Women in medicine

The involvement of women in the field of medicine has been recorded in several early civilizations. An Egyptian of the Old Kingdom of Egypt, Peseshet, described in an inscription as "lady overseer of the female physicians", is the earliest woman named in the history of science. Ubartum lived around 2050 BC in Mesopotamia and came from a family of several physicians. Agamede was cited by Homer as a healer in ancient Greece before the Trojan War. Metrodora was a physician and generally regarded as the first female medical writer. Her book, On the Diseases and Cures of Women, was the oldest medical book written by a female and was referenced by many other female physicians. She credited much of her writings to the ideologies of Hippocrates.{{cite web|title=The Most Influential Women in Medicine: From The Past to the Present|url=http://www.medicaldaily.com/most-influential-women-medicine-past-present-270560|website=Medical Daily|access-date=24 September 2017|language=en|date=4 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924100657/http://www.medicaldaily.com/most-influential-women-medicine-past-present-270560|archive-date=24 September 2017|url-status=live}}

File:Hildegard von Bingen.jpg, a Medieval German abbess who wrote Causae et Curae, 1175.]]

During the Middle Ages, convents were a centralized place of education for women, and some of these communities provided opportunities for women to contribute to scholarly research. An example is the German abbess Hildegard of Bingen, whose prolific writings include treatments of various scientific subjects, including medicine, botany and natural history ({{circa|1151}}–58).{{cite web|url=http://www.staff.uni-mainz.de/horst/hildegard/documents/flanagan.html |title=Hildegard von Bingen (1098–1179) |author=Sabina Flanagan |publisher=University of Adelaide |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050406172530/http://www.staff.uni-mainz.de/horst/hildegard/documents/flanagan.html |archive-date=2005-04-06 |url-status=dead |access-date=11 October 2015}} She is considered Germany's first female physician.{{Cite encyclopedia | title = Hildegard von Bingen | encyclopedia = Key Figures in Medieval Europe – An Encyclopedia | editor = Richard K. Emmerson | editor2 = Sandra Clayton-Emmerson | author = Gertrud Jaron Lewis | pages = 229–230 | publisher = Routledge | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0415973854 | location = Great Britain}}

Women in the Middle Ages participated in healing techniques and several capacities in medicine and medical education. Women occupied select ranks of medical personnel during the period.{{cite journal |last1=Green |first1=Monica |title=Women's Medical Practice and Health Care in Medieval Europe |journal=Signs |date=1989 |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=434–473 |doi=10.1086/494516 |pmid=11618104 |jstor=3174557 |s2cid=38651601 }} They worked as herbalists, midwives, surgeons, barber-surgeons, nurses, and traditional empirics.{{cite journal |last1=Minkowski |first1=W L |title=Women healers of the middle ages: selected aspects of their history. |journal=American Journal of Public Health |date=February 1992 |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=288–295 |doi=10.2105/ajph.82.2.288 |pmid=1739168 |pmc=1694293 }} Women healers treated most patients, not limiting themselves to treating solely women.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} The names of 24 women described as surgeons in Naples, Italy between 1273 and 1410 have been recorded, and references have been found to 15 women practitioners, most of them Jewish and none described as midwives, in Frankfurt, Germany between 1387 and 1497.{{cite book|last1=Siraisi|first1=Nancy G.|title=Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine: An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice|date=2009|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226761312|page=27}} The earliest known English women doctors, Solicita and Matilda Ford, date to the late twelfth century; they were referred to as medica, a term for trained physicians.{{Cite journal |last1=Kealey |first1=Edward J. |last2=Walton |first2=Michael T. |date=1985 |title=Notes and Events: England's Earliest Women Doctors |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24633766 |journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=473–484 |doi=10.1093/jhmas/40.4.473 |issn=0022-5045 |jstor=24633766 |pmid=3905951}}{{Cite book |last=Whaley |first=Leigh Ann |title=Women and the practice of medical care in early modern Europe, 1400-1800 |date=2011 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-28291-9 |location=Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire New York |pages=20}}

Women also engaged in midwifery and healing arts without having their activities recorded in written records, and practiced in rural areas or where there was little access to medical care. Society in the Middle Ages limited women's role as physician. Once universities established faculties of medicine during the thirteenth century, women were excluded from advanced medical education. Licensure began to require clerical vows for which women were ineligible, and healing as a profession became male-dominated.

In many occasions, women had to fight against accusation of illegal practice done by males, putting into question their motives. If they were not accused of malpractice, then women were considered "witches" by both clerical and civil authorities.{{cite journal|last1=Minkowski|first1=WL|title=Women healers of the middle ages: selected aspects of their history|date=1992|journal=Am J Public Health|pmc=1694293|pmid=1739168|volume=82|issue=2|pages=288–95|doi=10.2105/ajph.82.2.288}} Surgeons and barber-surgeons were often organized into guilds, which could hold out longer against the pressures of licensure. Like other guilds, a number of the barber-surgeon guilds allowed the daughters and wives of their members to take up membership in the guild, generally after the man's death. Katherine "la surgiene" of London, daughter of Thomas the surgeon and sister of William the Surgeon, belonged to a guild in 1286.{{cite book|last1=Rawcliffe|first1=Carole|title=Medicine and Society in Later Medieval England|date=1997|publisher=Sutton|location=Stroud, Gloucestershire|isbn=978-0750914970}}{{page needed|date=October 2023}} Documentation of female members in the guilds of Lincoln, Norwich, Dublin and York continue until late in the period.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}}

Midwives, those who assisted pregnant women through childbirth and some aftercare, included only women. Midwives constituted roughly one third of female medical practitioners. Men did not involve themselves in women's medical care; women did not involve themselves in men's health care. The southern Italian coastal town of Salerno was a center of medical education and practice in the 12th century. In Salerno the physician Trota of Salerno compiled a number of her medical practices in several written collections. One work on women's medicine that was associated with her, the {{Lang|la|De curis mulierum}} ('On Treatments for Women') formed the core of what came to be known as the Trotula ensemble, a compendium of three texts that circulated throughout medieval Europe. Trota herself gained a reputation that spread as far as France and England. There are also references in the writings of other Salernitan physicians to the {{Lang|la|mulieres Salernitane}} ('Salernitan women'), which give some idea of local empirical practices.{{cite book |editor1-last=Green |editor1-first=Monica H |title=The Trotula: A Medieval Compendium of Women's Medicine |date=2001 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-3589-0 }}{{page needed|date=October 2023}}

Dorotea Bucca, an Italian physician, was chair of philosophy and medicine at the University of Bologna for over forty years from 1390.{{cite journal|vauthors=Edwards JS|title=A Woman Is Wise: The Influence of Civic and Christian Humanism on the Education of Women in Northern Italy and England during the Renaissance|journal=Ex Post Facto: Journal of the History Students at San Francisco State University|volume=XI|year=2002|url= http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~epf/2002/edwards.html|access-date=31 January 2011|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110606144530/http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~epf/2002/edwards.html|archive-date= 6 June 2011|url-status=live}}[http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/eascfa/dinner_party/heritage_floor/dorotea_bucca.php Brooklyn Museum: Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art: The Dinner Party: Heritage Floor: Dorotea Bucca] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716113741/http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/eascfa/dinner_party/heritage_floor/dorotea_bucca.php |date=16 July 2011 }} (accessed 22 August 2007) Other Italian women whose contributions in medicine have been recorded include Abella, Jacqueline Felice de Almania, Alessandra Giliani, Rebecca de Guarna, Margarita, Mercuriade (14th century), Constance Calenda, Clarice di Durisio (15th century), Constanza, Maria Incarnata and Thomasia de Mattio.[https://books.google.com/books?id=RoqNOWuNa8oC&pg=PA35 Howard S. The Hidden Giants, p. 35, (Lulu.com; 2006)] (accessed 22 August 2007){{self-published source|date=April 2020}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1bRDlCf0FcgC&q=abella+medicine&pg=PA87|title=Old Time Makers of Medicine|first=James J.|last=Walsh|publisher=Plain Label Books|via=Google Books|isbn=978-1603032261}}

For the medieval Islamic world, little information is known about female medical practitioners although it is likely that women were regularly involved in medical practice in some capacity.{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Green |first1=Monica H. |title=History of Science |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures |editor1-first=Suad |editor1-last=Joseph |doi=10.1163/1872-5309_ewic_EWICCOM_0051 }}{{cite journal |last1=Pormann |first1=Peter E |title=Female patients and practitioners in medieval Islam |journal=The Lancet |date=May 2009 |volume=373 |issue=9675 |pages=1598–1599 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60895-3 |pmid=19437603 |s2cid=39238298 }} Male medical writers refer to the presence of female practitioners (a ṭabība) in describing certain procedures or situations. The late-10th to early-11th century Andalusi physician and surgeon al-Zahrawi wrote that certain medical procedures were difficult for male doctors practicing on female patients because of the need to touch the genitalia. The male practitioner was required to either find a female doctor who could perform the procedure, or a eunuch physician, or a midwife who took instruction from the male surgeon. The existence of female practitioners can be inferred, albeit not explicitly, through direct evidence. Midwives played a prominent role in the delivery of women's healthcare. For these practitioners, there is more detailed information, both in terms of the prestige of their craft (ibn Khaldun calls it a noble craft, "something necessary in civilization") and in terms of biographical information on historic women.{{cite journal |last1=Giladi |first1=Avner |title=Liminal Craft, Exceptional Law: Preliminary Notes on Midwives in Medieval Islamic Writings |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |date=May 2010 |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=185–202 |doi=10.1017/s0020743810000012 |s2cid = 162272269 }}{{cite book |last1=Molénat |first1=Jean-Pierre |chapter=Privilégiées ou poursuivies: quatre sages-femmes musulmanes dans la Castille du XVe siècle |trans-chapter=Privileged or persecuted: four Muslim midwives in 15th-century Castile |language=fr |pages=413–430 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0oO68GslcYYC&pg=PA413 |editor1-last=de la Puente |editor1-first=Cristina |title=Identidades marginales |date=2003 |publisher=Editorial CSIC – CSIC Press |isbn=978-84-00-08146-1 }} To date, no known medical treatise written by a woman in the medieval Islamic world has been identified.

Traditional Chinese medicine based on the use of herbal medicine, acupuncture, massage and other forms of therapy has been practiced in China for thousands of years. Western medicine was introduced to China in the 19th century, mainly by medical missionaries sent from various Christian mission organizations, such as the London Missionary Society (Britain), the Methodist Church (Britain) and the Presbyterian Church (US). Benjamin Hobson (1816–1873), a medical missionary sent by the London Missionary Society in 1839, set up the Wai Ai Clinic ({{Lang|zh|惠愛醫館}}){{cite web |url=http://blog.ifeng.com/article/46027.html |title=回眸：当年传教士进羊城_MW悦读室之岭南话廊_凤凰博报- 博采众家之言 报闻公民心声-凤凰网 |publisher=Blog.ifeng.com |access-date=2012-07-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313042953/http://blog.ifeng.com/article/46027.html |archive-date=13 March 2013 |url-status=dead }}{{cite web |url=http://mall.cnki.net/magazine/Article/GDSI199901009.htm |title=合信的《全体新论》与广东士林-《广东史志》1999年01期-中国知网 |publisher=Mall.cnki.net |date=3 February 2012 |access-date=2012-07-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007074316/http://mall.cnki.net/magazine/Article/GDSI199901009.htm |archive-date=7 October 2013 |url-status=live }} in Guangzhou, China. The Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese ({{Lang|zh|香港華人西醫書院}}) was founded in 1887 by the London Missionary Society, with its first graduate (in 1892) being Sun Yat-sen ({{Lang|zh|孫中山}}).

Due to the social custom that men and women should not be near to one another, Chinese women were reluctant to be treated by Western male doctors. This resulted in a need for female doctors. One of these was Sigourney Trask of the Methodist Episcopal Church, who set-up a hospital in Fuzhou during the mid-19th century. Trask also arranged for a local girl, Hü King Eng, to study medicine at Ohio Wesleyan Female College, with the intention that Hü would return to practise western medicine in Fuzhou. After graduation, Hü became the resident physician at Fuzhou's Woolston Memorial Hospital in 1899 and trained several female physicians.{{cite book |last1=Burton |first1=Margaret E. |title=Notable women of modern China |date=1912 |publisher=Fleming H. Revell Company |lccn=12029964 |oclc=1804284 |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14492 }}{{page needed|date=October 2023}} Another female medical missionary Mary H. Fulton (1854–1927){{cite book |last1=Fulton |first1=Mary H. |title=Inasmuch |date=2010 |publisher=BiblioBazaar |isbn=978-1-140-34179-6 }}{{page needed|date=October 2023}} was sent by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church (US) to found the first medical college for women in China. Known as the Hackett Medical College for Women ({{Lang|zh|夏葛女子醫學院}}),{{cite thesis |last1=Pang |first1=Suk Man |title='To save life and spread the true light': the Hackett Medical College for Women in China (1899–1936) |date=1998 |url=https://scholars.hkbu.edu.hk/en/studentTheses/to-save-life-and-spread-the-true-light-the-hackett-medical-colleg }}{{page needed|date=October 2023}}{{cite book |last1=Xu |first1=Guangqiu |title=American Doctors in Canton: Modernization in China, 1835–1935 |date=2011 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-1-4128-1829-2 |page=131 }}{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kzH2HAAACAAJ |title=Hackett Medical College for Women, Turner Training School for Nurses, David Gregg Hospital for Women and Children: Bulletin, 1924–1925 |publisher=The College |year=1924 |access-date=13 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501090417/https://books.google.com/books/about/Hackett_Medical_College_for_Women_Turner.html?id=kzH2HAAACAAJ |archive-date=1 May 2016 |url-status=live }}{{page needed|date=October 2023}}{{title?}}{{cite web |url=http://www.cqvip.com/qk/83891A/200203/6479902.html |title=中国近代第一所女子医学院 – 夏葛医学院-【维普网】-仓储式在线作品出版平台- |publisher=Cqvip.com |access-date=2012-07-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523093710/http://www.cqvip.com/qk/83891A/200203/6479902.html |archive-date=23 May 2013 |url-status=live }} this college was located in Guangzhou, China, and was enabled by a large donation from Edward A. K. Hackett (1851–1916) of Indiana. The college was dedicated in 1902 and offered a four-year curriculum. By 1915, there were more than 60 students, mostly in residence. Most students became Christians, due to the influence of Fulton. The college was aimed at the spreading of Christianity and modern medicine and the elevation of Chinese women's social status. The graduates of this college included Chau Lee-sun ({{Lang|zh|周理信}}, 1890–1979) and Wong Yuen-hing ({{Lang|zh|黃婉卿}}), both of whom graduated in the late 1910s and then practiced medicine in the hospitals in Guangdong province.Rebecca Chan Chung, Deborah Chung and Cecelia Ng Wong, Piloted to Serve, 2012.

