Wisdom

The English word wisdom originates from the Old English wīsdōm, which is derived from wīs ("wise") and dōm ("judgment, decision, law").{{cite book |last=Harper |first=Douglas |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |orig-year=2001 |year=2024 |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/wisdom}} The Proto-Germanic root wis- ("to see, to know") connects wisdom to perception and insight. Related terms appear in Old High German (wīssag, "prophetic"), Old Norse (vísdómr), and Gothic (weisdumbs).{{cite book |last=Watkins |first=Calvert |title=The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots |orig-year=1985 |year=2011 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt}}

In Ancient Greek, wisdom is expressed as σοφία (sophia), often referring to both practical skill and philosophical insight. The term was central to Greek philosophy, particularly in Plato's and Aristotle's discussions on virtue.{{cite book |last=Barnes |first=Jonathan |title=The Presocratic Philosophers |orig-year=1979 |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge}} The Latin equivalent, sapientia, derives from sapere ("to taste, to discern"), emphasizing wisdom as discerning between right and wrong.{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Charlton T. |title=A Latin Dictionary |orig-year=1879 |year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}

Similar concepts exist in non-Indo-European languages:

• Sanskrit: Jñāna (ज्ञान) and viveka (विवेक) refer to intellectual and spiritual wisdom in Hindu thought.{{cite book |last=Radhakrishnan |first=Sarvepalli |title=Indian Philosophy |orig-year=1923 |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
• Chinese: Zhì (智) represents wisdom as practical intelligence, central to Confucian ethics.{{cite book |last=Ames |first=Roger T. |title=The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation |year=1999 |publisher=Ballantine Books}}
• Hebrew: Chokhmah (חָכְמָה) in the Hebrew Bible is linked to divine and moral wisdom.{{cite book |last=Clifford |first=Richard |title=The Wisdom Literature |orig-year=1998 |year=2007 |publisher=Abingdon Press}}

Wisdom has been a central concept in philosophy, religion, and literature across ancient civilizations.

The earliest wisdom literature comes from Sumerian and Egyptian texts. In Sumerian tradition, wisdom (me) was considered a divine principle given by the gods, recorded in proverbs and myths.{{cite book |last=Kramer |first=Samuel Noah |title=The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character |orig-year=1963 |year=1991 |publisher=University of Chicago Press}} Egyptian wisdom texts, such as the Maxims of Ptahhotep (c. 2400 BCE), emphasized moral conduct and social harmony.{{cite book |last=Parkinson |first=R. B. |title=The Wisdom Texts from Ancient Egypt |orig-year=1991 |year=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}

Wisdom became a major theme in Greek philosophy. Socrates equated wisdom with knowing one's own ignorance, while Plato argued that wisdom was the highest form of knowledge.{{cite book |last=Plato |title=The Republic |orig-year=4th century BCE |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Classics}} Aristotle distinguished between practical wisdom (phronesis) and theoretical wisdom (sophia), defining wisdom as the ability to deliberate well about the good life.{{cite book |last=Aristotle |title=Nicomachean Ethics |orig-year=4th century BCE |year=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}

In Roman philosophy, wisdom (sapientia) was regarded as the virtue of the Stoic sage. Cicero and Seneca viewed wisdom as self-discipline and rational living, essential for achieving inner tranquility (ataraxia).{{cite book |last=Long |first=Anthony A. |title=Hellenistic Philosophy |orig-year=1974 |year=1986 |publisher=University of California Press}}

Wisdom also developed as a spiritual concept in various traditions:

• Biblical wisdom literature: Books like Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job depict wisdom as both divine and practical, often contrasting human knowledge with divine omniscience.{{cite book |last=Crenshaw |first=James L. |title=Old Testament Wisdom: An Introduction |orig-year=1981 |year=2010 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}}
• Buddhism: Wisdom (prajñā) is one of the threefold trainings leading to enlightenment, developed through meditation and ethical conduct.{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=Peter |title=An Introduction to Buddhism |orig-year=1990 |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
• Islamic philosophy: The Arabic term hikmah (حكمة) refers to wisdom as both divine insight and rational philosophy, deeply influenced by Aristotle, Avicenna, and Al-Farabi.{{cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |title=Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study |orig-year=1976 |year=2001 |publisher=World Wisdom}}

Philosophers have explored wisdom as a fundamental concept for millennia, debating its nature, acquisition, and role in ethical and intellectual life. Some traditions emphasize wisdom as practical decision-making, while others frame it as deep contemplation or spiritual insight. Broadly, wisdom has been categorized into theoretical wisdom (sophia), practical wisdom (phronesis), and moral wisdom, with varying interpretations across different philosophical traditions.

{{main|Western philosophy}}

{{main|Ancient Greek philosophy}}

Wisdom (sophia, σοφία) played a central role in Ancient Greek philosophy and was often distinguished from mere knowledge (episteme, ἐπιστήμη).

According to Plato and Xenophon, the Pythia of the Delphic Oracle answered the question "who is the wisest man in Greece?" by stating Socrates was the wisest.{{cite book|author=Plato|title=Symposium}}; {{cite book|author=Xenophon|title=Memorabilia}}. According to Plato's Apology, Socrates (469–399 BCE) decided to investigate the people who might be considered wiser than him, concluding they lacked true knowledge. He argued that true wisdom involves questioning and refining beliefs rather than assuming certainty:

{{Verse translation|lang=grc|τούτου μὲν τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἐγὼ σοφώτερός εἰμι: κινδυνεύει μὲν γὰρ ἡμῶν οὐδέτερος οὐδὲν καλὸν κἀγαθὸν εἰδέναι, ἀλλ᾽ οὗτος μὲν οἴεταί τι εἰδέναι οὐκ εἰδώς, ἐγὼ δέ, ὥσπερ οὖν οὐκ οἶδα, οὐδὲ οἴομαι: ἔοικα γοῦν τούτου γε σμικρῷ τινι αὐτῷ τούτῳ σοφώτερος εἶναι, ὅτι ἃ μὴ οἶδα οὐδὲ οἴομαι εἰδέναι.|I am wiser than this man; for neither of us really knows anything fine and good, but this man thinks he knows something when he does not, whereas I, as I do not know anything, do not think I do either.}}

This became immortalized in the phrase "I know that I know nothing", an aphorism suggesting that it is wise to recognize one's own ignorance{{cite journal|first=Gail|last=Fine|title=Does Socrates Claim to Know that He Knows Nothing?|journal=Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy|volume=35|year=2008|pages=49–88|doi=10.1093/oso/9780199557790.003.0003 |isbn=978-0-19-955779-0 }} and to value epistemic humility.{{Citation|last=Ryan|first=Sharon|title=Wisdom|year=2013|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/wisdom/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Fall 2018|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=2019-08-17}}

To Socrates and his student Plato (c. 427–347 BCE), philosophy was literally the love of wisdom ({{transliteration|grc|philo-sophia}}). This permeates Plato's dialogues; in The Republic the leaders of his proposed utopia are philosopher kings who, through education and contemplation, attain a deep understanding of justice and the Forms, and possess the courage to act accordingly.{{cite journal |last=Trowbridge |first=R. H. |date=May 2011

|title=Waiting for Sophia: 30 years of Conceptualizing Wisdom in Empirical Psychology |journal=Research in Human Development |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=111–117 |doi=10.1080/15427609.2011.568872 |s2cid=145371442}}

Aristotle (384–322 BCE), in Metaphysics, defined wisdom as understanding why things are a certain way (causality), which is deeper than merely knowing things are a certain way. was the first to differentiate between two types of wisdom:

• Theoretical wisdom ({{transliteration|grc|sophia}}), which involves deep contemplation of universal truths.
• Practical wisdom ({{transliteration|grc|phronesis}}), which is the ability to make sound decisions in everyday life.

Aristotle saw phronesis as essential for ethical living, arguing that virtuous actions require both knowledge and experience. This concept of practical wisdom later influenced virtue ethics and modern discussions of decision-making.

In the Medieval period, wisdom was often linked to divine revelation and theology. Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE) viewed wisdom as knowledge aligned with God's eternal truth, distinguishing it from mere worldly intelligence.{{cite book |last=Augustine |first=Saint |title=The City of God |orig-year=426 |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Classics |location=London}} He argued that true wisdom (sapientia) comes from knowing and loving God, contrasting it with human knowledge (scientia), which concerns temporal matters.{{cite book |last=O'Daly |first=Gerard |title=Augustine's City of God: A Reader's Guide |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}

Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) built upon Aristotle's distinction between theoretical and practical wisdom, incorporating it into Christian theology. He argued that wisdom (sapientia) is the highest intellectual virtue, guiding reason toward ultimate truth and divine understanding.{{cite book |last=Aquinas |first=Thomas |title=Summa Theologica |orig-year=1265–1274 |year=1981 |publisher=Christian Classics}} Aquinas distinguished between natural wisdom, which humans acquire through reason, and supernatural wisdom, which comes through divine revelation.{{cite book |last=Kretzmann |first=Norman |title=The Cambridge Companion to Aquinas |year=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}

During the Renaissance, humanist thinkers such as Erasmus (1466–1536) and Montaigne (1533–1592) emphasized the role of self-reflection and skepticism in wisdom, challenging dogmatic reliance on authority.{{cite book |last=Erasmus |first=Desiderius |title=The Praise of Folly |orig-year=1511 |year=1993 |publisher=Penguin Classics}} Montaigne, in his Essays, proposed that true wisdom lies in acknowledging uncertainty and maintaining intellectual humility.{{cite book |last=Montaigne |first=Michel de |title=The Complete Essays |orig-year=1580 |year=1993 |publisher=Penguin Classics |isbn=978-0140446043}} The Renaissance emphasis on human reason and critical inquiry laid the groundwork for early modern philosophical discussions of wisdom.

