timing of its occurrence is now public knowledge. The precise instant of the solstice cannot be directly detected (by definition, people cannot observe that an object has stopped moving until it is later observed that it has not moved further from the preceding spot, or that it has moved in the opposite direction). To be precise to a single day, observers must be able to view a change in azimuth or elevation less than or equal to about 1/60 of the angular diameter of the Sun. Observing that it occurred within a two-day period is easier, requiring an observation precision of only about 1/16 of the angular diameter of the Sun. Thus, many observations are of the day of the solstice rather than the instant. This is often done by observing sunrise and sunset or using an astronomically aligned instrument that allows a ray of light to be cast on a certain point around that time. The earliest sunset and latest sunrise dates differ from winter solstice, however, and these depend on latitude, due to the variation in the solar day throughout the year caused by the Earth's elliptical orbit (see earliest and latest sunrise and sunset).

{{div col|colwidth=25em}}

• Alban Arthan (Welsh)
• Blue Christmas (holiday) (Western Christian)
• Brumalia (Ancient Rome)
• Dongzhi Festival (East Asia)
• Inti Raymi (Inca)
• Koliada and Korochun (Slavic)
• Midwinter Day (Antarctica)
• Sanghamitta Day (Theravada Buddhism)
• Shabe Yalda (Iran)
• Shalako (Zuni)
• Uttarayana (India)
• We Tripantu (Mapuche)
• Cæpporsæ (Ossetia)
• Willkakuti (Aymara)
• Yaldā (Western and Central Asia)
• Yule in the Northern Hemisphere (Germanic)
• Ziemassvētki (ancient Latvia)

{{div col end}}

• Cejna Êzî/Êzîd (Yazidi): Feast of Êzîd – Celebrated on the last Friday before winter solstice
• Saturnalia (Ancient Rome): Celebrated shortly before winter solstice
• Saint Lucy's Day (Christian): Used to coincide with the winter solstice day, now celebrated on December 13
• Cold Food Festival (Korea, Greater China): 105 days after winter solstice
• Makar Sankranti (India): Harvest Festival – Marks the end of the cold months and start of the new month with longer days.
• Winter at Tantora Festival (Saudi Arabia): Cultural festival marking the beginning of the winter harvest season.
• Saint John's Eve, in southern hemisphere

{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}

• Burning the Clocks
• Christmas in July
• Effect of Sun angle on climate
• Festival of Lights (disambiguation)
• Festive ecology
• Festivus
• Halcyon days
• Hanukkah
• HumanLight
• Joss paper
• Koliada
• Kwanzaa
• Lohri
• Midsummer
• Summer solstice
• Thai Pongal
• Tekufah
• Tirgan

{{Div col end}}

{{Reflist}}

• {{cite web | last=Macphail | first=Cameron | title=Winter solstice 2015: Everything you need to know about the shortest day of the year | website=The Daily Telegraph | date=December 20, 2015 | url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/12058397/When-is-the-winter-solstice-2015-the-shortest-day-of-the-year.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151218184326/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/12058397/When-is-the-winter-solstice-2015-the-shortest-day-of-the-year.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=December 18, 2015 | access-date=December 20, 2015}}
• {{Cite web|url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/12/151221-winter-solstice-explained-pagans|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151223235820/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/12/151221-winter-solstice-explained-pagans/|url-status = dead|archive-date = December 23, 2015|title = Everything You Need to Know About the Winter Solstice|date = December 21, 2015|access-date = December 21, 2015|work =National Geographic|last = Handwerk|first = Brian}}
• {{cite web | last= Deravian | first=Naz | title=Welcoming Brighter Days on Yalda With Pomegranates | website=The New York Times | date=December 6, 2021 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/06/dining/yalda-winter-solstice-pomegranate.html | archive-url=https://archive.today/20220103170951/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/06/dining/yalda-winter-solstice-pomegranate.html?unlocked_article_code=AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACEIPuonUktbfqohlSlUbBSbZXN4mqBLBlPHLzLV5mX74MCWPDC1Fy_8JAoONvl_KYKdsfdI11iiWAt9dNbtlDNpD8thiBW0_AQ-5vsnD350fPyQ-rY_0UG871MvGBup9rW67MyzkIb4lge3u4k7Da2XrWqSM2Xx2J1kxsoIlIQ_xoQEAxqnFGu5w2NN0zK1hUsg8HWFcEXHM6_r4CBx-O8GEbgXe6GQ1XeJbUTLRlb2M-u5KMVUSWR-dEiQJsStr48hcOdgXIK_8MxYlHcL7irwaAWRqR5y7GaIqSwhVVkVeS9ChMTOMFA&smid=url-share | url-status=dead | archive-date=January 3, 2022 | access-date=January 3, 2022}}

• [https://www.neoprogrammics.com/sun/Northern_Winter_Dates_and_Times.html Table of times/dates from 1600–2400]

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