During this era, the majority of American women whether European or African American, childbirth was considered a female event where female friends, relatives, and the local midwife gathered to support the birthing mother. Midwives gained their knowledge through experience and apprenticeship.{{cite journal |last1=Borst |first1=Charlotte G. |last2=Jones |first2=Kathleen W. |title=As Patients and Healers: The History of Women and Medicine |journal=OAH Magazine of History |date=2005 |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=23–26 |doi=10.1093/maghis/19.5.23 |jstor=25161975 }} Out of the different occupations women took on around this time, midwifery was one of the highest-paying industries.{{cite book|last1=Ulrich|first1=Laurel Thatcher|title=A Midwife's Tale: The Life of Martha Ballard, Based on Her Diary, 1785–1812|date=1990|publisher=Knopf|location=New York|isbn=0-679-73376-0}}{{page needed|date=October 2023}} In the 18th century, households tended to have an abundance of children largely in part to having hired help and diminished mortality rates.{{cite book|last1=McMillen|first1=Sally Gregory|url=https://archive.org/details/motherhoodinolds0000mcmi|title=Motherhood in the Old South: Pregnancy, Childbirth and Infant Rearing|date=1990|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|isbn=978-0807115176}}{{page needed|date=October 2023}} Despite the high chance of complications in labor, American midwife Martha Ballard, specifically, had high success rates in delivering healthy babies to healthy mothers.

{{See also|Women's health|Women's health movement in the United States}}

The 1970s marked an increase of women entering and graduating from medical school in the United States. From 1930 to 1970, a period of 40 years, around 14,000 women graduated from medical school. From 1970 to 1980, a period of 10 years, over 20,000 women graduated from medical school.{{cite book |last1=Paludi |first1=Michele |last2=Steuernagel |first2=Gertrude A. |last3=Cole |first3=Ellen |last4=Rothblum |first4=Esther D. |title=Foundations for a Feminist Restructuring of the Academic Disciplines |date=1990 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-78428-6 |page=236 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=otn1d9Fz1bwC&pg=PA236 }} This increase of women in the medical field was due to both political and cultural changes. Two laws in the U.S. lifted restrictions for women in the medical field – Title IX of the Higher Education Act Amendments of 1972 and the Public Health Service Act of 1975, banning discrimination on grounds of gender. In November 1970, the Assembly of the Association of American Medical Colleges rallied for equal rights in the medical field.

Throughout the decade women's ideas about themselves and their relation to the medical field were shifting due to the women's feminist movement. A sharp increase of women in the medical field led to developments in doctor-patient relationships, changes in terminology and theory. One area of medical practice that was challenged and changed was gynecology.Kline, Wendy. Bodies of Knowledge: Sexuality, Reproduction, and Women's Health in the Second Wave (University of Chicago Press, 2010). Author Wendy Kline noted that "to ensure that young brides were ready for the wedding night, [doctors] used the pelvic exam as a form of sex instruction."Kline, Bodies of Knowledge: Sexuality, Reproduction, and Women's Health in the Second Wave, p 4.

With higher numbers of women enrolled in medical school, medical practices like gynecology were challenged and subsequently altered. In 1972, the University of Iowa Medical School instituted a new training program for pelvic and breast examinations. Students would act both as the doctor and the patient, allowing each student to understand the procedure and create a more gentle, respectful examination. With changes in ideologies and practices throughout the 70s, by 1980 over 75 schools had adopted this new method.Paludi and Streuernage, Foundations for a Feminist Restructuring of the Academic Disciplines, p. 241.

Along with women entering the medical field and feminist rights movement, came along the women's health movement which sought alternative methods of health care for women. This came through the creation of self-help books, most notably Our Bodies, Ourselves: A Book by and for Women.Boston Women's Health Book Collective Staff, Our Bodies, Ourselves: A Book by and for Women (Boston: Simon and Schuster Trade, 1976). This book gave women a "manual" to help understand their body. It challenged hospital treatment, and doctors' practices. Aside from self-help books, many help centres were opened: birth centres run by midwives, safe abortion centres, and classes for educating women on their bodies, all with the aim of providing non-judgmental care for women.{{cite book |last1=Schulman |first1=Bruce |title=The Seventies: The Great Shift In American Culture, Society, And Politics |date=2002 |publisher=Hachette Books |isbn=978-0-306-81126-5 |page=174 }} The women's health movement, along with women involved in the medical field, opened the doors for research and awareness for female illness like breast cancer and cervical cancer.

Scholars in the history of medicine had developed some study of women in the field—biographies of pioneering women physicians were common prior to the 1960s—and study of women in medicine took particular root with the advent of the women's movement in the 1960s, and in conjunction with the women's health movement.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}}

File:Wafaa El-Sadr.jpg, Egyptian epidemiologist and MacArthur Fellow, 2010. ]]

File:Monique Frize (2791666823).jpg (centre), Canadian academic and biomedical engineer, 2008.]]

File:Awa Marie Coll-Seck.jpg, Senegal's former Minister of Health, in 2009.]] In 1540, Henry VIII of England granted the charter for the Company of Barber-Surgeons;{{cite journal|last=Ellis|first=Harold|date=October 2001|title=The Company of Barbers and Surgeons|journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine|volume=94|issue=10|pages=548–549|doi=10.1177/014107680109401022|pmc=1282221}} while this led to the specialization of healthcare professions (i.e. surgeons and barbers), women were barred from professional practice.The History of Women in Surgery, by Debrah A. Wirtzfeld, MD Women did continue to practice during this time without formal training or recognition in England and eventually North America for the next several centuries.

Women's participation in the medical professions was generally limited by legal and social practices during the decades while medicine was professionalizing.{{cite book |last1=Ehrenreich |first1=Barbara |last2=English |first2=Deirdre |title=Witches, Midwives, and Nurses: A History of Women Healers |date=1973 |publisher=Feminist Press |isbn=978-0-912670-13-3 }}{{page needed|date=October 2023}} Women openly practiced medicine in the allied health professions (nursing, midwifery, etc.), and throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, women made significant gains in access to medical education and medical work through much of the world. These gains were sometimes tempered by setbacks; for instance, Mary Roth Walsh documented a decline in women physicians in the US in the first half of the twentieth century, such that there were fewer women physicians in 1950 than there were in 1900.Walsh, 1977.{{page needed|date=October 2023}} Through the latter half of the twentieth century, women made gains generally across the board. In the United States, for instance, women were 9% of total US medical school enrollment in 1969; this had increased to 20% in 1976. By 1985, women constituted 16% of practicing American physicians.Morantz-Sanchez, Preface.

At the beginning of the 21st century in industrialized nations, women have made significant gains, but have yet to achieve parity throughout the medical profession. Women have achieved parity in medical school in some industrialized countries, since 2003 forming the majority of the United States medical school applicants.{{cite web|date=3 November 2003|title=Applicants to U.S. Medical Schools Increase; Women the Majority for the First Time|url=http://www.aamc.org/newsroom/pressrel/2003/031104.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223144825/http://www.aamc.org/newsroom/pressrel/2003/031104.htm|archive-date=23 February 2007|publisher=Association of American Medical Colleges|type=press release|quote=Women made up the majority of medical school applicants for the first time ever}} In 2007–2008, women accounted for 49% of medical school applicants and 48.3% of those accepted.{{cite report|url=http://www.aamc.org/data/facts/charts1982to2007.pdf|title=U.S. Medical School Applicants and Students 1982–83 to 2007–08|publisher=AAMC|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704131335/http://www.aamc.org/data/facts/charts1982to2007.pdf|archive-date=2008-07-04|website=aamc.org|url-status=dead}} According to the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) 48.4% (8,396) of medical degrees awarded in the US in 2010–2011 were earned by women, an increase from 26.8% in 1982–1983.{{cite report|url=https://www.aamc.org/download/153708/data/|title=U.S. Medical School Applicants and Students 1982–1983 to 2011–2012|publisher=AAMC|access-date=11 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626090814/https://www.aamc.org/download/153708/data/|archive-date=2014-06-26|work=aamc.org|url-status=dead}} While more women are taking part in the medical field, a 2013–2014 study reported that there are significantly fewer women in leadership positions within the academic realm of medicine. This study found that women accounted for 16% of deans, 21% of the professors, and 38% of faculty, as compared to their male counterparts.{{cite journal |last1=Rebecca M. Allen |first1=M. D. |title=Gender Inequality in Medicine: Too Much Evidence to Ignore |journal=Psychiatric Times |date=3 May 2017 |volume=34 |issue=5 |url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/gender-inequality-medicine-too-much-evidence-ignore }}

The practice of medicine remains disproportionately male overall. In industrialized nations, the recent parity in gender of medical students has not yet trickled into parity in practice. In many developing nations, neither medical school nor practice approach gender parity.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}} Moreover, there are skews within the medical profession: some medical specialties, such as surgery, are significantly male-dominated,Dixie Mills, "Women in Surgery – Past, Present, and Future" (2003 presentation), Association of Women Surgeons; available at [http://www.womensurgeons.org/about/items/womeninsurgery2003c.ppt AWS website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070109233732/http://womensurgeons.org/about/items/womeninsurgery2003c.ppt|date=9 January 2007}}. while other specialties are significantly female-dominated, or are becoming so. For example, in the United States, {{as of|2006}} female physicians outnumber male physicians in pediatrics and female residents outnumber male residents in family medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, pathology, and psychiatry.{{cite web|date=25 September 2015|title=AMA (WPC) Table 16 – Physician Specialties by Gender – 2006|url=http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/16229.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071102101755/http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/16229.html|archive-date=2 November 2007|access-date=10 October 2015|work=Women Physicians Congress (WPC)}}{{Update inline|date=October 2023|reason=from 2005 data}}{{cite web|date=25 September 2015|title=AMA (WPC) Table 4 – Women Residents by Specialty – 2005|url=http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/12915.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041022162222/http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/12915.html|archive-date=22 October 2004|access-date=10 October 2015|work=Women Physicians Congress (WPC)}}{{Update inline|date=October 2023|reason=from 2003 data}} In several different areas of medicine (general practice, medical specialties, surgical specialties) and in various roles, medical professionals tend to overestimate women's true representation, and this correlates with a decreased willingness to support gender-based initiatives among men, impeding further progress towards gender parity.{{cite journal |last1=Begeny |first1=Christopher T |last2=Grossman |first2=Rebecca C |last3=Ryan |first3=Michelle K |title=Overestimating women's representation in medicine: a survey of medical professionals' estimates and their(un)willingness to support gender equality initiatives |journal=BMJ Open |date=March 2022 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=e054769 |doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2021-054769 |pmc=8943774 |pmid=35318233 }}

Women continue to dominate in nursing. In 2000, 94.6% of registered nurses in the United States were women.{{citation|title=The Registered Nurse Population|date=March 2000|url=http://bhpr.hrsa.gov/healthworkforce/reports/rnsurvey/rnss1.htm|work=bhpr.hrsa.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030212144558/http://bhpr.hrsa.gov/healthworkforce/reports/rnsurvey/rnss1.htm|access-date=11 October 2015|archive-date=2003-02-12|url-status=dead}} In health care professions as a whole in the US, women numbered approximately 14.8 million, as of 2011.{{cite web|last1=Swanson|first1=Naomi|last2=Tisdale-Pardi|first2=Julie|last3=MacDonald|first3=Leslie|last4=Tiesman|first4=Hope M.|date=13 May 2013|title=Women's Health at Work|url=http://blogs.cdc.gov/niosh-science-blog/2013/05/13/womens-health-at-work/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118223513/http://blogs.cdc.gov/niosh-science-blog/2013/05/13/womens-health-at-work/|archive-date=18 January 2015|access-date=21 January 2015|publisher=National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health}}

Biomedical research and academic medical professions—i.e., faculty at medical schools—are also disproportionately male. Research on this issue, called the "leaky pipeline" by the National Institutes of Health and other researchers, shows that while women have achieved parity with men in entering graduate school, a variety of discrimination causes them to drop out at each stage in the academic pipeline: graduate school, postdoc, faculty positions, achieving tenure; and, ultimately, in receiving recognition for groundbreaking work.The term was coined by S.E. Berryman in "Who Will Do Science?", 1983; see Louise Luckenbill-Edds, [http://www.ascb.org/index.cfm?id=1584&navid=112&tcode=nws3 "2000 WICB/Career Strategy Columns (Archive)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714163507/http://www.ascb.org/index.cfm?navid=112&id=1584&tcode=nws3|date=14 July 2007}}, 1 November 2000, WICB Newsletter, American Society for Cell Biology.{{cite journal |last1=Pell |first1=A N |title=Fixing the leaky pipeline: women scientists in academia. |journal=Journal of Animal Science |date=1996 |volume=74 |issue=11 |pages=2843–2848 |doi=10.2527/1996.74112843x |pmid=8923199 }}{{cite journal |last1=Clark Blickenstaff |first1=Jacob |title=Women and science careers: leaky pipeline or gender filter? |journal=Gender and Education |date=October 2005 |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=369–386 |doi=10.1080/09540250500145072 |s2cid=216643705 }}{{cite journal |last1=Agogino |first1=Alice |title=Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering |journal=2007 APS April Meeting |date=April 2007 |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=K6.001 |bibcode=2007APS..APR.K6001A |url=https://meetings.aps.org/Meeting/APR07/Session/K6.1 }}

The "glass ceiling" is a metaphor to convey the undefined obstacles that women and minorities face in the workplace. Female physicians of the late 19th-century faced discrimination in many forms due to the prevailing Victorian era attitude that the ideal woman be demure, display a gentle demeanor, act submissively, and enjoy a perceived form of power that should be exercised over and from within the home.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} Medical degrees were difficult for women to earn, and once practicing, discrimination from landlords for medical offices, left female physicians to set up their practices on "Scab Row" or "bachelor's apartments."{{Cite book|last=F.|first=Cott, Nancy|title=History of women in the United States: historical articles on women's lives and activities|date=1992–1994|publisher=K.G. Saur|isbn=978-3-598-41454-1|pages=125–126|oclc=25873629}}

The Journal of Women's Health surveyed physician mothers and their physician daughters to analyze the effect that discrimination and harassment have on the individual and their career. This study included 84% of physician mothers that graduated medical school prior to 1970, with the majority of these physicians graduating in the 1950s and 1960s. The authors of this study stated that discrimination in the medical field persisted after the title VII discrimination legislation was passed in 1965.{{cite journal|author=Shrier Diane K., Zucker Alyssa N., Mercurio Andrea E., Landry Laura J., Rich Michael, Shrier Lydia A.|year=2007|title=Generation to Generation: Discrimination and Harassment Experiences of Physician Mothers and Their Physician Daughters|journal=Journal of Women's Health|volume=16|issue=6|pages=1–13|doi=10.1089/jwh.2006.0127|pmid=17678459}} This was the case until 1970, when the National Organization for Women (NOW) filed a class action lawsuit against all medical schools in the United States. By 1975, the number of women in medicine had nearly tripled, and has continued to grow. By 2005, more than 25% of physicians and around 50% of medical school students were women. The increase of women in medicine also came with an increase of women identifying as a racial/ethnic minority, yet this population is still largely underrepresented in comparison to the general population of the medical field.