In the Age of Enlightenment, the concept of wisdom shifted from religious and metaphysical frameworks to one rooted in rationality and moral duty. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) argued that wisdom involves the application of practical reason to align one’s actions with universal moral principles.{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Critique of Practical Reason |orig-year=1788 |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}} He distinguished between theoretical reason, which seeks knowledge for its own sake, and practical reason, which applies knowledge ethically. Kantian wisdom involves making decisions that conform to the categorical imperative, a moral law derived from reason.

During the 19th century, romanticism and existentialism challenged the rationalist foundations of wisdom. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) criticized traditional views of wisdom as passive contemplation and obedience to moral codes. Instead, he championed "life-affirming wisdom", emphasizing personal growth through struggle and self-overcoming.{{cite book |last=Nietzsche |first=Friedrich |title=Thus Spoke Zarathustra |orig-year=1883 |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}} Nietzsche rejected the pursuit of static truths, instead advocating for a dynamic and self-created form of wisdom.

Existentialist philosophers further expanded this critique. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) viewed wisdom as a confrontation with the absurd condition of life and the freedom to create meaning in a world devoid of inherent purpose.{{cite book |last=Sartre |first=Jean-Paul |title=Being and Nothingness |orig-year=1943 |year=1993 |publisher=Washington Square Press}} Albert Camus (1913–1960) echoed these ideas in The Myth of Sisyphus, arguing that wisdom lies in accepting life's absurdity and choosing to live meaningfully despite its challenges.{{cite book |last=Camus |first=Albert |title=The Myth of Sisyphus |orig-year=1942 |year=1991 |publisher=Vintage International}}

In the 20th century, pragmatist philosophers like John Dewey (1859–1952) argued for a form of wisdom based on adaptability and practical decision-making. Dewey rejected fixed moral absolutes in favor of wisdom as a constantly evolving process of inquiry and experimentation.{{cite book |last=Dewey |first=John |title=Democracy and Education |orig-year=1916 |year=2018 |publisher=Free Press}} Pragmatic wisdom, according to Dewey, emerges from ongoing reflection on experience and the ability to adapt principles to changing contexts.

Meanwhile, virtue ethicists such as Martha Nussbaum argue that wisdom is tied to emotional intelligence and empathy. In her works on Aristotelian ethics, Nussbaum writes that wise individuals understand the complexities of human emotions and integrate them into moral reasoning.{{cite book |last=Nussbaum |first=Martha |title=The Fragility of Goodness: Luck and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy |orig-year=1986 |year=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}} This perspective sees wisdom not merely as intellectual discernment but as the capacity to recognize the emotional and contextual dimensions of moral life.

Postmodern philosophers challenge the notion of wisdom as a universal concept. Michel Foucault (1926–1984) argued that ideas of wisdom are shaped by power structures and are inherently subjective, often serving to reinforce dominant ideologies.{{cite book |last=Foucault |first=Michel |title=The Archaeology of Knowledge |orig-year=1969 |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge}} Postmodern perspectives emphasize cultural relativism and the diversity of wisdom across historical and social contexts rather than a singular definition.

Today, contemporary discussions of wisdom draw from cognitive science and social philosophy. Philosophers like Philip Kitcher focus on practical wisdom as collaborative decision-making in democratic societies.{{cite book |last=Kitcher |first=Philip |title=The Ethical Project |year=2011 |publisher=Harvard University Press}} This view holds that wisdom is not an individual trait but a collective process involving diverse perspectives. As such, modern philosophy views wisdom as dynamic, context-dependent, and shaped by emotional, social, and cognitive factors.

{{main|Eastern philosophy}}

{{main|Confucianism}}

File:Confucius, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg in a fresco from a Western Han tomb in Dongping, Shandong]]

In Confucian thought, wisdom (zhi, 智) is closely linked to ethical living and social harmony. Confucius (551–479 BCE) taught that wisdom is not merely intelligence but the ability to act virtuously in relationships and governance.{{cite book |last=Confucius |title=The Analects |orig-year=5th century BCE |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Classics}} It involves self-cultivation, learning from the past, and practicing benevolence (ren, 仁), which Confucius regarded as a foundational virtue.{{cite book |last=Ames |first=Roger T. |title=The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation |year=1999 |publisher=Ballantine Books}}

Wisdom in Confucianism is practical and moral, requiring individuals to cultivate righteousness (yi, 義) and ritual propriety (li, 禮) in order to contribute to a stable society.{{cite book |last=Chan |first=Wing-Tsit |title=A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy |orig-year=1963 |year=2009 |publisher=Princeton University Press}} The ideal wise person, or "superior person" (junzi, 君子), embodies wisdom by continuously refining their character and aligning their actions with ethical principles.{{cite book |last=Slingerland |first=Edward |title=Effortless Action: Wu-wei as Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China |year=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}

Later Confucian thinkers expanded on this concept. Mencius (372–289 BCE) emphasized compassion and moral intuition as sources of wisdom, arguing that humans are naturally inclined toward goodness but must develop wisdom through education and reflection.{{cite book |last=Mencius |title=Mencius |orig-year=4th century BCE |year=2004 |publisher=Penguin Classics}} Xunzi (c. 310–235 BCE), by contrast, saw wisdom as the product of strict discipline and adherence to ritual, believing that human nature is inherently flawed and must be shaped through deliberate effort.{{cite book |last=Xunzi |title=Xunzi: The Complete Text |orig-year=3rd century BCE |year=2014 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}

The Confucian approach to wisdom remains influential in East Asian ethics, education, and leadership philosophy, continuing to shape modern discussions on morality and governance.{{cite book |last=Tu |first=Wei-ming |title=Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation |orig-year=1985 |year=1998 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}

{{main|Buddhist philosophy}}

File:Shakyamuni-Thangka.jpg

In Buddhist philosophy, wisdom (prajñā, प्रज्ञा) is one of the threefold training principles (along with ethics and meditation). It involves seeing reality as it truly is, free from delusions. In Mahayana Buddhism, wisdom is often personified by the Bodhisattva Manjushri, who wields a sword to cut through ignorance. Zen traditions emphasize satori (悟り), a sudden flash of wisdom or enlightenment. In Theravāda Buddhism, wisdom is developed through vipassanā (insight meditation), leading to the realization of impermanence (anicca), suffering (duḥkha), and non-self (anattā). Buddhist religious traditions provide comprehensive guidance on how to develop wisdom.{{cite journal|last1=Karunamuni|first1=N.|last2=Weerasekera|first2=R.|title=Theoretical Foundations to Guide Mindfulness Meditation: A Path to Wisdom|journal=Current Psychology|volume=38|issue=3|pages=627–646|doi=10.1007/s12144-017-9631-7|url=http://mindrxiv.org/mfs63/|year=2019|s2cid=149024504}}{{cite web|url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/waytoend.html|title=The Noble Eightfold Path|access-date=2009-03-16|publisher=Access to Insight|first=Bhikkhu|last=Bodhi}}

The term {{transliteration|sa|Prajñā}} was translated into Chinese as

{{lang|zh|智慧}} (pinyin {{transliteration|zh|zhìhuì}}, characters 智 "knowledge" and 慧 "bright, intelligent"). In Chinese Buddhism, the idea of wisdom is closely linked to its Indian equivalent as it appears for instance in certain conceptual continuities that exist between Asanga, Vasubandhu and Xuanzang.{{Explain|reason=what are these continuities, how do they illustrate the linkage?|date=August 2023}}{{cite journal |last1=Jannel |first1=Romaric |title=Xuanzang and the Three Types of Wisdom: Learning, Reasoning, and Cultivating in Yogācāra Thought |journal=Religions |date=May 2022 |volume=13 |issue=6 |page=486 |doi=10.3390/rel13060486 |doi-access=free }}

Developing wisdom is of central importance in Buddhist traditions, where the ultimate aim is often presented as "seeing things as they are" or as gaining a "penetrative understanding of all phenomena", which in turn is described as ultimately leading to the "complete freedom from suffering". In Buddhism, developing wisdom is accomplished through an understanding of what are known as the Four Noble Truths and by following the Noble Eightfold Path. This path lists mindfulness as one of eight required components for cultivating wisdom.