Within this specific study, 22% of physician mothers and 24% of physician daughters identified themselves as being an ethnic minority. These women reported experiencing instances of exclusion from career opportunities as a result of their race and gender. According to this article, females tend to have lessened confidence in their abilities as a doctor, yet their performance is equivalent to that of their male counterparts. This study also commented on the impact of power dynamics within medical school, which is established as a hierarchy that ultimately shapes the educational experience.{{Cite journal|last1=Babaria|first1=Palav|last2=Abedin|first2=Sakena|last3=Berg|first3=David|last4=Nunez-Smith|first4=Marcella|date=1 April 2012|title="I'm too used to it": A longitudinal qualitative study of third year female medical students' experiences of gendered encounters in medical education|journal=Social Science & Medicine|volume=74|issue=7|pages=1013–1020|doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.11.043|pmid=22341202|doi-access=free}} Instances of sexual harassment attribute to the high attrition rates of females in the STEM fields.{{cite journal|vauthors=Clancy KH, Nelson RG, Rutherford JN, Hinde K |year=2014|title=Survey of Academic Field Experiences (SAFE): Trainees Report Harassment and Assault|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=9|issue=7|pages=1–9|bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j2172C|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0102172|pmc=4100871|pmid=25028932|doi-access=free}}

A shift from women midwifery to male obstetrics occurs in the growth of medical practices such as the founding of the American Medical Association.{{cite web|last1=Feldhusen|first1=Adrian E|date=17 January 2000|title=The History of Midwifery and Childbirth in America: A Time Line|url=https://midwiferytoday.com/web-article/history-midwifery-childbirth-america-time-line/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124195639/https://midwiferytoday.com/web-article/history-midwifery-childbirth-america-time-line/|archive-date=24 January 2018|access-date=24 January 2018|website=Midwifery Today}} Instead of assisting labor in the basis of an emergency, doctors took over the delivery of babies completely; putting midwifery second. This is an example of the growing sense of competition between male physicians and female midwives as a rise in obstetrics took hold. The education of women on the basis of midwifery was stunted by both physicians and public-health reformers, driving midwifery to be seen as out of practice.{{cite journal|last1=Brodsky|first1=Phyllis L|date=2008|title=Where have all the midwives gone?|journal=Journal of Perinatal Education|volume=17|issue=4|pages=48–51|doi=10.1624/105812408X324912|pmc=2582410|pmid=19436438}} Societal roles also played a fact in the downfall of the practice in midwifery because women were unable to obtain the education needed for licensing and once married, women were to embrace a domestic lifestyle. In 2018, there were 11,826 certified nurse midwives (CNMs).{{Cite web|title=The Complexities of Physician Supply and Demand: Projections from 2018–2033|url=https://www.aamc.org/data-reports/workforce/data/complexities-physician-supply-and-demand-projections-2018-2033|access-date=2021-02-05|website=AAMC|language=en}} In 2019 there were 42,720 active physicians in Obstetrics and Gynecology.{{Cite web|title=Number of People per Active Physician by Specialty, 2019|url=https://www.aamc.org/what-we-do/mission-areas/health-care/workforce-studies/interactive-data/number-people-active-physician-specialty-2019|access-date=2021-02-05|website=AAMC|language=en}}

Outside of the United States, midwifery is still practiced in several countries such as in Africa. The first school of midwives in Africa was supposedly founded by Dr. Ernst Rodenwalt in Togo in 1912.{{Cite book|last=Knoll|first=Arthur J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mfoLAQAAMAAJ|title=Togo Under Imperial Germany, 1884–1914: A Case Study in Colonial Rule|date=1978|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|isbn=978-0817960919|language=en}}{{Cite book|last=Davies|first=Margrit|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2Fs9NTZ4kQC|title=Public Health and Colonialism: The Case of German New Guinea 1884–1914|date=2002|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3447046008|language=en}} In comparison, The Juba College of Nursing and Midwifery in South Sudan (a country that gained its independence in 2011) graduated its first class of students in 2013.{{Cite news|date=31 January 2014|title=Juba College of Nursing & Midwifery Program Update|language=en-US|work=Real Medicine Foundation|url=https://realmedicinefoundation.org/our-work/countries/south-sudan/initiatives/juba-college-of-nursing-and-midwifery/reports/2013-2/juba-college-of-nursing-midwifery-program-update/|access-date=2021-10-13}}

File:Anandibai Joshee, Kei Okami, and Tabat M. Islambooly.jpg in 1886: Anandibai Joshi, a Marathi Hindu from India (left) with Kei Okami, a Christian from Japan (center) and Sabat Islambooly, a Kurdish-Jewish woman from Syria (right). All three completed their medical studies and each of them was the first woman from their respective countries to obtain a degree in Western medicine.]]

When women were routinely forbidden from medical school, they sought to form their own medical schools.

• New England Female Medical College, Boston, founded in 1848.
• Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania (founded 1850 as Female Medical College of Pennsylvania)
• London School of Medicine for Women (founded 1874 by Sophia Jex-Blake)
• Edinburgh School of Medicine for Women (founded 1886 by Sophia Jex-Blake)
• First Pavlov State Medical University of St. Petersburg (founded 1897 as Female Medical University)
• Tokyo Women's Medical University (founded 1900 by Yoshioka Yayoi)
• Hackett Medical College for Women, Guangzhou, China, founded in 1902 by Presbyterian Church (USA).

• Woman's Hospital of Philadelphia, founded in 1861, provided clinical experience for Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania students
• New England Hospital for Women and Children (now called Dimock Community Health Center), founded in 1862 by women doctors "for the exclusive use of women and children"{{cite web |title=Hospital Founded by Women for Women |url=https://www.jphs.org/victorian-era/hospital-founded-by-women-for-women.html |website=Jamaica Plain Historical Society |date=1 April 2004 }}
• New Hospital for Women (founded in the 1870s by Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and run largely by women, for women)
• South London Hospital for Women and Children (founded 1912 by Eleanor Davies-Colley and Maud Chadburn; closed 1984; employed an all-woman staff)

• Madeleine-Françoise Calais ({{circa|1713}} – fl. 1740) was a pioneer who is referred to as the first female dentist in France.Paul-Martin Bondois: La Première maîtresse-dentiste, Madeleine-Françoise Calais: par P.-M. Bondois, 1928
• Dorothea Erxleben (1715–1762) was the first female doctor in Germany and the first woman worldwide to be granted an MD by a university.
• Salomée Halpir (1718 – after 1763) was a Polish medic and oculist who is often referred to as the first female doctor from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

File:Stamps of Romania, 2007-012.jpg, the first female doctor in Romania, 1857–1919. Stamp of Romania, 2007.]]