Buddhist scriptures teach that wise people conduct themselves well.AN 3:2 A wise person does actions that are unpleasant to do but give good results, and does not do actions that are pleasant to do but give bad results.AN 4:115 Wisdom is the antidote to the poison of ignorance. The Buddha has much to say on the subject of wisdom including:

• He who arbitrates a case by force does not thereby become just (established in Dhamma). But the wise man is he who carefully discriminates between right and wrong.Dhammapada v. 256
• He who leads others by nonviolence, righteously and equitably, is indeed a guardian of justice, wise and righteous.Dhammapada v. 257
• One is not wise merely because he talks much. But he who is calm, free from hatred and fear, is verily called a wise man.Dhammapada v. 258
• By quietude alone one does not become a sage ({{transliteration|sa|muni}}) if he is foolish and ignorant. But he who, as if holding a pair of scales, takes the good and shuns the evil, is a wise man; he is indeed a {{transliteration|sa|muni}} by that very reason. He who understands both good and evil as they really are, is called a true sage.Dhammapada v. 268–269

To recover the original supreme wisdom of self-nature (Buddha-nature or Tathagata) concealed by the self-imposed three dusty poisons (the kleshas: greed, anger, ignorance), Buddha taught to his students the threefold training by turning greed into generosity and discipline, anger into kindness and meditation, ignorance into wisdom.{{cn|date=February 2025}}

{{Main|Hindu philosophy}}

In Hindu philosophy, wisdom (jñāna, ज्ञान) is closely associated with self-realization and spiritual knowledge. Unlike the empirical knowledge (vidyā, विद्या) gained through sensory experience, wisdom in Hinduism involves insight into the ultimate nature of reality (Brahman, ब्रह्मन्) and the self (Ātman, आत्मन्).{{cite book |last=Radhakrishnan |first=Sarvepalli |title=Indian Philosophy |orig-year=1923 |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press}} The Upanishads, foundational texts of Hindu thought, describe wisdom as the realization that all worldly distinctions are illusions (maya, माया), and that the self is one with the infinite consciousness of Brahman.{{cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |title=The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation |orig-year=1998 |year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}

Within Vedanta philosophy, wisdom is considered the path to liberation (mokṣa, मोक्ष). Adi Shankaracharya (c. 8th century CE) argued that true wisdom (jnana yoga) arises through discrimination (viveka, विवेक) between the real and the unreal.{{cite book |last=Shankara |first=Adi |title=Vivekachudamani: Crest-Jewel of Discrimination |orig-year=8th century CE |year=2004 |publisher=Advaita Ashrama}} He taught that ignorance (avidyā, अविद्या) binds individuals to the cycle of samsara (rebirth), and wisdom is the means to overcome illusion and attain self-realization.{{cite book |last=Comans |first=Michael |title=The Method of Early Advaita Vedanta |orig-year=2000 |year=2000 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass}} In contrast, Dvaita Vedanta, founded by Madhvacharya (13th century CE), holds that wisdom involves recognizing the eternal distinction between the self and God, rather than dissolving all distinctions.{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=B. N. K. |title=The Philosophy of Madhvacharya |orig-year=1962 |year=2008 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass}}

Wisdom is also a core element in Hindu sacred texts, including the Bhagavad Gita, where Krishna teaches Arjuna that true wisdom transcends personal desires and emotions.{{cite book |last=Easwaran |first=Eknath |title=The Bhagavad Gita |orig-year=1985 |year=2007 |publisher=Nilgiri Press}} The Gita outlines three paths to wisdom:

• Jnana yoga – the path of intellectual discernment and self-inquiry.
• Bhakti yoga – the path of devotion to a personal deity as a means to wisdom.
• Karma yoga – the path of selfless action leading to enlightened understanding.{{cite book |last=Sargeant |first=Winthrop |title=The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-Fifth Anniversary Edition |orig-year=1984 |year=2009 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}

Hindu wisdom traditions remain deeply influential in both spiritual practice and philosophical inquiry, with modern thinkers like Swami Vivekananda and Aurobindo Ghose integrating ancient wisdom concepts with contemporary thought.{{cite book |last=Halbfass |first=Wilhelm |title=Tradition and Reflection: Explorations in Indian Thought |orig-year=1991 |year=1991 |publisher=State University of New York Press}} Medha is a goddess of wisdom found in the Garuda Purana.{{cite journal

| last1 = Scott

| first1 = David

| date = 1998

| title = The Perennial Message of 'the Goddess': Enduring Themes down the Ages in Bactria

| url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/29757365

| journal = East and West

| volume = 48

| issue = 1/2

| pages = 27–39

| jstor = 29757365

| access-date = 25 July 2024

| quote = In the Garuda Purana 1.7.9, one of the manifestations of the energy of Sarasvati was medha (wisdom), an identification repeated with respect to the Goddess in the Devi Mahatmya 1.11. Thus it is no surprise to find with Anahita, in verse 86 of her Aban Yast, that 'the priests (athravans) who read and the pupils of the priest will beg of thee knowledge'.}}

{{main|Taoist philosophy}}

File:Bagua Zhao Huiqian.jpg

Taoist views of wisdom (wu wei, 無為) emphasizes effortless action, aligning with the natural flow of the universe (Tao). While early Confucianism values social harmony and structured virtue, Taoist wisdom often embraces paradox and non-conformity. The Zhuangzi text, attributed to Zhuang Zhou (c. 4th century BCE), presents wisdom as a state of effortless flow (wu wei), where one aligns with the spontaneous patterns of nature rather than imposing human will.{{cite book |last=Zhuangzi |title=Zhuangzi: Basic Writings |orig-year=4th century BCE |year=2003 |publisher=Columbia University Press}} This contrasts with Confucian ideals of ritual and duty, as Taoist wisdom values freedom from rigid thinking and acceptance of change.{{cite book |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |title=Wandering on the Way: Early Taoist Tales and Parables of Zhuangzi |year=1998 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press}}

Taoist wisdom also includes cosmological insight, recognizing that all things emerge from the Tao (道), the fundamental force of existence.{{cite book |last=Kirkland |first=Russell |title=Taoism: The Enduring Tradition |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge}} In Tao Te Ching (道德經), attributed to Laozi (6th century BCE), wisdom is described as yielding like water, able to overcome obstacles through gentleness rather than force.{{cite book |last=Laozi |title=Tao Te Ching |orig-year=4th century BCE |year=2006 |publisher=Hackett Publishing}} This perspective aligns with Taoist ethics, which discourage aggression and rigid control, instead promoting a harmonious existence in sync with nature’s rhythms.{{cite book |last=Ames |first=Roger T. |title=Dao De Jing: A Philosophical Translation |year=2003 |publisher=Ballantine Books |isbn=978-0345444196}} He also describes wisdom as understanding the balance of opposites (Yin and Yang) and acting in harmony with nature rather than imposing force.

Unlike Western views, Taoist wisdom often involves paradox and non-action, valuing spontaneity over rigid rules. Taoist sages are often depicted as detached from worldly concerns, seeking a deeper, wordless understanding of existence that transcends conventional logic.{{cite book |last=Robinet |first=Isabelle |title=Taoism: Growth of a Religion |year=1997 |publisher=Stanford University Press}}

{{Main|Expert}}

{{Further|Developmental psychology|personality psychology}}

The three major psychological categories for wisdom are personality, development, and expertise.{{cite journal

| last1 = Baltes

| first1 = Paul B.

| last2 = Staudinger

| first2 = Ursula M.

| date = 2000

| title = Wisdom: A Metaheuristic (Pragmatic) to Orchestrate Mind and Virtue Toward Excellence

| url = https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_2102711/component/file_2102710/content

| journal = American Psychologist

| volume = 55

| issue = 1

| pages = 122–136

| doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.122

| pmid = 11392856

| access-date = 27 July 2024

| quote = Theoretical and empirical work on explicit psychological theories of wisdom can be roughly divided into three groups: (a) the conceptualization of wisdom as a personal characteristic or constellation of personality dispositions (e.g., Erikson, 1959; McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1998), (b) the conceptualization of wisdom in the neo-Piagetian tradition of postformal and dialectical thought (e.g., Alex ander & Langer, 1990; Labouvie-Vief, 1990), and (c) the conceptualization of wisdom as an expert system dealing with the meaning and conduct of life (P. Baltes & Smith, 1990; Dittmann-Kohli & Baltes, 1990; Staudinger & Baltes, 1994).| hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0025-9C51-4

| hdl-access = free

}}

Psychologists have begun to gather data on commonly held beliefs or folk theories about wisdom.{{cite journal|last=Sternberg|first=R. J.|year=1985|title=Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=49|issue=3 |pages=607–662|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.49.3.607 }} Initial analyses indicate that although "there is an overlap of the implicit theory of wisdom with intelligence, perceptiveness, spirituality, and shrewdness, it is evident that wisdom is an expertise in dealing with difficult questions of life and adaptation to the complex requirements."{{cite journal | last1 = Brown | first1 = S. C. | last2 = Greene | first2 = J. A. | year = 2006 | title = The Wisdom Development Scale: Translating the conceptual to the concrete | url = http://www.colgate.edu/portaldata/imagegallerywww/4119/ImageGallery/JCSD_WDS.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170705112332/http://www.colgate.edu/portaldata/imagegallerywww/4119/ImageGallery/JCSD_WDS.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2017-07-05 | journal = Journal of College Student Development | volume = 47 | pages = 1–19 | doi=10.1353/csd.2006.0002| citeseerx = 10.1.1.502.7954 | s2cid = 35496789 }}

The field of psychology has also developed explicit theories and empirical research on the psychological processes underlying wisdom.{{cite book|last1=Bluck|first1=Susan|last2=Glück|first2=Judith |title=A handbook of wisdom: Psychological perspectives|editor-first1=Robert|editor-last1=Sternberg|editor-first2=Jennifer|editor-last2=Jordan|pages= 84–109|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2005|location=New York|doi= 10.1017/cbo9780511610486.005|chapter=From the Inside Out: People's Implicit Theories of Wisdom|isbn= 9780511610486}}{{cite journal

| last1 = Staudinger

| first1 = U.M.