• Lovisa Årberg (1801–1881) was the first female doctor and surgeon in Sweden; whereas, Amalia Assur (1803–1889) was the first female dentist in Sweden and possibly Europe.
• Marie Durocher (1809–1893) was a Brazilian obstetrician, midwife and physician. She is considered the first female doctor in Brazil and the Americas.
• Ann Preston (1813–1872) was the first female to become the dean of a medical school [Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania (WMCP)] in 1866.
• Elizabeth Blackwell (1821–1910), who was England-born, was the first woman to graduate from medical school in the United States. She obtained her MD in 1849 from Geneva College, New York City.
• Rebecca Lee Crumpler, (1831–1895) became the first African American female physician in the United States in 1864 upon being awarded her M.D. by New England Female Medical College in Boston.
• Lucy Hobbs Taylor (1833–1910) was the first female dentist in the United States.
• Elizabeth Garrett Anderson (1836–1917) was a pioneering feminist in Britain who became the first female doctor in the United Kingdom in 1865 and a co-founder of London School of Medicine for Women.{{Cite web|title=BBC – History – Elizabeth Garrett Anderson|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/garrett_anderson_elizabeth.shtml|access-date=2021-09-24|website=www.bbc.co.uk|language=en-GB}}
• Madeleine Brès (1839–1925) was the first female medical doctor in France.{{cite web|url=http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica/femmesmed.htm|title=Medic@ – Histoire de l'entrée des femmes en médecine – BIU Santé, Paris|work=univ-paris5.fr|access-date=10 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120719135752/http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica/femmesmed.htm|archive-date=19 July 2012|url-status=live}}
• Sophia Jex-Blake (1840–1912) was an English physician, feminist and teacher who was the first woman to practice medicine in Scotland in 1878.
• Sophia Bambridge (1841–1910) was the first female doctor in American Samoa.{{Cite news|date=11 December 1974|title=Rev Jane|pages=41|work=The Honolulu Advertiser|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25143551/rev-jane/|access-date=2021-10-05}}
• Frances Hoggan (1843–1927) became the first female doctor in Wales in 1870.{{Cite book|last=Wallace|first=Ryland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mh9mDwAAQBAJ|title=The Women's Suffrage Movement in Wales, 1866–1928|date=2018|publisher=University of Wales Press|isbn=978-1786833297|language=en}} She was also the first British woman to receive a doctorate in medicine (1870).
• Eliza Walker Dunbar (1845-1925) was the first woman in the UK to be appointed as a House Surgeon with responsibilities over male doctors (1874) and the first to receive a UK medical licence by examination (1877).
• Jennie Kidd Trout (1841–1921) was the first woman in Canada to become a licensed medical doctor in March 1875.
• Rosina Heikel (1842–1929) was a feminist and the first female physician in Finland (1878), as well as in the Nordic countries.
• Isala Van Diest (7 May 1842 – 6 February 1916) was the first female medical doctor and the first female university graduate in Belgium.
• Nadezhda Suslova (1843–1918), a graduate of Zurich University, was the first female doctor in Russia{{cite journal |last1=Zhuk |first1=Sergei Ivanovich |title=Science, Women and Revolution in Russia (review) |journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine |date=2001 |volume=75 |issue=4 |pages=802–803 |doi=10.1353/bhm.2001.0204 |s2cid=72251062 }}
• Edith Pechey-Phipson (1845–1908) was a pioneering English doctor in India. She received her MD in 1877 from the University of Bern and Licentiate in Midwifery in 1877 at the Royal College of Physicians of Ireland.
• Mary Scharlieb (1845–1930) was a pioneer British female physician, as she was the first woman to be elected to the honorary visiting staff of a hospital in the United Kingdom.
• Vilma Hugonnai (1847–1922) was the first female doctor in Hungary. She studied medicine in Zürich and received her degree in 1879. However, she had to work as a midwife until 1897 when the Hungarian authorities finally accepted her degree. Hugonnai then started her own medical practice.
• Margaret Cleaves (1848–1917) was a pioneering doctor in brachytherapy who obtained her M.D. in 1873. She was the first female appointed to the University of Iowa Medical Department's examining committee in 1885.
• Anastasia Golovina, also known as Anastassya Nikolau Berladsky-Golovina, and Atanasya Golovina (1850–1933), was the first female doctor in Bulgaria.Kalchev, K. (1996): "Dr Anastasia Golovina. Edna zabravena balgarka" [Dr. Anastasya Golovina. A Forgotten Bulgarian Woman]. Veliko Tarnovo.{{cite journal |last1=Nazarska |first1=Georgeta |title=Bulgarian Women Medical Doctors in the Social Modernization of the Bulgarian Nation State (1878–1944) |journal=Historical Social Research |volume=33 |issue=2 |date=2008 |pages=232–246 |jstor=20762285 |doi=10.12759/hsr.33.2008.2.232-246 }}
• Ogino Ginko (1851–1913) was the first licensed and practicing female physician of Western medicine in Japan.
• Bohuslava Kecková (1854–1911), first Bohemian (Czech) woman to obtain a medical degree in 1880 from University of Zurich.{{cite web|last1=Mathé-Bída|first1=Terezie Františka|date=2012|title=Ženy s Květem Lilie: Odborná činovnická kvalifikace Myšlenkové základy skautingu a historie|trans-title=Women of the Lily: Professional Skills, Qualification, Thought: Basics of Scouting and History|url=http://www.skautskyinstitut.cz/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/OCK_MZH_Bida_revize_2012.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011152352/http://www.skautskyinstitut.cz/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/OCK_MZH_Bida_revize_2012.pdf|archive-date=11 October 2017|access-date=11 October 2017|website=Skautsky Institut (Scouting Institute)|publisher=Zkušební komise OČK MZH (Executive Board)|location=Prague, Czech Republic|page=2|language=cs}}
• Aletta Jacobs (1854–1929) was the first woman to complete a university course in the Netherlands and the first female doctor in the country.
• Hope Bridges Adams Lehmann (1855–1916) was the first female general practitioner and gynecologist in Munich, Germany.
• Grace Cadell (1855–1918) and Marion Gilchrist (1864–1952) were the first women to qualify as doctors in Scotland respectively in 1891 and 1894.{{Cite book|last1=Ewan|first1=Elizabeth L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zs6qBgAAQBAJ|title=Biographical Dictionary of ScottishWomen|last2=Innes|first2=Sue|last3=Reynolds|first3=Sian|last4=Pipes|first4=Rose|date=2007|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0748626601|language=en}}{{Cite news|date=16 November 2018|title=Sophia Jex-Blake: The battle to be Scotland's first female doctor|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-edinburgh-east-fife-46180368|access-date=2021-09-24}}
• Draga Ljočić-Milošević (1855–1926) was a feminist activist and the first female physician in Serbia. She graduated from Zurich University in 1879{{Cite web|title=Women in medicine in Serbia {{!}} Hektoen International|url=http://hekint.org/2017/01/29/women-in-medicine-in-serbia/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180526041102/http://hekint.org/2017/01/29/women-in-medicine-in-serbia/|archive-date=26 May 2018|access-date=2018-05-25|website=hekint.org|language=en}}
• Henriette Saloz-Joudra (1855–1928) successfully defended a doctoral thesis in cardiology at the University of Geneva in June 1883.{{Cite web|title=Henriette Saloz-Joudra |url=https://100elles.ch/biographies/henriette-saloz-joudra/|access-date=2020-03-28|website=100 Elles*|language=fr-CH}}
• Ana Galvis Hotz (1855–1934) was the first female doctor in Colombia. She was also the first Colombian woman (and first woman from Latin America) to obtain a medical degree.
• Constance Stone (1856–1902) was the first woman to practice medicine in Australia.
• Dolors Aleu i Riera (1857–1913) was the first female medical doctor in Spain when she started practicing medicine in 1879.{{cite journal|title= Doctor Aleu, the first woman doctor in Spain|journal=Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health|volume=61|issue=Suppl 2|pages=ii3|date=1 December 2007|pmc=2465771|doi=10.1136/jech.2007.067215|last1= Lopez-Carrillo|first1= M.|doi-access=free}}
• Maria Cuțarida-Crătunescu (1857–1919) was the first female doctor in Romania.
• Lilian Welsh (1858–1938) was the first woman full professor at Goucher College.
• Sonia Belkind (1858–1943), who was Russian-born, was the first female doctor in Palestine.{{Cite book|last=Hirsch|first=Luise|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SUp3AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=From the Shtetl to the Lecture Hall: Jewish Women and Cultural Exchange|date=2013|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=978-0761859932|language=en}}
• Isabel Cobb (1858–1947), who earned her M.D. in 1892, was Cherokee and the first woman physician in Indian territory. She was also an alumnus of Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania.
• Matilde Montoya (1859–1939) became the first female physician in Mexico in 1887.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zo9EBQAAQBAJ&q=matilde+montoya+health&pg=PA64|title=Medicine and Public Health in Latin America|isbn=978-1107023673|last1=Cueto|first1=Marcos|last2=Palmer|first2=Steven|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
• Kadambini Ganguly (1861–1923) was the first Indian woman to obtain a medical degree in India upon graduating from the Calcutta Medical College in 1886.
• Elsie Inglis (1864–1917), born in India, was a pioneering Scottish doctor and suffragist who obtained her MD at Edinburgh School of Medicine for Women and worked at Rotunda Hospital, Dublin.
• Annie Lowrie Alexander (1864–1929) was the first licensed female physician in the Southern United States{{cite book|last=Cohn|first=Scotti|title=More Than Petticoats: Remarkable North Carolina Women|year=2012|publisher=Globe Pequot|isbn=978-0762764457|pages=82–92|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mwrrs3w_chcC&q=%22Annie%20Lowrie%20Alexander%22&pg=PA82}}
• Emily Charlotte Thomson (1864–1955) was one of the first women admitted to professional medical societies in Scotland and co-founded the Dundee Women's Hospital in 1896.
• Anandi Gopal Joshi (1865–1887), the first Indian woman to obtain a medical degree having graduated from the Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania in 1886.
• Susan La Flesche Picotte (1865–1915) was the first Native American woman to obtain a medical degree.
• Sofia Okunevska (1865–1926) was the first Ukrainian female doctor.{{Cite web|date=19 October 2016|title=Інститут історії України НАН України|url=http://history.org.ua/?encyclop&termin=OkunevskaMorachevska_Sofiia|access-date=2021-10-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019001733/http://history.org.ua/?encyclop&termin=OkunevskaMorachevska_Sofiia|archive-date=19 October 2016}}
• Mary Josephine Hannan (1865–1935) was the first Irishwoman to graduate with the following credentials: LRCPI & SI and LM.
• Marie Spångberg Holth (1865–1942) was the first woman doctor in Norway after graduating in medicine from the Royal Frederiks University of Christiania in 1893.{{cite web|date=6 December 2013|title=Lege mot alle odds|url=http://forskning.no/content/lege-mot-alle-odds|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705213843/http://forskning.no/content/lege-mot-alle-odds|archive-date=5 July 2015|access-date=2015-07-04|publisher=forskning.no|language=nb}}{{Citation|author=Aina Schiøtz|title=An essay on the Norwegian pioneer Marie Spångberg Holth.|date=18 December 2003|url=http://tidsskriftet.no/article/943518|journal=Tidsskrift for den Norske Legeforening|publisher=Universitetet i Oslo|access-date=11 October 2015}}{{cite journal |last1=Schiøtz |first1=Aina |date=2003 |title=A studere medisin – til skade for kvinnens helbred? |trans-title=To study medicine—a threat to women's health?|journal=Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen |language=no |volume=123 |issue=24 |pages=3522–3523 |pmid=14691489 |url=https://tidsskriftet.no/2003/12/medisinske-merkesteiner/studere-medisin-til-skade-kvinnens-helbred }}
• Anne Walter Fearn (1865–1938) practiced as a medical doctor in Shanghai, China, for almost 40 years.
• Eloísa Díaz (1866–1950) became the first female doctor in Chile upon graduating from the Universidad de Chile on 27 December 1886. She obtained her degree on 3 January 1887.
• Merbai Ardesir Vakil (1868–1941) was an Indian physician and the first Asian woman to graduate from a Scottish university.
• Eva Jellett (1868–1958), first woman to graduate from Trinity College Dublin with a medical degree in 1905.
• Bertha E. Reynolds (1868–1961) was among the first women licensed to practice medicine in Wisconsin (serving the rural communities of Lone Rock and Avoca).
• Emma K. Willits (1869–1965) was believed to be only the third woman to specialize in surgery and the first to head a Department of General Surgery at Children's Hospital in San Francisco, 1921–1934.{{cite journal|author=Edwards Muriel|year=1950|title=Emma K. Willits|journal=Journal of the American Medical Women's Association|volume=5|issue=1|pages=42–43}}
• Alice Hamilton (1869–1970) was an American physician, research scientist, and author who is best known as a leading expert in the field of occupational health and a pioneer in the field of industrial toxicology. She was also the first woman appointed to the faculty of Harvard University.
• Vera Gedroitz (1870–1932) was the first female professor of surgery in the world, as well as the first female military surgeon in Russia.
• Maria Montessori (1870–1952), renowned educator and one of the first female medical doctors in Italy.
• Milica Šviglin Čavov (b. unknown, circa 1870s) was the first Croatian female doctor.{{cite journal |last1=Žuškin |first1=Eugenija |last2=Piasek |first2=Martina |last3=Piasek |first3=Gustav |last4=Šarić |first4=Marko |last5=Mustajbegović |first5=Jadranka |last6=Sušec |first6=Tanja |title=Žene i medicinsko umijeće – povijesni ogled |trans-title=Women and medical skill—historic view |language=hr |journal=Liječnički Vjesnik |date=2006 |volume=128 |issue=3–4 |pages=114–121 |pmid=16808102 |url=https://library.foi.hr/lib/knjiga.php?B=1&sqlx=X00646&H= }}{{cite web |url=http://laudato.hr/Novosti/Zanimljivosti/Prva-zena-lijecnica.aspx |title=više od informacije! |publisher=laudato.hr |access-date=2015-07-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125144705/http://www.laudato.hr/Novosti/Zanimljivosti/Prva-zena-lijecnica.aspx |archive-date=25 January 2015 |url-status=live }} She graduated from the Medical School in Zürich in 1893, but was not allowed to work in Croatia.
• Florence Sabin (1871–1953) was the first woman elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences.
• Yoshioka Yayoi (1871–1959), one of the first women to gain a medical degree in Japan; founded a medical school for women in 1900.
• Hannah Myrick (1871–1973) had helped to introduce the use of X-rays at the New England Hospital for Women and Children.
• Laura Esther Rodriguez Dulanto (1872–1919) was the first female doctor in Peru upon obtaining her medical degree.
• Marie Equi (1872–1952) was an American doctor and activist for women's access to birth control and abortion.[https://www.nlm.nih.gov/changingthefaceofmedicine/physicians/biography_103.html "Dr. Marie Diana Equi"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311070225/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/changingthefaceofmedicine/physicians/biography_103.html |date=11 March 2016 }}, NLM Changing the Face of Medicine.
• Fannie Almara Quain (1874–1950) was the first woman born in North Dakota to earn a doctor of medicine degree.{{Cite web |title=Changing the Face of Medicine: Fannie Almara Quain |url=https://cfmedicine.nlm.nih.gov/physicians/biography_351.html |access-date=2023-07-15 |website=National Library of Medicine}}{{PD-notice}}
• Karola Maier Milobar (born 1876) became the first female physician to practice in Croatia in 1906.
• Bertha De Vriese (1877–1958) was the first Belgian woman to obtain a medical degree from Ghent University.{{cite web|last1=Gunst|first1=Petra|last2=Danniau|first2=Fien|title=De Vriese, Bertha (1877–1958)|url=http://www.ugentmemorie.be/personen/de-vriese-bertha-1877-1958|website=University of Ghent|publisher=Department of History|access-date=3 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315205349/http://www.ugentmemorie.be/personen/de-vriese-bertha-1877-1958|archive-date=15 March 2016|location=Ghent, Belgium|language=nl|date=16 December 2015}}
• Selma Feldbach (1878–1924) was the first Estonian woman to become a medical doctor.{{cite web |url=http://my.tele2.ee/kaidoko/synnipee/esymai/esy05mai.htm |title=Tuntud eestlaste sünnipäevad 05 mai |publisher=My.tele2.ee |access-date=2015-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705205807/http://my.tele2.ee/kaidoko/synnipee/esymai/esy05mai.htm |archive-date=5 July 2015 |url-status=dead }}{{cite web |url=http://www.litdok.de/cgi-bin/litdok?lang=de&t_idn=e09138 |title=Herder-Institut: Literaturdatenbank |publisher=Litdok.de |access-date=2015-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706034105/http://www.litdok.de/cgi-bin/litdok?lang=de&t_idn=e09138 |archive-date=6 July 2015 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |author=Valor |url=http://valor-tahetark.blogspot.com/2007/12/hvasti-ambur-2-osa.html |title=Valori tähetarkus: Hüvasti Ambur! – 2 osa |publisher=Valor-tahetark.blogspot.com |access-date=2015-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715034545/http://valor-tahetark.blogspot.com/2007/12/hvasti-ambur-2-osa.html |archive-date=15 July 2015 |url-status=live }}
• Andrea Evangelina Rodríguez Perozo (1879–1947) was the first female medical school graduate in the Dominican Republic.Castro Ventura, Santiago. Evangelina Rodríguez, pionera médica dominicana. Santo Domingo: Ed. Manatí, 2003
• Alice Mary Barry (1880–1955) was a doctor and the first woman nominated fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Ireland.

File:Elizabeth Blackwell.jpg, MD, the first woman to graduate from medical school in the United States (1849).]]

• Ernestina Paper (b. unknown, circa mid–1800s) was the first Italian woman to receive an advanced degree (in medicine) in 1877.Luisa Levi D'Ancona, [https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/italy-modern "Italy, Modern"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801150524/http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/italy-modern |date=1 August 2016 }}, Jewish Women's Archive Encyclopedia, citing the Vessillo Israelitico.
• Doctor Ethel Constance Cousins (1882–1944) and nurse Elizabeth Brodie were the first European women admitted to Bhutan in 1918 as part of a missionary effort to curtail a cholera outbreak.{{Cite book|last=Scotland|first=Church of|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp93rT8MplcC|title=The Church of Scotland Year-book ... (Year of Issue)|date=1918|publisher=published for the General Assembly's Committee on Christian Life and Work at the publication offices of the Church of Scotland|language=en}}{{Cite web|title=Papers of Dr Constance Cousins |url=https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/data/gb102-ms380325|access-date=2021-10-15|website=archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk}}
• Muthulakshmi Reddi (1886–1968) was one of the early female medical doctors in India and a major social reformer.
• María Elisa Rivera Díaz (1887–1981) (1909), Ana Janer (1909), Palmira Gatell (1910), and Dolores Piñero (1892–1975) (1913) were the first women to earn a medical degree in Puerto Rico.{{cite web|title=La mujer puertorriqueña en el siglo XX|date=3 January 2006 |url=http://www.monografias.com/trabajos28/mujer-puertorriquena/mujer-puertorriquena.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320225300/http://www.monografias.com/trabajos28/mujer-puertorriquena/mujer-puertorriquena.shtml|archive-date=20 March 2015|access-date=2015-03-22|publisher=Monografias.com}}{{cite web|title=Women in Military Service For America Memorial|url=http://www.womensmemorial.org/H&C/History/historypr.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200216/http://www.womensmemorial.org/H%26C/History/historypr.html|archive-date=3 March 2016|access-date=10 October 2015|work=womensmemorial.org}} María Elisa Rivera Díaz and Ana Janer graduated in the same medical school class in 1909 and thus could both be considered the first female Puerto Rican physicians.{{cite journal |last1=Rigau-Pérez |first1=Jose G. |title=Francisco Guerra (1916–2011), Medical Historian for the World and Puerto Rico |journal=Puerto Rico Health Sciences Journal |date=31 May 2012 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=72–74 |pmid=22783700 |url=https://prhsj.rcm.upr.edu/index.php/prhsj/article/view/715 }}{{Cite news|date=25 October 1908|title=Puerto Rico's first women doctors, 1908|pages=17|work=The Baltimore Sun|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/59400626/puerto-ricos-first-women-doctors-1908/|access-date=2021-09-24}}{{cite journal |last1=Azize Vargas |first1=Yamila |last2=Aviles |first2=Luis Alberto |title=Las mujeres en las profesiones de salud: Los Hechos Desconocidos: participación de la Mujer en las Profesiones de Salud en Puerto Rico (1898–1930) |trans-title=The unknown facts: women's participation in the health professions in Puerto Rico (1898–1930) |language=es |journal=Puerto Rico Health Sciences Journal |volume=9 |issue=1 |date=April 1990 |pages=9–16 |pmid=2270265 }}
• Anna Petronella van Heerden (1887–1975) was the first Afrikaner woman to qualify as a medical doctor in South Africa.{{cite journal |last1=Viljoen |first1=Louise |title=Nationalism, gender and sexuality in the autobiographical writing of two Afrikaner women |journal=Social Dynamics |date=September 2008 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=186–202 |doi=10.1080/02533950802280063 |hdl=10019.1/12475 |s2cid=145461112 }} Her thesis, which she obtained a doctorate on in 1923, was the first medical thesis written in Afrikaans.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgzGqNhLY1UC&pg=PA206|title=Women Marching into the 21st Century: Wathint' Abafazi, Wathint' Imbokodo|publisher=HSRC Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0796919663|pages=206–|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509084853/https://books.google.com/books?id=YgzGqNhLY1UC&pg=PA206|archive-date=9 May 2016|url-status=live}}
• Matilde Hidalgo (1889–1974) was the first female doctor in Ecuador.
• Johanna Hellman (1889–1982) was a German physician who specialized in surgery, and the first woman to be a member of the German Society for Surgery.{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict00ogil_0|title=The biographical dictionary of women in science : pioneering lives from ancient times to the mid-20th century|date=2000|publisher=Routledge|editor=Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey|editor2=Harvey, Joy Dorothy|editor-link=Marilyn Bailey Ogilvie|editor2-link=Joy Harvey|isbn=0415920388|location=New York|oclc=40776839}}
• Sun Chau Lee ({{Lang|zh|周理信}}, 1890–1979) was one of the first female Chinese doctors of Western medicine in China.{{cite web|date=21 September 2012|title=Munk School of Global Affairs | Event Information – Modern Chinese History as Witnessed by Its Contemporaries|url=http://munkschool.utoronto.ca/event/12646/print/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304024821/http://munkschool.utoronto.ca/event/12646/print/|archive-date=4 March 2016|access-date=2015-07-05|publisher=Munkschool.utoronto.ca}}
• Mabel Wolff (1890–1981) and her sister Gertrude L. Wolff developed the first midwifery training school in Sudan in 1930.{{cite journal |last1=Sharkey |first1=Heather J. |title=Two Sudanese Midwives |journal=Sudanic Africa |date=1998 |volume=9 |pages=19–38 |jstor=25653310 }}{{Cite book|last=Crichton-Harris|first=Ann|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8yKwCQAAQBAJ|title=Poison in Small Measure: Dr. Christopherson and the Cure for Bilharzia|date=2009|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9047428855|language=en}}{{cite journal |last1=Kendall |first1=E. M. |title=A short history of the training of midwives in the Sudan |journal=Sudan Notes and Records |date=June 1953 |volume=33 |issue=Pt. 1 |pages=42–53 |pmid=12261921 }} Mastura Khidir, one of the original students, was awarded a medal from King George V in 1945 for being the last surviving midwife from the first graduating class.{{Cite web|last=Elhadd|first=Tarik|date=August 2011|title=Omdurman Midwifery Training school|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271142787|website=Sudan Medical Journal}}
• Mary Hearn (1891–1969) was a gynaecologist and first woman fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Ireland.
• Concepción Palacios Herrera (1893–1981) was the first female physician in Nicaragua.{{cite web|url=http://www.enel.gob.ni/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=317:concepcion-palacios-herrera-1893-1981-primera-medica&catid=35:biografias-heroes-nacionales&Itemid=65 |title=Concepción Palacios Herrera (1893– 1981), primera médica |publisher=Enel.gob.ni |access-date=2015-07-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704171404/http://www.enel.gob.ni/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=317:concepcion-palacios-herrera-1893-1981-primera-medica&catid=35:biografias-heroes-nacionales&Itemid=65 |archive-date=4 July 2015}}
• Evelyn Totenhofer (1894–1977) became the first (female) resident nurse for Pitcairn Islands in 1944.{{Cite web|title=Totenhofer, Evelyn Rachel (1894–1977)|url=https://encyclopedia.adventist.org/article?id=DIEF|access-date=2021-10-15|website=encyclopedia.adventist.org}}{{Cite book|last=Ford|first=Herbert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_qYb8TcQEH8C|title=Pitcairn Island as a Port of Call: A Record, 1790–2010, 2d ed.|date=2014|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0786488223|language=en}}
• Jane Cummins (1899–1982), who possessed a DMRE and DTM&H, was an officer in the WRAF.
• Irene Condachi (1899–1970), who earned her M.D. in 1927, was one of only two practicing female doctors in Malta during World War II.{{cite news |last1=Carabott |first1=Sarah |title=How women ran Malta during World War II |url=https://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20160620/local/how-women-ran-malta-during-world-war-ii.616109 |access-date=11 October 2018 |newspaper=The Times of Malta |date=20 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623064419/https://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20160620/local/how-women-ran-malta-during-world-war-ii.616109 |archive-date=23 June 2016 |location=Valletta, Malta}}
• Ah-hsin Tsai (1899–1990) was colonial Taiwan's first female physician.{{cite web|author=Closed today|title=Self Expression | The Archives of Institute of Taiwan History, Academia Sinica – Taiwan Archives Online|url=http://archives.ith.sinica.edu.tw/collections_con2_en.php?no=130|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707154213/http://archives.ith.sinica.edu.tw/collections_con2_en.php?no=130|archive-date=7 July 2015|access-date=2015-07-03|publisher=Archives.ith.sinica.edu.tw}}{{cite book|author=Doris T. Chang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jRtsdbiELx8C&pg=PA32|title=Women's Movements in Twentieth-Century Taiwan|date=2009|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0252090813|pages=32–|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429164609/https://books.google.com/books?id=jRtsdbiELx8C&pg=PA32|archive-date=29 April 2016|url-status=live}}

File:Vera Gedroitz.jpg with Vera Gedroitz, 1915]]

File:Tuvalu's first female doctors. Tuvalu 2008. Photo- AusAID (10731161574).jpg welcomed its first Tuvaluan female doctors in 2008 as a result of Australian aid.{{cite magazine|url=http://dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Documents/p23_focus_0601.pdf |title=Tuvalu's first female doctors return home|magazine=Focus|date=June 2001|page=21|volume=16|number=2|publisher=AusAID|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150815055915/http://dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Documents/p23_focus_0601.pdf|archive-date=2015-08-15|url-status=dead|access-date=10 October 2015}} – {{cite magazine|url= http://dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Pages/focus-archived-vol-16-no-2-june-2001.aspx|title=Summary|magazine=Focus|date=June 2001|volume=16|number=2|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150815035814/http://dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Pages/focus-archived-vol-16-no-2-june-2001.aspx|archive-date=15 August 2015}}]]