| last2 = Glück

| first2 = J.

| year = 2011

| title = Psychological wisdom research: Commonalities and differences in a growing field.

| journal = Annual Review of Psychology

| volume = 62

| pages = 215–241

| doi = 10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131659

| pmid = 20822439 }} Opinions on the psychological definition of wisdom vary, but there is some consensus that critical to wisdom are certain meta-cognitive processes that afford life reflection and judgment about critical life matters.{{cite journal|last1=Baltes|first1=Paul B.|last2=Staudinger|first2=Ursula M.|year=2000|title=Wisdom: A metaheuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence|journal=American Psychologist|volume=55|issue=1|pages=122–136|doi=10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.122|pmid=11392856|hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0025-9C51-4|hdl-access=free}}{{cite journal

| last1 = Grossmann

| first1 = Igor

| date = 2017

| title = Wisdom in Context

| url = http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pps

| journal = Perspectives on Psychological Science

| volume = 12

| issue = 2

| pages = 233–257

| doi = 10.1177/1745691616672066

| pmid = 28346113

| s2cid = 26818408

| access-date = 18 July 2024

| quote = Compromise [...] Intellectual humility [...] Recognition of uncertainty and change [...] Others' perspectives / broader contexts}} These processes include recognizing the limits of one's own knowledge, acknowledging uncertainty and change, attention to context and the bigger picture, and integrating different perspectives of a situation.{{Cite book|last1=Vuong|first1=Quan-Hoang|title=The Kingfisher Story Collection|date=2022|publisher=Amazon Digital Services|isbn=979-8353946595}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}} Cognitive scientists suggest that wisdom requires coordinating such reasoning processes for insight into managing one's life.{{cite web|last=Vervaeke|first=John|title=The Cognitive Science of Wisdom|date=4 May 2012 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ti4Kj8TcEgk| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211107/ti4Kj8TcEgk| archive-date=2021-11-07 | url-status=live|publisher=Mind Matters Conference|access-date=13 April 2013}}{{cbignore}} Reasoning of this sort is both theoretically and empirically distinct from general (fluid or crystallized) intelligence.{{cite book|last=Sternberg|first=Robert J.|author-link=Robert Sternberg|title=Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|location=New York|isbn=978-0-521-80238-3 }} Researchers have shown empirically that wise reasoning is distinct from IQ.{{multiref2

|1={{cite journal | last1 = Grossmann| first1 = I. | last2 = Na | first2 = J. | last3 = Varnum | first3 = M.E. | last4 = Park | first4 = D.C. | last5 =Kitayama | first5 = S. | last6 = Nisbett | first6 = R.E. | year = 2010 | title = Reasoning about social conflicts improves into old age. | url = https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/early/2010/03/23/1001715107.full.pdf | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| volume = 107 | issue = 16 | pages = 7246–7250 | bibcode = 2010PNAS..107.7246G | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1001715107 | pmid = 20368436 | pmc = 2867718 | doi-access = free }}

|2={{cite journal | last1 = Staudinger| first1 = U.M. | last2 = Lopez| first2 = D.F | last3 = Baltes| first3 = P.B. | year = 1997 | title = The psychometric location of wisdom-related performance: Intelligence, personality, and more? | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 23 | issue = 11 | pages = 1200–1214 | doi = 10.1177/01461672972311007 | s2cid = 145148320}} }}

Baltes and colleagues defined wisdom as "the ability to deal with the contradictions of a specific situation and to assess the consequences of an action for themselves and for others. It is achieved when in a concrete situation, a balance between intrapersonal, interpersonal and institutional interests can be prepared".{{multiref2

|1={{cite book|first1=P.B.|last1=Baltes|first2=J.|last2=Glück|first3=U.|last3=Kunzmann|chapter=Wisdom: Its structure and function in regulating successful life span development|title=Handbook of Positive Psychology|editor-first1=C.R.|editor-last1=Snyder|editor-first2=S.J.|editor-last2=Lopez|pages=327–347|publisher=Oxford University Press}}

|2={{cite journal | pmc = 2937249 | pmid=20233730 | doi=10.1093/geront/gnq022 | volume=50 | issue=5 | title=Expert consensus on characteristics of wisdom: a Delphi method study | date=October 2010 | journal=Gerontologist | pages=668–680 | last1 = Jeste | first1 = D.V. | last2 = Ardelt | first2 = M. | last3 = Blazer | first3 = D. | last4 = Kraemer | first4 = H.C. | last5 = Vaillant | first5 = G. | last6 = Meeks | first6 = T.W.}} }} Balance appears to be a critical criterion of wisdom. Empirical research provides some support for this idea, showing that wisdom-related reasoning is associated with achieving balance between intrapersonal and interpersonal interests when facing personal life challenges, and when setting goals for managing interpersonal conflicts.{{cite journal

| last1 = Brienza

| first1 = J.P.

| last2 = Kung

| first2 = F.Y.H.

| last3 = Santos

| first3 = H.

| last4 = Bobocel

| first4 = D.R.

| last5 = Grossmann

| first5 = I.

|year = 2017

| title = Wisdom, Bias, and Balance: Toward a Process-Sensitive Measurement of Wisdom-Related Cognition

| journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

| volume = 115

| issue = 6

| pages = 1093–1126

| pmid = 28933874

| doi = 10.1037/pspp0000171

| s2cid = 29052539

| url = https://psyarxiv.com/p25c2/ }}{{cite journal | last1 = Grossmann| first1 = I. | last2 = Brienza| first2 = J.P. | last3 = Bobocel| first3 = D.R.|year = 2017 | title = Wise deliberation sustains cooperation | journal = Nature Human Behaviour | volume = 1 | issue = 3 | page = 0061 | doi = 10.1038/s41562-017-0061 | s2cid = 38342840 }}

Researchers also explore the role of emotions in wisdom.{{cite book |last1=Kunzmann |first1=U. |last2=Glück |first2=J. |date=2019 |chapter=Wisdom and emotion |editor1-first=R. J. |editor1-last=Sternberg |editor2-first=J. |editor2-last=Glück |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Wisdom |pages=575–601 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781108568272.027}} Most agree that emotions and emotion regulation are key to effectively managing the kinds of complex and arousing situations that most call for wisdom. Much empirical research has focused on the cognitive or meta-cognitive aspects of wisdom, assuming that an ability to reason through difficult situations is paramount. So although emotions likely play a role in how wisdom plays out in real events (and in reflecting on past events), empirical studies were late to develop on how emotions affect a person's ability to deal wisely with complex events. One study found a positive relationship between diversity of emotional experience and wise reasoning, irrespective of emotional intensity.{{cite journal|last1=Grossmann|first1=Igor|last2=Oakes|first2=Harrison|last3=Santos|first3=Henri C.|year=2018|title=Wise Reasoning Benefits from Emodiversity, Irrespective of Emotional Intensity.|url=https://osf.io/jy5em|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=148|issue=5|pages=805–823|doi=10.1037/xge0000543|pmid=30688474|s2cid=59306284|via=PsyArXiv}}

{{Main|Gestalt therapy}}

A wise-person fantasy is an awareness intervention, where one poses a question, thinks on it for a few minutes, and then role-plays a fantasized wise person to answer that same question.{{cite book

| last1 = Henderson

| first1 = D.

| last2 = Thompson

| first2 = C.

| date = 2016

| title = Counseling Children

| edition = 9

| publisher = Cengage Learning

| page = 229

| isbn = 978-1-285-46454-1}}

Grossmann and colleagues summarized prior psychological literature to conclude that wisdom involves certain cognitive processes that afford unbiased, sound judgment in the face of ill-defined life situations:

1. intellectual humility, or recognition of limits of own knowledge
2. appreciation of perspectives broader than the issue at hand
3. sensitivity to the possibility of change in social relations
4. compromise or integration of different perspectives{{Cite journal|title=Wisdom and how to cultivate it: Review of emerging evidence for a constructivist model of wise thinking|last=Grossmann|first=Igor|journal=European Pyschologist|volume=22|issue=4|date=October 2017|doi=10.1027/1016-9040/a000302}}{{Cite journal|last1=Santos|first1=Henri C.|last2=Huynh|first2=Alex C.|last3=Grossmann|first3=Igor|year=2017|title=Wisdom in a complex world: A situated account of wise reasoning and its development|journal=Social and Personality Psychology Compass|volume=11|issue=10|pages=e12341|doi=10.1111/spc3.12341|issn=1751-9004|url=https://psyarxiv.com/pdtxv/ }}

Grossmann found that habitually speaking and thinking of oneself in the third person increases these characteristics, which means that such a habit makes a person wiser.{{multiref2

|1={{cite web|first=David|last=Robson|url=https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20230411-illeism-the-ancient-trick-to-help-you-think-more-wisely |title=Illeism: The ancient trick to help you think more wisely |publisher=BBC |date=2023-04-14 |access-date=2023-07-04}}

|2={{cite web|first=David|last=Robson|url=https://aeon.co/ideas/why-speaking-to-yourself-in-the-third-person-makes-you-wiser |title=Why speaking to yourself in the third person makes you wiser |publisher=Aeon |date=2019-08-07 |access-date=2020-07-10}} }} Grossmann says contextual factors{{snd}}such as culture, experiences, and social situations{{snd}}influence the understanding, development, and propensity of wisdom, with implications for training and educational practice. These contextual factors are the focus of continuing research. For instance, Grossmann and Kross identified a phenomenon they called "the Solomon's paradox": that people reflect more wisely on other people's problems than on their own. (It is named after King Solomon, who had legendary sagacity when making judgments about other people's dilemmas but lacked insight when it came to important decisions in his own life.)

A researcher will measure wisdom differently depending on their theoretical position about the nature of wisdom. For example, some view wisdom as a stable personality trait, others as a context-bound process.{{cite journal | last1 = Grossmann| first1 = I.|year = 2017 | title = Wisdom in context | journal = Perspectives on Psychological Science | volume = 12 | issue = 2 | pages = 233–257| doi = 10.1177/1745691616672066| pmid = 28346113| s2cid = 26818408}} Those wedded to the former approach often use single-shot questionnaires, which are prone to {{clarify|reason=in what way?|text=biased|date=August 2023}} responses,{{cite journal | last1 = Taylor| first1 = M. | last2 = Bates| first2 = G. | last3 = Webster| first3 = J.D. |year = 2011 | title = Comparing the psychometric properties of two measures of wisdom: Predicting forgiveness and psychological well-being with the Self-Assessed Wisdom Scale (SAWS) and the Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale (3D-WS). | journal = Experimental Aging Research | volume = 37| issue = 2 | pages = 129–141 | doi = 10.1080/0361073X.2011.554508 | pmid = 21424954 | s2cid = 205555336 }} something that is antithetical to the wisdom construct{{cite journal | last1 = Glück| first1 = J. | last2 = König| first2 = S. | last3 = Naschenweng| first3 = K. | last4 = Redzanowski| first4 = U. | last5 = Dorner-Hörig| first5 = L. | last6 = Straßer|first6 = I | last7 = Wiedermann| first7 = W |year = 2013 | title = How to measure wisdom: Content, reliability, and validity of five measures. | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 4| page = 405 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00405 | pmid = 23874310 | pmc = 3709094 | doi-access = free }} and fails to study wisdom in the contexts where it is most relevant: complex life challenges. In contrast, researchers who prefer the latter approach measure wisdom-related features of cognition, motivation, and emotion in the context of a specific situation.{{cite journal | last1 = Baltes| first1 = P.B. | last2 = Staudinger| first2 = U. |year = 2000 | title = Wisdom: A metaheuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence. | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 55| issue = 1 | pages = 122–136 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.122 | pmid = 11392856 | hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0025-9C51-4 | url = http://edoc.mpg.de/191074 | hdl-access = free }} Such state-level measures provide less-biased responses as well as greater power in explaining meaningful psychological processes. Also, a focus on the situation allows wisdom researchers to develop a fuller understanding of the role of context in producing wisdom. For example, studies have shown evidence of cross-cultural{{cite journal|last1=Grossmann|first1=I.|last2=Karasawa|first2=M.|last3=Izumi|first3=S.|last4=Na|first4=J.|last5=Varnum|first5=M.E.|last6=Kitayama|first6=S|last7=Nisbett|first7=R.E|year=2012|title=Aging and wisdom: Culture matters.|journal=Psychological Science|volume=23|issue=10|pages=1059–1066|doi=10.1177/0956797612446025|pmid=22933459|hdl=11244/25191|s2cid=4829751|hdl-access=free}} and within-cultural variability,{{Cite journal|last1=Brienza|first1=Justin P.|last2=Grossmann|first2=Igor|title=Social class and wise reasoning about interpersonal conflicts across regions, persons and situations|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=284|issue=1869|pages=1869|doi=10.1098/rspb.2017.1870|pmid=29263284|pmc=5745406|year=2017}} and systematic variability in reasoning wisely across contexts{{cite journal|last1=Grossmann|first1=Igor|last2=Kross|first2=Ethan|year=2017|title=Exploring Solomon's Paradox: Self-distancing eliminates the self-other asymmetry in wise reasoning about close relationships in younger and older adults.|journal=Psychological Science|volume=25|issue=8|pages=1571–1580|doi=10.1177/0956797614535400|pmid=24916084|s2cid=3539860}} and in daily life.{{cite journal | last1 = Grossmann| first1 = I. | last2 = Gerlach| first2 = T.M. | last3 = Denissen| first3 = J.J. |year = 2016 | title = Wise reasoning in the face of everyday life challenges. | journal = Social Psychological and Personality Science | volume = 7| issue = 7 | pages = 611–622 | doi = 10.1177/1948550616652206 | s2cid = 148246126 }}

Many, but not all, studies find that adults' self-ratings of perspective and wisdom do not depend on age.{{cite book|last=Harter|first=Andrew C.|title=Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification|editor=Peterson, Christopher |editor2=Seligman, Martin E. P.|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=Perspective [Wisdom]|year=2004|location=Oxford|pages=181–196|isbn=978-0-19-516701-6|title-link=Character Strengths and Virtues (book)}}{{cite book|last1=Orwoll|first1=L.|last2=Perlmutter|first2=M. |title=Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development|editor-first=R. J.|editor-last= Sternberg|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|year=1990|pages=160–177|isbn=978-0-521-36718-9}}{{cite journal|last1=Serenko|first1=A.| year=2024|title=Practical wisdom in the workplace: Conceptualization, instrument development, and predictive power|url=https://www.aserenko.com/papers/Serenko_Practical_Wisdom.pdf |journal=Journal of Knowledge Management |volume=28|issue=7 |pages=2092–2119 |doi=10.1108/JKM-08-2023-0713}} This conflicts with the popular notion that wisdom increases with age. The answer to whether age and wisdom correlate depends on how one defines wisdom and one's experimental technique. The answer to this question also depends on the domain studied, and the role of experience in that domain, with some contexts favoring older adults, others favoring younger adults, and some not differentiating age groups. Rigorous longitudinal work is needed to answer this question, while most studies rely on cross-sectional observations.{{cite book|last=Meacham|first=J. A.|year=1990|chapter=The loss of wisdom|editor-first=R. J.|editor-last=Sternberg|title=Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=181, 211}}

The Jeste-Thomas Wisdom Index{{cite web |title=Jeste-Thomas Wisdom Index |website=U.C. San Diego Health Sciences |url=https://survey.alchemer.com/s3/5991949/Jeste-Thomas-Wisdom-Index}} is based on a 28-question survey (SD-WISE-28) created by researchers at the University of California San Diego to determine how wise a person is. In 2021 Dr. Dilip V. Jeste and his colleagues created a 7-question survey (SD-WISE-7) testing seven components: acceptance of diverse perspectives, decisiveness, emotional regulation, prosocial behaviors, self-reflection, social advising, and (to a lesser degree) spirituality.{{cite web |title=The 7-Item Wisdom Scale: A Fast Way to See If You're Wise |author=Christopher Bergland |website=Psychology Today |date=5 Dec 2021 |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-athletes-way/202112/fast-way-see-if-youre-wise}}

{{Main|Wise Old Man and Wise Old Woman}}

{{Broader|Jungian archetypes}}

The wise old person is an unconscious attitude concerning nature and the collective unconscious.{{cite book

| last = Jacoby

| first = Mario

|translator-last1= Gubitz

|translator-first1= Myron

| date = 1985

| title = Individuation and Narcissism: The Psychology of the Self in Jung and Kohut

| publisher = Routledge

| pages = 134–135

| isbn = 0-415-06464-3

| quote = The figures representing the archetype of the 'Wise Old Man' or of the 'Magna Mater' are equivalent to the mana personality; they are both personifications of what could be called the 'wisdom in nature' or the Jungian self with its 'unconscious knowledge'. [...] From a Jungian point of view, we could say that a conscious relationship to the 'Wise Old Man or Woman' in ourselves and to his or her knowledge concerning the infinite is an essential part of an attitude that deserves being called 'wise'.}}

Star Wars is a monomyth that uses archetypal psychology, specifically Joseph Campbell's The Hero of a Thousand Faces.{{cite book|first=Joseph|last=Campbell|title=The Hero's Journey: Joseph Campbell on His Life and Work|edition=3rd|editor-first=Phil|editor-last=Cousineau|location=Novato, California|publisher=New World Library|year=2003|pages=186–187}} The character Master Yoda from the films evokes the trope of the wise old man,{{multiref2

|1={{Cite book|title=Virtual orientalism: Asian religions and American popular culture|last=Iwamura|first= Jane Naomi|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|oclc=1090089521}}

|2={{Cite book|title=Positive psychology at the movies: using films to build character strengths and well-being|last=Niemiec|first= Ryan M.|isbn=9780889374430|oclc=844533648|year=2014|publisher=Hogrefe }} }} and he is frequently quoted, analogously to Chinese thinkers or Eastern sages in general.{{multiref2

|1={{cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/life/star-wars-who-said-it-yoda-or-a-jewish-sage-1.5436169|url-access=subscription|title=Star Wars: Who Said It? Yoda or a Jewish Sage|work=Haaretz|date=2017-09-12}}

|2={{cite web|url=https://www.inc.com/kevin-daum/may-the-fourth-be-with-you-the-wisdom-of-star-wars-in-40-iconic-quotes.html|title=May the Fourth Be With You: the Wisdom of Star Wars in 40 Iconic Quotes|last=Daum|first=Kevin|date=2017-05-04|website=Inc.com|access-date=2019-08-16}} }}{{Cite book|title=The Tao of Yoda: based upon the Tao Te Ching by Lao Tzu|last=Kreger|first=D. W.|year=2013|publisher=Windham Everitt|isbn=9780983309925|oclc=861507203}}