File:Какиш Рыскулова.jpg

• Ana Aslan (1897–1988) was a Romanian biologist and physician, specialist in gerontology, academician from 1974 and the director of the National Institute of Geriatrics and Gerontology (1958–1988).{{citation needed|date=August 2024}}
• Marguerite Champendal (1870–1928) was the first woman from Geneva to earn her M.D. at the University of Geneva in 1900.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}}
• Emily Siedeberg (1873–1968) became the first female doctor in New Zealand in 1896.{{Cite web|last=Taonga|first=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu|title=Siedeberg, Emily Hancock|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/3s16/siedeberg-emily-hancock|access-date=2021-10-20|website=teara.govt.nz|language=en}} Ellen Dougherty (1844–1919) became New Zealand's first registered nurse in 1902{{Cite web|title=World's first state-registered nurses|url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/page/worlds-first-state-registered-nurses|access-date=2021-10-20|website=nzhistory.govt.nz|language=en}} whereas Akenehi Hei (1878–1910) was the first Māori female to qualify as a nurse in 1908 in New Zealand.{{Cite web|last=Taonga|first=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu|title=Hei, Ākenehi|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/3h13/hei-akenehi|access-date=2021-10-20|website=teara.govt.nz|language=en}}
• Yu Meide (1874–1960) became the first Chinese Western medicine female doctor in Macau when she started a medical practice in 1906.{{Cite web|title=余美德,1874–1960|url=https://www.macaumemory.mo/entries_0179c1baa56946f7976f957e7e62abe4|access-date=2021-10-06|website=www.macaumemory.mo}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fwERAQAAMAAJ|title=澳门全纪录|date=1999|publisher=上海人民出版社|isbn=978-7208032521|language=zh}}
• Oból Voansnac and Sofie Lyberth were the first Western-educated Greenlandic women to train as midwives in Greenland sometime in the early 20th century.{{Cite web|title=Det vestgrønlandske jordemodervæsen 1820–1920|url=https://jordemoderforeningen.dk/nyhed/artikel/det-vestgronlandske-jordemodervasen-1820-1920/|access-date=2021-10-07|website=jordemoderforeningen.dk|language=da}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oVstAQAAIAAJ|title=Grønland|date=2006|publisher=Det Grønlandske Selskab|language=da}}
• Lilian Grandin (1876–1924) was the first female doctor in Jersey.{{Cite news|date=13 December 2019|title=Jersey's 'forgotten' women: Play targets gender imbalance|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-jersey-50719296|access-date=2021-10-06}} In 1907, Eleanor Diaper became the first nurse to work as a district nurse in Jersey.{{Cite web|title=- Our History|url=http://www.fnhc.org.je/about-us/our-history/|access-date=2021-10-14|website=www.fnhc.org.je}}
• Grace Pepe Malemo Haleck (1894–1987), Initia Taveuveu and Feiloa'iga Iosefa became the first qualified female nurses in American Samoa upon completing their training in 1916.{{Cite news|date=10 October 1972|title=Grace Pepe Haleck: One of first Samoan nurses|pages=85|work=Honolulu Star-Bulletin|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/18222597/grace-pepe-haleck-one-of-first-samoan/|access-date=2021-10-19}}
• Dorothy Pantin (1896–1985) was the first woman doctor and surgeon of the Isle of Man.{{Cite web|title=New Manx Worthies|url=https://www.culturevannin.im/publications/books/new-manx-worthies|access-date=2021-10-05|website=Culture Vannin}}
• Deaconess Mette Cathrine Thomsen was the first trained female nurse to work in the Faroe Islands from 1897 to 1915.{{Cite book|last=Jákupsstovu|first=Beinta í|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-W3DOoR6L_IC|title=Kunnskap og makt: færøysk helsepolitikk gjennom 150 år|date=2006|publisher=Faroe University Press|isbn=978-9991865027|language=no}}
• Eshba Dominika Fominichna (born 1897) became the first female doctor in Abkhazia after having returned from earning her medical degree in 1925 at the Baku State University.{{Cite web|title=ХLIХ ИТОГОВАЯ НАУЧНАЯ СЕССИЯ (3–5 МАЯ). ТЕЗИСЫ ДОКЛАДОВ (Сухум, 2005)|url=http://apsnyteka.org/1855-XLIX_itogovaja_nauchnaja_sessia_2005.html|access-date=2021-10-06|website=apsnyteka.org}}
• Safiye Ali (1894–1952) was the first Turkish woman to have obtained a medical degree.
• Damaye Soumah Cissé, mother of the renowned educator and politician Jeanne Martin Cissé (1926–2017), was one of the first midwives in Guinea.{{Citation|last=Barthélémy|first=Pascale|title=Introduction|date=9 December 2019|url=http://books.openedition.org/pur/102323|work=Africaines et diplômées à l'époque coloniale (1918–1957)|pages=13–20|series=Histoire|place=Rennes|publisher=Presses universitaires de Rennes|isbn=978-2753567504|access-date=2021-10-13}}
• Josephine Rera (1903–1987) was the first woman doctor in Borough Park and Bensonhurst, Brooklyn in New York City. She received the American Medical Association commendation for 50th Year in Practice. Rera graduated in 1926 with an M.D. diploma at the New York Homeopathic Medical College and Flower Hospital (now the New York Medical College in Valhalla, New York).{{Cite web|title=1935–1936 Medical Directory of New York |url=http://bklyn-genealogy-info.stevemorse.org/Directory/1935.Docs.html|access-date=2021-10-05|website=bklyn-genealogy-info.stevemorse.org}}
• Lai Po-cheun was the first female to study and graduate as a medical student at the Hong Kong University during the 1920s.{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Lai To |last2=Lee |first2=Hock Guan |title=Sun Yat-Sen, Nanyang and the 1911 Revolution |date=2011 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn=978-981-4345-46-0 }}{{page needed|date=October 2023}}{{cite book |last1=Lau |first1=Kit-ching Chan |last2=Cunich |first2=Peter |title=An Impossible Dream: Hong Kong University from Foundation to Re-establishment, 1910-1950 |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-593842-5 }}{{page needed|date=October 2023}}
• Fatma bint Saada Nassor Lamki became the first female doctor in Zanzibar sometime during the 1920s.{{cite book |last1=Loimeier |first1=Roman |title=Between Social Skills and Marketable Skills: The Politics of Islamic Education in 20th century Zanzibar |date=2009 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-474-2886-2 }}{{page needed|date=October 2023}}
• Kornelija Sertić (1897–1988) was the first woman to graduate from the Medical School in Zagreb (which occurred in 1923).{{cite web |url=http://library.foi.hr/dlib/index.php?page=izdvojeno_knjige |title=Digitalna knjižnica |publisher=Library.foi.hr |access-date=2015-07-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218090908/http://library.foi.hr/dlib/index.php?page=izdvojeno_knjige |archive-date=18 December 2014 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=http://www.ladylike.hr/vise/fama/medunarodni-dan-medicinskih-sestara-2044 |title=Međunarodni dan medicinskih sestara – Moć žena – Ladylike |publisher=Ladylike.hr |date=25 July 2013 |access-date=2015-07-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713205202/http://www.ladylike.hr/vise/fama/medunarodni-dan-medicinskih-sestara-2044 |archive-date=13 July 2015 |url-status=live }}
• Agnes Yewande Savage (1906–1964) was the first woman in West Africa to qualify in medicine{{Cite web|url=https://centreofafricanstudies.wordpress.com/2016/11/16/cas-students-to-lead-seminar-on-universitys-african-alumni-pt-iv-agnes-yewande-savage/|title=CAS Students to Lead Seminar on University's African Alumni, Pt. IV: Agnes Yewande Savage|date=16 November 2016|website=CAS from the Edge|language=en|access-date=2019-04-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805185137/https://centreofafricanstudies.wordpress.com/2016/11/16/cas-students-to-lead-seminar-on-universitys-african-alumni-pt-iv-agnes-yewande-savage/|archive-date=5 August 2017|url-status=live}}
• Joan Refshauge (1906–1979) was the first female doctor appointed to Papua New Guinea by the Australian government in 1947.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vbp2E1E2WB8C|title=Britishness Abroad: Transnational Movements and Imperial Cultures|date=2007|publisher=Academic Monographs|isbn=978-0522853926|language=en}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2opAAAAYAAJ|title=Journal of Women's History|date=1991|publisher=Indiana University Press|language=en}}
• Henriette Bùi Quang Chiêu (1906–2012) was the first female doctor in Vietnam.Nguyen Huong Nguyen Cuc. Saigon 300 years old. Dallas: English Song Huong, 1999. 248 pp{{cite web |url=http://madeinsaigon.vn/bai-viet/henriette-bui-quang-chieu-nu-bac-si-dau-tien-cua-viet-nam-1440992210541.html |title=Henriette Bùi Quang Chiêu – nữ bác sĩ đầu tiên của Việt Nam – Made in SaiGon |publisher=Madeinsaigon.vn |date=27 April 2012 |access-date=2015-09-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016052422/http://madeinsaigon.vn/bai-viet/henriette-bui-quang-chieu-nu-bac-si-dau-tien-cua-viet-nam-1440992210541.html |archive-date=16 October 2015 |url-status=live }}
• Sophie Redmond (1907–1955) became the first female doctor in Suriname after graduating from medical school in 1935.{{Cite web|date=6 June 2015|title=Sophie Redmond {{!}} Vrouwelijke pioniers|url=https://atria.nl/nieuws-publicaties/bijzondere-vrouwen/vrouwelijke-pioniers/sophie-redmond|access-date=2021-10-05|website=Atria|language=nl}}
• Alma Dea Morani (1907–2001) was the first woman admitted to the American Society of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgeons.{{cite web|title=Dr. Alma Dea Morani|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/changingthefaceofmedicine/physicians/biography_229.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306235630/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/changingthefaceofmedicine/physicians/biography_229.html|archive-date=6 March 2010|url-status=live|access-date=2016-09-20}}
• Yvonne Sylvain (1907–1989) was the first female doctor in Haiti.{{cite book|author=Laura Lynn Windsor|title=Women in Medicine: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QtZtkf35CF0C&pg=PA193|date=1 January 2002|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1576073926|pages=193–|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624205648/https://books.google.com/books?id=QtZtkf35CF0C&pg=PA193|archive-date=24 June 2016|url-status=live}} She was the first woman accepted into the medical school of the University of Haiti, and earned her medical degree there in 1940.
• Virginia Apgar (1909–1974), significant work in anesthesiology and teratology; founded field of neonatology; first woman granted full professorship at Columbia University College of Physicians & Surgeons.
• Pearl Dunlevy (1909–2002) was a physician and epidemiologist and the first female president of the Biological Society of the Royal College of Surgeons of Ireland.
• Isobel Addey Tate (1875–1917) was one of the first women to die while serving as a doctor overseas during World War I.
• Beatrice Emmeline Simmons, a missionary and nurse, was the first Caucasian (female) formally trained in a health care profession to settle as an educator in Kiribati in 1910.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Ry1AAAAIAAJ|title=Asian Perspectives|date=1983|publisher=University Press of Hawaii|language=en}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cy4xAQAAIAAJ|title=Pacific Studies|date=1984|publisher=Brigham Young University, Hawaii Campus|language=en}}{{Cite book|last=Garrett|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r0ktfzHcJPYC&pg=PA263|title=Footsteps in the Sea: Christianity in Oceania to World War II|date=1992|publisher=editorips@usp.ac.fj|isbn=978-9820200685|language=en}}
• Elizabeth Abimbola Awoliyi (1910–1971) was the first female physician in Nigeria.{{cite book|author=Yinka Vidal|title=How to Prevent the Spread of Ebola: Effective Strategies to Reduce Hospital Acquired Infections|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9k4cBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|date=2015|publisher=Lara Publications Inc|isbn=978-0964081888|pages=7–|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507115332/https://books.google.com/books?id=9k4cBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|archive-date=7 May 2016|url-status=live}}
• Badri Teymourtash (1911–1989) was the first Iranian female dentist, who received her higher education in Belgium.
• Andréa de Balmann (1911–2007) was the first female doctor in French Polynesia.{{Cite web|title=Légion d'honneur : Mareva Tourneux nommée chevalier|url=https://www.tahiti-infos.com/Legion-d-honneur-Mareva-Tourneux-nommee-chevalier_a173415.html|access-date=2021-10-05|website=TAHITI INFOS, les informations de Tahiti|language=fr}}
• Jane Elizabeth Hodgson (1915–2006) was a pioneering provider of reproductive healthcare for women and advocate for women's rights.
• Matilda J. Clerk (1916–1984) was the first Ghanaian woman to win a scholarship for university education abroad and the second Ghanaian woman to become a physician. She was also the first woman to obtain a postgraduate diploma in colonial Ghana and West Africa.{{cite book|author=Adell Patton|title=Physicians, Colonial Racism, and Diaspora in West Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/physicianscoloni0000patt|url-access=registration|year=1996|publisher=University Press of Florida|isbn=978-0813014326|pages=[https://archive.org/details/physicianscoloni0000patt/page/29 29]–|access-date=12 December 2015}}
• Irene Ighodaro (1916–1995) was the first Sierra Leonean woman to qualify as a medical doctor and the first West African-born female doctor in Britain{{Cite web |date=2024-10-03 |title=Guy’s Hospital: Mural honouring African health workers unveiled |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cwyvnv9ygl6o |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}
• Mary Malahele-Xakana (1917–1982) was the first black woman to register as a medical doctor in South Africa (in 1947).{{cite web |url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/people/mary-susan-malahele-xakana |title=Mary Susan Malahele-Xakana | South African History Online |publisher=Sahistory.org.za |access-date=2015-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402181444/http://www.sahistory.org.za/people/mary-susan-malahele-xakana |archive-date=2 April 2015 |url-status=live }}
• Susan Ofori-Atta (1917–1985) was the first woman to qualify as a physician in colonial Ghana.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8_ccM4XO_igC&pg=PA40|title=Murder and Politics in Colonial Ghana|author=Richard Rathbone|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0300055047|pages=40–|access-date=12 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160517010548/https://books.google.com/books?id=8_ccM4XO_igC&pg=PA40|archive-date=17 May 2016|url-status=live}}
• Fatima Al-Zayani (1918–1982) became the first qualified female nurse in Bahrain in 1941. In 1969, Sadeeqa Ali Al-Awadi became the first female doctor in Bahrain upon her graduating from medical school.{{Cite web|title=First for Bahrain: Women in medicine|url=http://www.citizensforbahrain.com/index.php/entry/first-for-bahrain-women-in-medicine|access-date=2016-05-01|website=www.citizensforbahrain.com|date=12 January 2016 }}
• Kakish Ryskulova (1918–2018) was the first woman from Kyrgyzstan to qualify as a surgeon.{{Cite book|last=Apysheva|first=Apal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=--szAQAAIAAJ|title=Doroga schastʹi︠a︡ zhenshchin Kirgizstana|date=1969|publisher=Kyrgyzstan|language=ru}}
• Salma Ismail (1918–2014) was the first Malay woman to qualify as a doctor.{{cite web|url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2014/07/21/salma-ismail-first-malay-woman-doctor-dies/|work=The Star|title=Salma Ismail, first Malay woman doctor, dies at 95|date=21 July 2014|access-date=10 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110172032/https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2014/07/21/salma-ismail-first-malay-woman-doctor-dies/|archive-date=10 November 2017|url-status=live}}
• Katherine Burdon, wife of the then-government administrator, was among the women formally registered as midwives for St. Kitts and Anguilla in 1920.{{Cite web|date=19 January 2018|title=Register of Midwives {{!}} National Archives St. Kitts & Nevis|url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.kn/988|access-date=2021-10-13|language=en-GB}}
• Ogotu Head (1920–2001) was the first female nursing graduate from Niue after having completed her training in Samoa in 1939.{{Cite web|last=Koloto|first='Ana Hau'alofa'ia|date=30 October 2003|title=National Survey of Pacific Nurses and Nursing Students |url=https://www.moh.govt.nz/notebook/nbbooks.nsf/0/7054DE8356103CDFCC2578340001A52B/$file/NATIONAL%20SURVEY%20OF%20PACIFIC%20NURSES%20AND%20NURSING%20STUDENTS.pdf|website=Samoan Nurses Association of New Zealand}}
• Ethna Gaffney (1920–2011) was the first female RCSI Professor of Chemistry.
• Estela Gavidia (b. unknown, circa 1920) was the first woman to graduate as a doctor in El Salvador, which occurred in 1945.{{cite web |author=tiempocultural |url=http://revistatiempo.fullblog.com.ar/al-dia-de-la-mujer-salvadorena.html |title=Al Día De La Mujer Salvadoreña |publisher=Revistatiempo.fullblog.com.ar |access-date=2015-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150708001203/http://revistatiempo.fullblog.com.ar/al-dia-de-la-mujer-salvadorena.html |archive-date=8 July 2015 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=http://www.observatoriorh.org/?q=aggregator/categories/18&page=1 |title=Noticias de los países | Observatorio Regional de Recursos Humanos en Salud |language=es |publisher=Observatoriorh.org |access-date=2015-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213005538/https://www.observatoriorh.org/?q=aggregator%2Fcategories%2F18&page=1 |archive-date=13 February 2019 |url-status=live }}
• Gabriela Valenzuela and Froilana Mereles were the first women to graduate with a medical degree in Paraguay in 1924. Valenzuela, however, is considered Paraguay's first practicing female doctor.{{Cite web|title=Principales acciones sanitarias llevadas a cabo en la postguerra (1879–1932)|url=https://www.mspbs.gov.py/dependencias/portal/adjunto/6ae317-Principalesaccionessanitariasllevadasacaboenlapostguerra18791932.pdf|website=Ministerio de Salud Pública (Paraguay)}}
• Augusta Jawara (1924–1981) was the first woman from The Gambia to qualify as a state certified midwife in 1953. She completed her training in England.{{Cite book|last=Perfect|first=David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9MknDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA241|title=Historical Dictionary of The Gambia|date=2016|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1442265264|language=en}}
• Kula Fiaola (1924–2003) became the first qualified (female) nurse in Tokelau in 1951.{{Cite journal|last=Huntsman|first=Judith|date=6 October 2014|title=Kula the Nurse and Nua the Teacher: Tokelau's Professional Pioneers|url=https://thepolynesiansociety.org/jps/index.php/JPS/article/view/123|journal=Journal of the Polynesian Society|volume=123|issue=2|pages=185–208|doi=10.15286/jps.123.2.185-207|doi-access=free}}
• Barbara Ball (1924–2011) was the first female doctor in Bermuda after having started her practice in 1949.{{Cite web|title=PLP statement on the death of Dr. Barbara Ball|url=http://bermudasun.bm/Content/NEWS/News/Article/PLP-statement-on-the-death-of-Dr-Barbara-Ball/24/270/51021|access-date=2021-09-24|website=bermudasun.bm|language=en-us}}
• Margery Clare McKinnon (1924–2014) became the first female doctor in Norfolk Island around 1955.{{Cite web|last=Taylor|first=Jessica|date=7 October 2016|title=Margery Clare McKinnon, MBBS 1950|url=https://medicine.unimelb.edu.au/engage/alumni/community/obituaries/margery-clare-mckinnon,-mbbs-1950|access-date=2021-10-05|website=Melbourne Medical School|language=en}}
• Jean Lenore Harney (1925–2020) was the first female doctor from St. Kitts, Nevis and Anguilla to study medicine at the United Kingdom's Liverpool University ({{circa|1940s}}){{Cite web|title=Historic St. Kitts – Dr. Lenore Harney|url=https://www.historicstkitts.kn/people/dr-lenore-harney-2|access-date=2021-10-05|website=www.historicstkitts.kn}}
• Kapelwa Sikota (1928–2006) became the first registered nurse in Zambia in 1952.{{Cite web |url=https://www.pressreader.com/zambia/the-post1401/20160320/281840052786896 |archive-date=24 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160924172928/https://www.pressreader.com/zambia/the-post1401/20160320/281840052786896 |title=Kapelwa Sikota – Zambia's |date=20 March 2016 |access-date=21 March 2023|author=Masuzyo Chakwe |publisher=The Post |via=PressReader}}{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cAm8AAAAIAAJ|title=The Salvation Army Year Book|first=Theodore H.|last=Kitching|date=12 October 1971|publisher=Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Company, Limited|via=Google Books}}
• Mary Grant (1928–2016) was the third Ghanaian woman to qualify in medicine{{Cite web|date=20 September 2016|title=Former PNDC secretary Dr. Mary Grant is dead {{!}} General News 19 September 2016|url=http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Former-member-of-Council-of-State-Dr-Mary-Grant-dead-at-88-470659|access-date=2021-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920131639/http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Former-member-of-Council-of-State-Dr-Mary-Grant-dead-at-88-470659|archive-date=20 September 2016}}
• Daphne Steele (1929–2004), a nurse from Guyana, became the first Black Matron in the National Health Service in 1964.{{cite web|title=BME Trailblazers in the NHS: Daphne Steele|url=http://www.nhsemployers.org/~/media/Employers/Publications/BME-trailblazers-in-the-NHS-Daphne-Steele.pdf|publisher=NHS Employers|accessdate=17 November 2017}}
• Josephine Nambooze (born 1930) started her practice as the first female doctor in Uganda in 1962.{{Cite web|last=Talemwa|first=Moses|title=Female professors tell their long story|url=https://observer.ug/education/85-education/7954-female-professors-tell-their-long-story|access-date=2021-10-13|website=The Observer |date=4 April 2010 |location= Uganda|language=en-gb}} Selina Rwashana was the first psychiatric nurse in Uganda after having completed her training in the United Kingdom during the 1950s.{{cite journal |last1=Vorhölter |first1=Julia |title=A pioneer of psy: The first Ugandan psychiatric nurse and her (different) tale of psychiatry in Uganda |journal=Transcultural Psychiatry |date=August 2021 |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=460–470 |doi=10.1177/1363461520901642 |pmid=32102620 |s2cid=211536599 }}