{{prose|section|date=February 2025}}

• The Berlin Wisdom Paradigm is an expertise model of life wisdom.{{cite journal

| last1 = Baltes

| first1 = Paul B.

| last2 = Smith

| first2 = Jacqui

| date = 2008

| title = The Fascination of Wisdom: Its Nature, Ontogeny, and Function

| url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/40212228

| journal = Perspectives on Psychological Science

| volume = 3

| issue = 1

| pages = 56–64

| doi = 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00062.x

| jstor = 40212228

| pmid = 26158670

| access-date = 27 July 2024

| quote = The Berlin Wisdom Paradigm [...] combines a broad definition of wisdom as excellence in mind and virtue with a specific characterization of wisdom as an expert knowledge system dealing with the conduct and understanding of life. We called this domain of knowledge the fundamental pragmatics of life [...] life planning [...] life management [...] and life review[.]}}{{cite journal

| last1 = Zhang

| first1 = K.

| last2 = Shi

| first2 = J.

| last3 = Wang

| first3 = F.

| date = 2023

| title = Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns

| journal = Current Psychology

| volume = 42

| issue = 18

| pages = 15030–15051

| doi = 10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6

| pmid = 35153458

|quote = Since wisdom research in psychology began in the late 1970s (Clayton, 1975), many scientific theories about wisdom have emerged, including: (a) the Berlin wisdom paradigm (Baltes & Kunzmann, 2004; Baltes & Smith, 2008; Baltes & Staudinger, 1993, 2000; Scheibe et al., 2007), (b) the balance theory of wisdom (Sternberg, 1998, 2018), (c) the self-transcendence wisdom theory (Levenson et al., 2005), (d) the three-dimensional wisdom theory (Ardelt, 2003; Thomas et al., 2015), (e) the H.E.R.O.(E.) model of wisdom (Webster, 2003; Webster et al., 2014, 2017), (f) the process view of wisdom (Yang, 2008, 2013, 2016, 2017), and (g) the integrating virtue and wit theory of wisdom (Chen & Wang, 2013; Wang et al., 2019, pp. 376–378; Wang & Zheng, 2012, 2014, 2015).| pmc = 8817649

}}

• The Balance Theory of Wisdom
• The Self-transcendence Wisdom Theory
• The Three-dimensional Wisdom Theory
• The H.E.R.O.(E.) Model of Wisdom
• The Process View of Wisdom
• The Integrating Virtue and Wit Theory of Wisdom

{{Main|Zoroastrianism}}

In the Avesta Gathas, hymns traditionally attributed to Zoroaster, Ahura Mazda means "Lord" (Ahura) and "Wisdom" (Mazda), and is the central deity who embodies goodness, being also called "Good Thought" (Vohu Manah).{{cite book|last=Boyce|first=Mary|year=1983|chapter=Ahura Mazdā|title=Encyclopaedia Iranica|editor-first=Ehsan|editor-last=Yarshater|volume=1|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopdiairani0001unse|url-access=registration|location=New York|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopdiairani0001unse/page/684/mode/2up 684]–687|isbn=978-0-7100-9099-7 }} In Zoroastrianism, the order of the universe and morals is called {{transliteration|ae|asha}} (in Avestan, truth, righteousness), which is determined by this omniscient Thought and also considered a deity emanating from Ahura (Amesha Spenta). It is related to another ahura deity, Spenta Mainyu (active Mentality).{{cite book|last=Boyce|first=Mary|year=1975|title=A History of Zoroastrianism|volume=I|location=Leiden/Köln|publisher=Brill}} It says in Yazna 31:{{cite web| url = http://avesta.org/yasna/yasna.htm#y31| title = Yazna 31 |website=Sacred Liturgy and Gathas/Hymns of Zarathushtra}}

{{Blockquote|text=To him shall the best befall, who, as one that knows, speaks to me Right's truthful word of Welfare and of Immortality; even the Dominion of Mazda which Good Thought shall increase for him. About which he in the beginning thus thought, "let the blessed realms be filled with Light", he it is that by his wisdom created Right.|sign=|source=}}

{{main|Sophia (wisdom)|Sophia (Gnosticism)}}

In Hellenistic religion, wisdom was often personified as a divine or mystical force guiding human understanding. In Greek mystery religions, particularly Orphism and the Eleusinian Mysteries, wisdom was associated with spiritual enlightenment and initiation into hidden truths.{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |title=Ancient Mystery Cults |year=1989 |publisher=Harvard University Press}} Philosophical movements such as Neoplatonism developed a concept of wisdom (sophia, σοφία) as the knowledge of the divine order of existence. Plotinus (204–270 CE) viewed wisdom as an ascent of the soul towards the One, the ultimate source of all reality.{{cite book |last=Plotinus |title=The Enneads |orig-year=3rd century CE |year=1991 |publisher=Penguin Classics}} In this tradition, wisdom was both intellectual and mystical, requiring inner purification to grasp transcendent truths.

Wisdom also played a central role in Gnosticism, an esoteric movement that emerged in the first few centuries CE. Gnostics saw wisdom (Sophia) as a divine figure, often depicted as a fallen being who sought to restore humanity’s knowledge of its divine origin. In texts in the Nag Hammadi library, Sophia is described as the mother of all living and the source of gnosis (spiritual knowledge).{{cite book |last=Pagels |first=Elaine |title=The Gnostic Gospels |orig-year=1979 |year=2004 |publisher=Random House}} According to Valentinian Gnosticism, Sophia’s fall led to the creation of the material world, but through wisdom, the soul could transcend illusion and return to the divine realm.{{cite book |last=Jonas |first=Hans |title=The Gnostic Religion |orig-year=1958 |year=2001 |publisher=Beacon Press}}

Gnostic texts such as the Pistis Sophia depict wisdom as a cosmic force struggling to free itself from ignorance and darkness. This contrasts with orthodox Christian views, where wisdom (σοφία) is associated with the Logos and divine order rather than cosmic dualism.{{cite book |last=Perkins |first=Pheme |title=Gnosticism and the New Testament |year=1993 |publisher=Fortress Press}} In Hermeticism, another esoteric tradition of the Hellenistic period, wisdom was linked to inner enlightenment and mystical union with the divine mind (nous, νοῦς).{{cite book |last=Copenhaver |first=Brian P. |title=Hermetica: The Greek Corpus Hermeticum and the Latin Asclepius |year=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}} These traditions, though diverse, shared the belief that wisdom was the key to transcending material existence and reuniting with the divine.

{{Main|Abrahamic religions}}

{{See also|Chokmah|Wisdom literature}}

{{religious text primary|section|date=February 2025}}

File:Book of Wisdom Belarusian Skaryna.jpg" of Francysk Skaryna 1518]]

The word "wisdom" ({{lang|he|חכם}}) is mentioned 222 times in the Hebrew Bible. It was regarded as one of the highest virtues among the Israelites along with kindness ({{lang|he|חסד}}) and justice ({{lang|he|צדק}}). The books of Proverbs and Psalms each urge readers to obtain and to increase in wisdom.{{Citation needed|date=December 2018}}

In the Hebrew Bible, wisdom is exemplified by Solomon, who asks God for wisdom in {{bibleverse|2 Chronicles|1:10}}. Much of the Book of Proverbs, which is filled with wise sayings, is attributed to Solomon. In {{bibleverse|Proverbs|9:10}}, the fear of the Lord is called the beginning of wisdom. Another proverb says that wisdom is gained from God, "For the Lord gives wisdom; from His mouth come knowledge and understanding".{{Bibleverse|Proverbs|2:6}} In {{bibleverse|Proverbs|1:20}}, there is also reference to wisdom personified in female form, "Wisdom calls aloud in the streets, she raises her voice in the marketplaces." In {{bibleverse|Proverbs|8:22–31}}, this personified wisdom is described as being present with God before creation began and even as taking part in creation itself.

King Solomon continues his teachings of wisdom in the book of Ecclesiastes. Solomon discusses his exploration of the meaning of life and fulfillment, as he speaks of life's pleasures, work, and materialism, yet concludes that it is all meaningless. "'Meaningless! Meaningless!" says the Teacher [Solomon]. 'Utterly meaningless! Everything is meaningless'...For with much wisdom comes much sorrow, the more knowledge, the more grief"{{Bibleverse|Ecclesiastes|1:2–18}} Solomon concludes that all life's pleasures and riches, and even [human]wisdom, mean nothing if there is no relationship with God.{{cite web|url=http://www.insight.org/resources/bible/the-general-epistles/james|title=Book of James Overview – Insight for Living Ministries|website=www.insight.org|access-date=2016-11-17}}

The Talmud teaches that a wise person can foresee the future. {{transliteration|he|Nolad}} is a Hebrew word for "future," but also the Hebrew word for "birth", so one rabbinic interpretation of the teaching is that a wise person is one who can foresee the consequences of his/her choices (i.e. can "see the future" that he/she "gives birth" to).Wolpe, David, perf. [https://www.sinaitemple.org/learning_with_the_rabbis/sermons/mp3/2012/Sermon081812.mp3 "Re'eh: What it Means to Choose."] Rabbi David Wolpe. Sinai Temple, 11 August 2012. web. 16 Aug 2013.

{{main|Holy Wisdom}}

{{religious text primary|section|date=February 2025}}

File:Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 096.png was a "wise woman" who helped David. 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld]]

In Christian theology, "wisdom" (From Hebrew: {{lang|he|חכמה}} transliteration: {{transliteration|he|chokmâh}} pronounced: khok-maw', Greek: {{transliteration|grc|Sophia}}, Latin: {{lang|la|Sapientia}}) describes an aspect of God, or the theological concept regarding the wisdom of God.{{Citation needed|date=August 2015}}

Christian thought opposes secular wisdom and embraces Godly wisdom. Paul the Apostle states that worldly wisdom thinks the claims of Christ to be foolishness. However, to those who are "on the path to salvation" Christ represents the wisdom of God.{{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|1:17–31}} Wisdom is considered one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit.{{bibleverse|Isaiah|11:2–3}} {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|12:8–10}} gives an alternate list of nine virtues, among which is wisdom.

The Epistle of James is a New Testament analogue of the book of Proverbs, in that it also discusses wisdom. It reiterates the message from Proverbs that wisdom comes from God by stating, "If any of you lacks wisdom, you should ask God, who gives generously to all without finding fault, and it will be given to you".{{bibleverse|James|1:5}} James also explains how wisdom helps one acquire other forms of virtue: "But the wisdom that comes from heaven is first of all pure; then peace-loving, considerate, submissive, full of mercy and good fruit, impartial and sincere."{{bibleverse|James|3:17}} James focuses on using this God-given wisdom to perform acts of service to the less fortunate.

Apart from Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and James, other main books of wisdom in the Bible are Job, Psalms, and 1 and 2 Corinthians, which give lessons on gaining and using wisdom through difficult situations.

Justin Martyr,In his Dialogue with Tripho (55, 1), Justin calls the Word of God a "second God" (ἕτερος θεός), meaning the second divine person of a unique Triune God. Athenagoras of Athens and Theophilus of Antioch identified the Wisdom of {{bibleref|Proverbs|8,22|NKJV}} (in Hebrew: hokmah) with the Word who is Jesus Christ God.{{Cite journal |author=Dudzik, Pavel |date=2022-11-25 |title=Prov 8:22ff in Early Christian Statements on the Relation of Origin of the Son from the Father: The Case of Justin, Athenagoras, and Theophilus |journal=AUC Theologia |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=103–125 |format=PDF |issn=1804-5588 |oclc=9722510497 |language=en |doi=10.14712/23363398.2022.20 |url=https://karolinum.cz/casopis/auc-theologica/rocnik-12/cislo-1/clanek-10747|doi-access=free }} p. 111.

{{main|Hikmah}}

The Islamic term for wisdom is {{transliteration|ar|hikmah}}. Prophets of Islam are believed by Muslims to possess great wisdom. The term occurs a number of times in the Quran, notably in Sura 2:269, Sura 22:46, and Sura 6:151.

The Sufi philosopher Ibn Arabi considers al-Hakim ("The Wise") as one of the names of the Creator.{{cite journal|last=Shahzad|first=Qaiser|year=2004|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20837323|url-access=subscription|title=Ibn 'Arabī's Contribution to the Ethics of Divine Names|journal=Islamic Studies|volume=43|number=1|pages=5–38|doi=10.52541/isiri.v43i1.4732 |jstor=20837323 }} Wisdom and truth, considered divine attributes, were valued in Islamic sciences and philosophy. The first Arab philosopher, Al-Kindi says at the beginning of his book:{{Citation|last=Adamson|first=Peter|title=Al-Kindi|year=2018|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/al-kindi/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Summer 2018|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=2019-08-16}}

{{Blockquote|text=We must not be ashamed to admire the truth or to acquire it, from wherever it comes. Even if it should come from far-flung nations and foreign peoples, there is for the student of truth nothing more important than the truth, nor is the truth demeaned or diminished by the one who states or conveys it; no one is demeaned by the truth, rather all are ennobled by it.|sign=|source=Al-Kindi, On First Philosophy}}

In Baháʼí Faith scripture, "The essence of wisdom is the fear of God, the dread of His scourge and punishment, and the apprehension of His justice and decree."{{cite book|title=Bahai Reference Library|chapter=Asl-i-Kullu’l-Khayr (Words of Wisdom)|chapter-url=https://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/TB/tb-11.html|series=Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh Revealed After the Kitáb-i-Aqdas|publisher=US Bahá’í Publishing Trust|year=1988|edition=pocket-size|access-date=19 March 2013}} Wisdom is seen as a light that casts away darkness, and "its dictates must be observed under all circumstances".{{cite book|translator-last=Browne|author=ʻAbduʹl-Bahá|translator-first=Edward G.|title=A traveler's narrative|year=1980|publisher=Bahá'i Publ. Trust|location=Wilmette, Ill.|isbn=978-0877431343|page=46|edition=New and corr.}} One may obtain knowledge and wisdom through God, his Word, and his Divine Manifestation; the source of all learning is the knowledge of God.{{cite book|last=Esslemont|first=J.E.|title=Bahá'u'lláh and the new era: an introduction to the Bahá'í faith|year=2006|publisher=Bahá'í Pub. Trust|location=Wilmette, Ill.|isbn=978-1931847278}}

File:Meynier - Wisdom defending Youth against Love.jpg, {{circa|1810}}]]

File:Jacob de Wit - Allegorie op het schrijven van de geschiedenis 1754.jpg, 1754]]

In Mesopotamian religion and mythology, Enki, also known as Ea, was the god of wisdom and intelligence. Divine wisdom allowed {{clarify|reason=who is designating? what is functioning? what makes a designation providential?|text=the provident designation of functions|date=August 2023}} and the ordering of the cosmos, and it{{ambiguous|reason=what is "it"? the wisdom? the designation?|date=August 2023}} was achieved by humans by following {{transliteration|sux|me}}s (in Sumerian: order, rite, righteousness) which maintain balance.{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/pdfy-OBb9_axzoPvTFsq4|title=The God Enki in Sumerian Royal Ideology and Mythology|last=Espak|first=Peeter|publisher=Tartu University Press|year=2014|series=Dissertationes Theologiae Universitatis Tartuensis|volume=19|location=Tartu|isbn=9789949195220}} In addition to hymns to Enki or Ea dating from 3rd millennium BC, there is among the clay tablets of Abu Salabikh from {{BCE|2600}} (the oldest dated texts), a "Hymn to Shamash" which includes the following:{{Cite journal|last=Bonechi|first=Marco|year=2016|title=87) The Pregnant Woman in the Archaic Hymn to Shamash of Sippar|url=http://sepoa.fr/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/NABU-2016-4-DEF.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801055234/http://sepoa.fr/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/NABU-2016-4-DEF.pdf |archive-date=2019-08-01 |url-status=live|journal=Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaires |issue=4 |pages=147–150}}

{{blockquote|Wide is the courtyard of Shamash night chamber, (just as wide is the womb of) a wise pregnant woman! Sin, his warrior, wise one, heard of the offerings and came down to his fiesta. He is the father of the nation and the father of intelligence}}

{{Main|Egyptian mythology}}

{{Further|Sia (god)|Thoth}}

Sia was the personification of perception and thoughtfulness in the mythology of Ancient Egypt. Thoth, married to Maat (in ancient Egyptian: order, righteousness, truth), was regarded as the being who introduced wisdom to the nation.{{cite web|first=Joshua J.|last=Mark|date=2016-04-14|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/885/egyptian-gods---the-complete-list/|title=Egyptian Gods – The Complete List|website=World History Encyclopedia|access-date=2019-01-29}}

The concept of Logos{{snd}}manifest word of the divine thought{{snd}}was also present in the philosophy and hymns of Egypt and Ancient Greece.{{cite book|last=Uždavinys|first=Algis|title=Philosophy as a Rite of Rebirth: From Ancient Egypt to Neoplatonism|publisher=The Prometheus Trust|year=2008|isbn=9781898910350|url=https://themathesontrust.org/publications-files/MTexcerpt-PhilosophyRebirth.pdf}} It was important in the thinking of Heraclitus, and in the Abrahamic traditions. It seems to have been derived from Mesopotamian culture.{{Cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/6411568|title=Mesopotamian precursors to the Stoic concept of logic|last=Lawson, Jack Newton.|journal=Melammu Symposia 2. Myth and Mythologies: Methodological Approaches to Intercultural Influences|year=2001|publisher=[Melammu Project]|oclc=714111111}}

{{Main|Athena|Metis (mythology)}}

{{Blockquote

|text=Athena (as Mentor) supported him by recognizing and fostering courage, hope, sense, bravery, and adeptness (Homer, trans. 1996, p. 102).{{cite journal

| last1 = Carol

| first1 = Sommer

| last2 = Markopoulos

| first2 = Panagiotis

| last3 = Goggins

| first3 =Shana

| date = 2013

| title = Mentoring master's level students: Drawing upon the wisdom of Athena as Mentor in Homer's Odyssey

| url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08893675.2013.764049

| journal = Journal of Poetry Therapy

| volume = 26

| issue = 1

| pages = 1–12

| doi = 10.1080/08893675.2013.764049

| access-date = 25 July 2024

| quote = [R]eference to Athena within the context of mentoring is not new (Roberts, 2000; Sambunjak & Marusic, 2009) [...] Athena appears in the guise of an old friend of Odysseus, whose name happens to be Mentor. She offers aid and advice to the young Telemachus. [...] In relationship to Telemachus, Athena (as Mentor) supported him by recognizing and fostering courage, hope, sense, bravery, and adeptness (Homer, trans. 1996, p. 102).}}

|author=Sommer}}

The ancient Greeks considered wisdom to be an important virtue, personified as the goddesses Metis and Athena. Metis was the first wife of Zeus, who, according to Hesiod's Theogony, had devoured her pregnant; Zeus earned the title of Mêtieta ("The Wise Counselor") after that, as Metis was the embodiment of wisdom, and he gave birth to Athena, who is said to have sprung from his head.{{cite web|url=https://www.theoi.com/Titan/TitanisMetis.html|title=METIS – Greek Titan Goddess of Wise Counsel|website=Theoi Project|access-date=2019-08-17}}Hesiod. Theogony. Athena was portrayed as strong, fair, merciful, and chaste.{{cite web|last=Turnbill|first=Liz|date=12 August 2011|title=Athena, Greek goddess of wisdom and craftsmanship|url=https://goddessgift.com/goddesses/athena/|website=Goddess Gift}}