• Tu Youyou (born 1930), first Chinese Nobel laureate in physiology or medicine and the first female citizen of the People's Republic of China to receive a Nobel Prize in any category (2015).
• Lucie Lods and Jacqueline Exbroyat (1931–2013) were the first female doctors in New Caledonia. Lods started her practice in 1938, whereas Exbroyat did so during the 1960s.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RE1SAQAAIAAJ|title=Calédoniens: répertoire bio-bibliographique de la Nouvelle-Calédonie|date=1980|publisher=Musée de l'Homme.|language=fr}}
• Ayten Berkalp (born 1933) became the first female doctor in Northern Cyprus in 1963.{{Cite web|title=İlk kadın başhekim, ilk kadın doktor ve girişimciye ödül|url=https://www.kibrispostasi.com/c35-KIBRIS_HABERLERI/n74801-ilk-kadin-bashekim-ilk-kadin-doktor-ve-girisimciye-odul|access-date=2021-10-08|website=KIBRIS POSTASI|language=tr}}
• Lobsang Dolma Khangkar (1934–1989) was the first female doctor in the region of Tibet.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2tNi_fqd2wC|title=News-Tibet|date=1986|publisher=Office of Tibet|language=en}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cusDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA18|title=Yoga Journal|date=September 1985|publisher=Active Interest Media, Inc.|language=en}}
• Widad Kidanemariam (1935–1988) became the first female doctor in Ethiopia during the 1960s.{{Cite web|date=September 2012|title=The Manual of Ethiopian Medical History|url=https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/53864582/the-manual-of-ethiopian-medical-history-people-to-people|access-date=|website=People to People, Inc.|language=en}}
• Xhanfize (Frashëri) Basha returned to Albania to become the country's first female doctor upon completing her studies at the University of Philadelphia in 1937.{{Cite web|date=19 August 2021|title=19 gusht 1937, mjekja e parë shqiptare kthehet në atdhe|url=https://diasporashqiptare.al/2021/08/19/19-gusht-1937-mjekja-e-pare-shqiptare-kthehet-ne-atdhe/|access-date=2021-10-05|website=Diaspora Shqiptare|language=sq}}
• Edna Adan Ismail (born 1937) became Somaliland's first nurse midwife during the 1950s upon completing her training at the then-named Borough Polytechnic in the United Kingdom.{{Cite news|date=25 September 2015|title=Edna Adan, la sage-femme qui a donné naissance au Somaliland|language=fr|work=Le Monde.fr|url=https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2015/09/25/edna-adan-la-mere-du-somaliland_4771981_3212.html|access-date=2021-10-12}}
• Hajah Habibah Haji Mohd Hussain (born 1937) was among the first women in Brunei to work as a nurse after finishing nursing school in 1955.{{Cite journal|date=2012|title=Healthcare Pioneers: Matron Hajah Habibah Haji Mohd Hussain|url=http://www.bimjonline.com/PDF/Bimj%202012%20Volume%208,%20Issue%205/201285230.pdf|journal=Brunei Int Med J.|volume=8|pages=230}}
• Marguerite Issembe became the first midwife in Gabon in 1940.{{Cite web|date=18 June 2013|title=Gabon: " Azizet Fall Ndiaye – La plus célèbre sage-femme gabonaise "|url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/201306181205.html|website=Gabonews (Libreville)}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w1jWAAAAMAAJ|title=Jeune Afrique|date=1988|publisher=Les Editions J.A.|language=fr}}
• Ulai Otobed (born 1941) from Palau became the first female doctor in Micronesia.[https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED280923.pdf Glimpses into Pacific Lives: Some Outstanding Women] Northwest Regional Educational Lab In 2020, Lara Reklai became the first Palauan female to complete her medical studies in Cuba.{{Cite web|last=Carreon|first=Bernadette|date=7 July 2020|title=Palauan woman completes medical studies in Cuba|url=http://islandtimes.org/palauan-woman-completes-medical-studies-in-cuba/|access-date=2021-10-06|website=Island Times|language=en-US}}
• María Herminia Yelsi and Digna Maldonado de Candía became the first female professional nurses in Paraguay in 1941.{{Cite web|title=Historia|url=https://www.fenob.una.py/index.php/introduce/historia|access-date=2021-10-14|website=www.fenob.una.py|language=es-es}}
• Barbara Ross-Lee (born 1942) was the first African American female dean of a U.S. medical school (1993) (Ohio University College of Osteopathic Medicine).{{cite web|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/changingthefaceofmedicine/physicians/biography_279.html|title=Dr. Barbara Ross-Lee|publisher=National Library of Medicine|access-date=17 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310002605/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/changingthefaceofmedicine/physicians/biography_279.html|archive-date=10 March 2016|url-status=live}}
• Kek Galabru (born 1942) became the first female doctor in Cambodia upon obtaining her medical degree in France in 1968.{{Cite web|title=Meet Pung Chhiv Kek, Cambodia's First Female Doctor and Founder of Human Rights Group {{!}} Seasia.co|url=https://seasia.co/2017/05/23/meet-pung-chhiv-kek-cambodia-s-first-female-doctor-and-founder-of-human-rights-group|access-date=2021-10-21|website=Good News from Southeast Asia|language=en}}
• Choua Thao (born 1943), at the age of 14, was one of two Hmong girls recruited to receive nursing training around the time of the Secret War in Laos.{{Cite web|date=29 March 2011|title=Women's History Month: The Hmong Nurses|url=https://womenshistorynetwork.org/womens-history-month-the-hmong-nurses/|access-date=2021-10-21|website=Women's History Network|language=en-GB}}{{Cite web|date=30 April 2015|title=Choua Thao: Female Hmong Veteran Reflects on Secret War|url=https://theknowfresno.org/04/30/2015/choua-thao-female-hmong-veteran-reflects-on-secret-war/|access-date=2021-10-21|website=The kNOw Youth Media|language=en-US}}{{Cite book |last1=Vang |first1=Chia Youyee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1zB0DwAAQBAJ |title=Claiming Place: On the Agency of Hmong Women |last2=Nibbs |first2=Faith |last3=Vang |first3=Ma |date=2016 |publisher=U of Minnesota Press |isbn=978-1452950051 |language=en |author-link=Chia Youyee Vang}}
• File:Dalva Maria Carvalho Mendes.jpg Dalva Maria Carvalho Mendes (born 1956), Brazilian doctor and soldier; first woman to be made a rear admiral in the Brazilian Navy
• Nancy Dickey (born 1950) was the first female president of the American Medical Association.
• Rosa Mari Mandicó (born 1951) became the first qualified female nurse in Andorra in 1971.{{Cite web|last=SER|first=Cadena|date=22 February 2021|title=Rosa Mari Mandicó: "trobo a faltar més reivindicació en les dones joves"|url=https://cadenaser.com/emisora/2021/02/22/radio_ser_principat_d_andorra/1614001686_889834.html|access-date=2021-10-28|website=Cadena SER|language=ca}} In 1991, Concepció Álvarez Martínez, Isabel Navarro Gilabert, Dominica Ramond Punsola, Montserrat Rue Capella, Pilar Serrano Gascón, Purificación Valverde Hernández and Maria Líria Viñolas Blasco were the first nurse graduates in Andorra.{{Cite journal|last1=Rey|first1=Olga Travesset|last2=Panés|first2=Inés Vilà|date=2016|title=25 anys d'història de l'Escola d'Infermeria de la Universitat d'Andorra|url=https://raco.cat/index.php/Gimbernat/article/view/335285|journal=Gimbernat: Revista d'Història de la Medicina i de les Ciències de la Salut|volume=66|pages=267–278 }}
• Nancy C. Andrews (born 1958), first female dean of a top-ten medical school in the United States (2007), Duke University School of Medicine.
• Alganesh Haregot and Alganesh Adhanom were among the first women to graduate from a formal nursing school in Eritrea in 1959.{{Cite web|last=Kidane|first=Resoum|date=19 October 2007|title=Development of Education during the period of Federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia (1952–1962)|url=http://www.ehrea.org/edu1952.php|access-date=2021-10-18|website=www.ehrea|language=en}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kBsYE5Vlz-4C|title=Mutual Security Program|date=1980|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|language=en}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JXtLao8ZA7EC|title=Report of the Special Study Mission to Africa, November 27 – December 14, 1965 ...: Persuant to H. Res. 84, 89th Congress ...|date=1966|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|language=en}}
• Ramlati Ali (born 1961) became the first female doctor in Mayotte in 1996.{{Cite web|date=20 June 2017|title=La première femme médecin de Mayotte élue député|url=http://www.jim.fr/e-docs/la_premiere_femme_medecin_de_mayotte_elue_depute__166109/document_actu_pro.phtml|access-date=2021-09-25|website=JIM.fr}}
• Anniest Hamilton, the first female doctor in Turks and Caicos Islands, began her healthcare career sometime during the 1960s.{{Cite web|title=Radio Turks & Caicos – Women's Day Message 2018|url=https://www.rtc89fm.com/culturem/national-symbols/item/13059-women-s-day-message-2018.html|access-date=2021-10-15|website=www.rtc89fm.com|date=8 March 2018 |language=en-US}}
• Under the tutelage of matron Daw Dem, Pem Choden, Nim Dem, Choni Zangmo, Gyem, Namgay Dem and Tsendra Pem became the first nurses in Bhutan in 1962.{{Cite web|date=2021|title=Nursing a Nation: A tribute to Bhutanese nurses in appreciation of their services|url=https://apps.who.int/iris/rest/bitstreams/1341422/retrieve|website=World Health Organization: Bhutan}}
• Clara Raquel Epstein (born 1963), first Mexican-American woman U.S. trained and U.S. board certified in neurological surgery and youngest recipient of the prestigious Lifetime Achievement Award in Neurosurgery.{{cite web|url=http://www.ficsonline.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3546|title=Dr. Clara Raquel Epstein – International College of Surgeons, US Section|work=ficsonline.org|access-date=10 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919053321/http://www.ficsonline.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3546|archive-date=19 September 2015|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://epsteincenter.com/all-doctors-list/clara-raquel-epstein-md/|title=Clara Raquel Epstein MD|work=Epstein Neurosurgery Center|access-date=10 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150814100946/http://epsteincenter.com/all-doctors-list/clara-raquel-epstein-md/|archive-date=14 August 2015|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://neurocirujanas.com/|title=La Mujer En La Neurocirugía|work=neurocirujanas.com|access-date=10 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150801213014/http://neurocirujanas.com/|archive-date=1 August 2015|url-status=live}}
• Viopapa Annandale-Atherton is the first Samoan woman to become a doctor upon graduating from New Zealand's University of Otago in 1964. She later returned to Samoa in 1993 and started a medical practice.{{Cite web|last=Richardson|first=Amie|title=A woman of the Pacific|url=https://www.otago.ac.nz/otagomagazine/issue50/profiles/otago734685.html|access-date=2021-10-06|website=www.otago.ac.nz|date=15 April 2020 |language=en-nz}}{{Cite web|last=Fruean|first=Adel|title=Papalii Dr. Viopapa Atherton, 79|url=https://www.samoaobserver.ws/category/article/41849|access-date=2021-10-06|website=Samoa Observer}}
• Cora LeEthel Christian became the first female doctor in the United States Virgin Islands upon completing her medical education in the early 1970s.{{Cite web|date=Spring 2012|title=Cora LeEthel Christian, MD '71, MPH Physician, Advocate and Policy-Maker in Paradise|url=https://www.jefferson.edu/content/dam/oia/Alumni/SKMC/spspring12_ap_christian.pdf|website=Jefferson Medical College Alumni Bulletin}}
• Madeline Nyamwanza-Makonese (b. unknown, mid-20th century) was the first female doctor in Zimbabwe. She was the second African woman to become a doctor and the first African woman to graduate from the University of Rhodesia Medical School in 1970.
• Rehana Kausar (b. mid-20th century) became the first woman doctor from Azad Kashmir to graduate from Medical School in Pakistan in 1971.
• Elwyn Chomba became the first female doctor in Zambia in 1973.{{Cite web|title=Professor Elwyn Mwika Chomba {{!}} PDF|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/135960817/Professor-Elwyn-Mwika-Chomba|access-date=|website=Global Newborn Health Conference|language=en}}{{Cite web|title=WHO {{!}} PMNCH Board meets in New York|url=https://www.who.int/pmnch/media/press/2012/20120504_boardmeeting/en/|access-date=2021-10-27|website=WHO}} In 1999, Jacqueline Mulundika-Mulwanda became Zambia's first female surgeon.{{Cite web|title=Being Zambia's first female surgeon – Zambia Daily Mail|url=http://www.daily-mail.co.zm/being-zambias-first-female-surgeon/|access-date=2021-10-27|website=www.daily-mail.co.zm}}
• N'Guessan Affoué Christine from Ivory Coast is the first midwife advisor of the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). She retired from the profession in 2016 after having worked in the field since 1976.{{Cite web|date=13 March 2017|title=Les sages-femmes ivoiriennes célèbrent une des leurs|url=https://partenariatouaga.org/sages-femmes-ivoiriennes-celebrent-leurs/|access-date=2021-10-13|website=Partenariat de Ouagadougou|language=fr-FR}}
• Zoe Gardner becomes the first woman in 1976 to overwinter with the Australian Antarctic Program as a medical officer on sub-Antarctic Macquarie Island.{{Cite book|last=Riffenburgh|first=Beau|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fRJtB2MNdJMC|title=Encyclopedia of the Antarctic|date=2007|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0415970242|language=en}}
• Margaret Allen (born 1948) became the first female heart transplant surgeon in the United States after having performed a transplant performed in 1985{{cite web|title=Margaret Allen, M.D.|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/locallegends/Biographies/Allen_Margaret.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007133648/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/locallegends/Biographies/Allen_Margaret.html|archive-date=7 October 2015|access-date=10 October 2015|publisher=NLM}}
• Desiree Cox became the first (female) Rhodes Scholar from The Bahamas in 1987.{{Cite web|title=Dr. Desiree Cox appointed as Ross University's Director of Community Clinical Education and as Associate Professor of Behavioural Sciences|url=http://www.thebahamasweekly.com/publish/ross-university-grand-bahama-campus/Bahamian_Dr_Desiree_Cox_appointed_as_Ross_University_s_Director_of_Community_Clinical_Education_and_as_Associate_Professor_of_Behavioural_Sciences_printer.shtml|access-date=2021-10-15|website=www.thebahamasweekly.com}} She became a medical doctor upon earning her MBBS at the University of Oxford in 1992.
• Marlene Toma became the first Saint Martin woman to graduate in midwifery in 1990.{{Cite web|date=8 July 2020|title=Portrait : Marlene Toma première sage-femme diplômée saint-martinoise fête aujourd'hui ses 30 ans de service !|url=https://www.faxinfo.fr/portrait-marlene-toma-premiere-sage-femme-diplomee-saint-martinoise-fete-aujourdhui-ses-30-ans-de-service/|access-date=2021-10-13|website=Faxinfo|language=fr-FR}}
• Kinneh Sogur was the first home-trained female medical doctor to graduate from the University of the Gambia (UTG) in 2007.{{Cite web|last1=Dibba|first1=Lamin M.|last2=Manneh|first2=Ebrima Jaw|date=20 March 2007|title=Gambia: First UTG Medical Doctors Graduate|url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200703200943.html|website=The Daily Observer (Banjul)}} The medical school was the first one to be established in the country in 1999.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkMUAQAAIAAJ|title=New African|date=2007|publisher=IC Magazines Limited|language=en}}
• Margeret 'Molly' Brown (died 2008) was the first female doctor in the Cayman Islands{{Cite web|date=24 February 2015|title=Caymanian doctor follows family tradition – Cayman Islands Headline News|url=https://caymannewsservice.com/2015/02/caymanian-doctor-follows-family-tradition/|access-date=2021-10-01|website=Cayman News Service|language=en-GB}}{{Cite web|last=Levy|first=Jewel|date=24 February 2015|title=HSA surgeon returns to his Cayman roots|url=https://www.caymancompass.com/2015/02/24/hsa-surgeon-returns-to-his-cayman-roots/|access-date=2021-10-01|website=Cayman Compass|language=en-GB}}
• Esther Apuahe became the first female surgeon in Papua New Guinea in 2011.{{cite web|last1=Bradley|first1=Julia|title=Esther proud to work on cutting edge|url=https://www.pressreader.com/australia/townsville-bulletin/20190529/281779925604152|via=PressReader|work=Townsville Bulletin|access-date=18 July 2019|date=29 May 2019}} Naomi Kori Pomat (died 2021) was the first female doctor in Papua New Guinea's Western Province.{{Cite web|date=27 September 2021|title='A great loss': tributes pour in for pioneering PNG female doctor who died from Covid|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/27/a-great-loss-tributes-pour-in-for-pioneering-png-female-doctor-who-died-from-covid|access-date=2021-10-28|website=The Guardian|language=en}}
• ʻAmelia Afuhaʻamango Tuʻipulotu became the first Tongan (female) to receive a Nursing PhD in 2012.{{cite web|date=14 December 2012|title=Tonga's first ever PhD in Nursing graduates from Sydney|url=http://sydney.edu.au/news/84.html?newsstoryid=10757|publisher=University of Sydney|accessdate=16 June 2020}}{{cite web|date=|title=Australia Awards in Tonga|url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/tonga/development-assistance/Pages/australia-awards-in-tonga|publisher=Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade|accessdate=16 June 2020}}
• Neti Tamarua Herman became the first Cook Islands (female) nurse to earn a doctorate degree in 2015.{{Cite web|title=Cook Islands nurse gains PhD |url=https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Cook+Islands+nurse+gains+PhD.-a0407107041|access-date=2021-10-14|website=www.thefreelibrary.com}}
• Alice Niragire was the first Rwandan female to graduate with a master's degree in surgery in 2015 since the course was introduced in 2006.{{Cite web|date=16 September 2015|title=No dream is unattainable, says Rwanda's first female surgeon|url=https://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/192607|access-date=2021-10-27|website=The New Times {{!}} Rwanda|language=en}} In 2018, Claire Karekezi returned to Rwanda to become the country's first female neurosurgeon.{{Cite web|date=23 May 2018|title=Survivor Of Rwandan Genocide To Be Country's First Female Neurosurgeon|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/survivor-of-rwandan-genocide-to-be-countrys-first-female-neurosurgeon_n_5b0590b7e4b05f0fc84401a7|access-date=2021-10-27|website=HuffPost|language=en}}
• Natalie Joyce Brewley (died 2016) was the first female doctor in the British Virgin Islands.{{Cite web|title=Local Women Who Make It Happen To Be Honoured {{!}} Government of the Virgin Islands|url=https://bvi.gov.vg/media-centre/local-women-who-make-it-happen-be-honoured|access-date=2021-10-05|website=bvi.gov.vg}}{{Cite web|title=Local pioneer Dr Natalie J. Brewley-Frett has died {{!}} Virgin Islands News Online|url=https://www.virginislandsnewsonline.com/domains/virginislandsnewsonline.com/en/news/local-pioneer-dr-natalie-j-brewley-frett-has-died|access-date=2021-10-05|website=www.virginislandsnewsonline.com}} Stacy Rhymer is considered the first female doctor in the British Virgin Islands' Virgin Gorda.{{Cite web|url=http://www.vgyli.org/pdf/VGYLI%20Overview.pdf|title=Virgin Gorda Youth Leadership Initiative}}
• Jin Cody became the first (female) certified nurse-midwife in the Northern Mariana Islands in 2017.{{Cite web|date=20 November 2017|title=CHC gains first certified nurse midwife|url=https://www.saipantribune.com/index.php/chc-gains-first-certified-nurse-midwife/|access-date=2021-10-15|website=Saipan Tribune|language=en-US}}
• Elisa Gaspar becomes the first female to lead the Medical Association of Angola (ORMED) in 2019.{{Cite web|title=Das FAPLA à Ordem dos Médicos|url=https://www.novagazeta.co.ao/artigo/1372|access-date=2021-10-11|website=NovaGazeta|language=pt-pt}}
• George Tarer was the first midwife to graduate in Guadeloupe.{{Cite web|title=George Tarer, un siècle à aimer|url=https://la1ere.francetvinfo.fr/guadeloupe/george-tarer-un-siecle-a-aimer-1038001.html|access-date=2021-10-13|website=Guadeloupe la 1ère|date=19 June 2021 |language=fr-FR}}{{Cite web|date=5 March 2020|title=Documentaire : George Tarer, un siècle à aimer|url=https://www.lanouvellesam.com/2020/03/05/documentaire-george-tarer-un-siecle-a-aimer/|access-date=2021-10-13|website=LaNouvelleSam|language=fr-FR}}
• Olivia Torres Cruz is the first Chamorro female doctor in Guam.{{Cite web|last=Release|first=Press|date=28 March 2019|title=GRMC recognizes first CHamoru woman doctor|url=https://www.pncguam.com/grmc-recognizes-first-chamoru-woman-doctor/|access-date=2021-10-05|website=PNC News First|language=en-US}}
• Errolyn Tungu is the first female obstetrician-gynaecologist in Vanuatu.{{Cite web|title=Dr Errolyn Tungu – Advocate for the International Day of Women and Girls in Science|url=https://www.dailypost.vu/news/dr-errolyn-tungu-advocate-for-the-international-day-of-women-and-girls-in-science/article_a4436858-6bf9-11eb-8bff-bb9421a3bc2b.html|access-date=2021-10-06|website=Vanuatu Daily Post|date=11 February 2021 |language=en}}
• Rebecca Edwards became the first Falkland Islander woman to become a doctor after completing her medical training at the University College London.{{Cite web|title=Young Falkland Islanders' voice their views|url=https://en.mercopress.com/2013/03/05/young-falkland-islanders-voice-their-views|access-date=2021-10-05|website=MercoPress|language=en}}
• Sergelen Orgoi developed low-cost liver transplantation for developing countries.{{Citation |title=Laparoscopy Commentator: Sergelen Orgoi |date=12 December 2014 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/b17974-29 |work=Global Surgery and Anesthesia Manual |pages=221–236 |publisher=CRC Press |doi=10.1201/b17974-29 |isbn=978-0429156212 |access-date=2022-03-03}}{{Cite web |date=1 November 2017 |title=Citation for Prof. Orgoi Sergelen, MD, PhD, FACS |url=https://bulletin.facs.org/2017/11/citation-for-prof-orgoi-sergelen-md-phd-facs/ |access-date=2022-03-03 |website=The Bulletin |language=en-US}}
• Adama Saidou is the first female surgeon in Niger, as well as the first woman to lead a surgical department.{{Cite web |title=Ces femmes qui font bouger le Niger – Jeune Afrique |url=https://www.jeuneafrique.com/1213079/societe/ces-femmes-qui-font-bouger-le-niger/ |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=JeuneAfrique.com |language=fr-FR}}