{{Main|Apollo}}

Apollo was also considered a god of wisdom, designated as the conductor of the Muses (Musagetes),{{cite web|url=https://www.theoi.com/Ouranios/Mousai.html|title=MOUSAI – Greek Goddesses of Music, Poetry & the Arts|website=Theoi Project|access-date=2019-08-17}} who were personifications of the sciences and of the inspired and poetic arts. According to Plato in his Cratylus, the name of Apollo could also mean "{{transliteration|grc|ballon}}" (archer) and "{{transliteration|grc|omopoulon}}" (unifier of poles [divine and earthly]), since this god was responsible for divine and true inspirations, thus considered an archer who was always right in healing and oracles: "he is an ever-darting archer".{{cite book|author=Plato|title=Cratylus|at=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0172%3Atext%3DCrat.%3Apage%3D406 405e–406a]}} Apollo prophesied through the priestesses (Pythia) in the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), where the aphorism "know thyself" ({{transliteration|grc|gnōthi seauton}}){{Efn|1=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0176:text%3DCharm.:section%3D165a Critias states the meaning of "know thyself" in Plato's Charmides (165a)] |name=|group=}} was inscribed (one of the Delphic maxims).{{cite book|last=Scott|first=Michael|title=Delphi: A History of the Center of the Ancient World|publisher=Princeton University Press}} He was contrasted with Hermes, who was related to the sciences and technical wisdom, and, in the first centuries after Christ, was associated with Thoth in an Egyptian syncretism, under the name Hermes Trimegistus.{{Cite journal|last=Preus|first=Anthony|date=1998-03-30|title=Thoth and Apollo. Greek Myths of the Origin of Philosophy|journal=Méthexis|volume=11|issue=1|pages=113–125|doi=10.1163/24680974-90000303|issn=0327-0289}} Greek tradition recorded the earliest introducers of wisdom in the Seven Sages of Greece.{{cite book|first=Alan H.|last=Griffiths|chapter=Seven Sages|title=Oxford Classical Dictionary|date=29 January 2024 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordclassicald0000unse_w0c8|url-access=registration|editor-first1=Simon|editor-last1=Hornblower|editor-first2=Antony|editor-last2=Spawforth|editor-first3=Esther|editor-last3=Eidinow|edition=4th|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordclassicald0000unse_w0c8/page/1357/mode/1up 1357]}}

{{Main|Roman mythology}}

The ancient Romans also valued wisdom, which was personified as Minerva or Pallas. She also represents skillful knowledge and the virtues, especially chastity. Her symbol was the owl, which is still a popular representation of wisdom, because it can see in darkness. She was said to have been born from Jupiter's forehead.{{cite web|title=Myths about Roman Goddess Minerva|url=http://www.roman-colosseum.info/roman-gods/myths-about-the-roman-goddess-minerva.htm|url-status=usurped|website=Roman-colosseum.info|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626062447/http://www.roman-colosseum.info/roman-gods/myths-about-the-roman-goddess-minerva.htm|archive-date=2012-06-26}}

{{Main|Norse mythology}}

{{Further|Odin|Mimir}}

Odin is known for his wisdom, often as acquired through various hardships and ordeals involving pain and self-sacrifice. In one instance he plucked out an eye and offered it to Mímir, guardian of the well of knowledge and wisdom, in return for a drink from the well.{{cite book|translator-last=Faulkes|translator-first=Anthony|editor-last=Faulkes|editor-first=Anthony|year=1987|title=Edda|first=Snorri|last=Sturluson|author-link=Snorri Sturluson|publisher=Everyman's Library|isbn=0-460-87616-3}}

In another famous account, Odin hanged himself for nine nights from Yggdrasil, the World Tree that unites all the realms of existence, suffering from hunger and thirst and finally wounding himself with a spear until he gained the knowledge of runes for use in casting powerful magic.{{cite book|editor-last=Larrington|editor-first=Carolyne|translator-last=Larrington|translator-first=Carolyne|year=1996|title=Poetic Edda|first=Snorri|last=Sturluson|author-link=Snorri Sturluson|publisher=Oxford World's Classics|isbn=0-19-283946-2}} He was also able to acquire the mead of poetry from the giants, a drink of which could grant the power of a scholar or poet, for the benefit of gods and mortals alike.

{{Broader|Wisdom tooth}}

In many cultures, the name for third molars, which are the last teeth to grow, is etymologically linked with wisdom, as in the English wisdom tooth. This nickname originated from the classical tradition{{snd}}the Hippocratic writings used the term {{transliteration|grc|sóphronistér}} (in Greek, related to the meaning of moderation or teaching a lesson), and in Latin {{lang|la|dens sapientiae}} (wisdom tooth).{{Cite journal|last=Šimon|first=František|title=The history of Latin teeth names|date=2015-12-15|url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/223786|journal=Acta medico-historica Adriatica|volume=13|issue=2|pages=365–384|issn=1334-4366|pmid=27604204}}

Public schools in the U.S. sometimes nod at "character education" which would include training in wisdom.{{cite web|publisher=U.S. Department of Education|date=31 May 2005|title=Character education: our shared responsibility|url=https://www2.ed.gov/admins/lead/character/brochure.html}}

{{See also|Nicholas Maxwell}}

Nicholas Maxwell, a philosopher in the United Kingdom, believes academia ought to alter its focus from the acquisition of knowledge to seeking and promoting wisdom.{{cite book|author-link=Nicholas Maxwell|first=Nicholas|last=Maxwell|year=2007|title=From Knowledge to Wisdom: A Revolution for Science and the Humanities|publisher=Pentire Press}} This he defines as the capacity to realize what is of value in life, for oneself and others.{{cite web|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/friends-of-wisdom|title=Friends of Wisdom|website=University College London|date=21 February 2019 |quote=an association of people sympathetic to the idea that academic inquiry should help humanity acquire more wisdom by rational means}} He teaches that new knowledge and technological know-how increase our power to act. Without wisdom though, Maxwell claims this new knowledge may cause human harm as well as human good. He argues that the pursuit of knowledge is indeed valuable and good, but that it should be considered a part of the broader task of improving wisdom.{{citation|url=https://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/1709/|title=Can Humanity Learn to become Civilized? The Crisis of Science without Civilization|first=Nicholas|last=Maxwell|year=2000}}

{{Portal|Philosophy|Psychology}}

{{Div col|colwidth=30em|small=yes}}

• {{annotated link|Anima mundi}}
• {{annotated link|Bildung}}
• {{annotated link|Book of Wisdom}}
• {{annotated link|Cassandra (metaphor)}}
• {{annotated link|Conventional wisdom}}
• {{annotated link|Ecological wisdom}}
• {{annotated link|Eudaimonia}}
• {{annotated link|Genius}}
• {{annotated link|Heuristic}}
• {{annotated link|Invocation}}
• {{annotated link|Metacognition}}
• {{annotated link|Perspicacity}}
• {{annotated link|Procedural knowledge}}
• {{annotated link|Reflexivity (social theory)}}
• {{annotated link|Sage (philosophy)}}
• {{annotated link|Sapere aude|Sapere aude}}
• {{annotated link|Socratic method}}
• {{annotated link|Transcendence (philosophy)}}

{{Div col end}}

{{Notelist}}

{{Reflist}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{cite book |chapter=Sermon V.{{snd}}Sunday within the Octave of the Nativity: In what true wisdom consists |title=Sermons for all the Sundays in the year |year=1882 |publisher=Dublin |first=Alphonus |last=Liguori |author-link=Alphonsus Liguori}}
• {{cite book |last1=Sternberg |first1=R. |last2=Gluck |first2=J. |year=2021 |title=Wisdom: The Psychology of Wise Thoughts, Words, and Deeds |place=Cambridge, UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
• {{cite book |last=Tsai |first=Cheng-hung |year=2023 |title=Wisdom: A Skill Theory |place=Cambridge, UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}

{{refend}}

{{sisterlinks|n=no|s=no|b=no}}

• {{PhilPapers|category|wisdom}}
• [https://metis.ethz.ch/en/home-en/ Metis portal for intercultural wisdom literature and wisdom practices] at ETH Zurich.
• {{InPho|idea|1544}}
• {{cite SEP|url-id=wisdom|title=Wisdom}}
• [http://www.wisdomresearch.org Center for Practical Wisdom] at the University of Chicago

{{Virtues}}

{{Humanities}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Virtue