{{col div|colwidth=27em}}

• American Medical Women's Association
• Female education
• History of medicine
• History of nursing
• List of British women physicians
• List of first female pharmacists by country
• List of first female physicians by country
• List of first women dentists by country
• Sexism in medicine
• Timeline of women's education
• Timeline of women in science
• Women in dentistry
• Phanostratê

{{colend}}

{{Reflist}}

• Abram, Ruth Abram., Send Us a Lady Physician: Women Doctors in America, 1835–1920
• {{cite journal |last1=Benton |first1=John F. |title=Trotula, Women's Problems, and the Professionalization of Medicine in the Middle Ages |journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine |date=1985 |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=30–53 |id={{ProQuest|1296295309}} |jstor=44452036 |pmid=3886049 }}
• Blake, Catriona. The Charge of the Parasols: Women's Entry to the Medical Profession
• Borst, Charlotte G. Catching Babies: Professionalization of Childbirth, 1870–1920 (1995), Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
• Elisabeth Brooke, Women Healers: Portraits of Herbalists, Physicians, and Midwives (biographical encyclopedia)
• Chenevert, Melodie. STAT: Special Techniques in Assertiveness Training for Women in the Health Profession
• Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses: A History of Women Healers
• Deirdre English and Barbara Ehrenreich, For Her Own Good (gendering of history of midwifery and professionalization of medicine)
• {{cite journal |last1=Fette |first1=Julie |title=Pride and Prejudice in the Professions: Women Doctors and Lawyers in Third Republic France |journal=Journal of Women's History |date=2007 |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=60–86 |doi=10.1353/jowh.2007.0055 |s2cid=144728859 |id={{Project MUSE|221409}} }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Grant |first1=Susan-Mary |title=On the Field of Mercy: Women Medical Volunteers from the Civil War to the First World War |journal=American Nineteenth Century History |date=June 2012 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=276–278 |doi=10.1080/14664658.2012.720092 |s2cid=144169798 }}
• Henderson, Metta Lou. American Women Pharmacists: Contributions to the Profession
• Junod, Suzanne White and Seaman, Barbara, eds. Voices of the Women's Health Movement, Volume OneSeven Stories Press. New York. 2012. pp 60–62.
• {{cite journal |last1=Leneman |first1=Leah |title=Medical women at war, 1914–1918 |journal=Medical History |date=April 1994 |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=160–177 |doi=10.1017/S0025727300059081 |doi-broken-date=12 November 2024 |pmid=8007751 |pmc=1036842 }}
• Luchetti, Cathy. Medicine Women: The Story of Early-American Women Doctors. New York: Crown,
• Regina Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (1985 first ed.; 2001)
• More, Ellen S. Restoring the Balance: Women Physicians and the Profession of Medicine, 1850–1995
• Perrone, Bobette H. et al. Medicine Women, Curanderas, and Women Doctors (1993); cross-cultural anthropological survey of traditional societies
• Pringle, Rosemary. Sex and Medicine: Gender, Power and Authority in the Medical Profession
• Schwirian, Patricia M. Professionalization of Nursing: Current Issues and Trends (1998), Philadelphia: Lippencott, {{ISBN|0781710456}}
• Walsh, Mary Roth. Doctors Wanted: No Women Need Apply: Sexual Barriers in the Medical Profession, 1835–1975 (1977)

• Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, A Midwife's Tale: The Life of Martha Ballard Based on Her Diary, 1785–1812 (1991)
• Rebecca Wojahn, Dr. Kate: Angel on Snowshoes (1956)

• [https://www.countway.harvard.edu/menuNavigation/chom/awm.html The Archives for Women in Medicine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103043744/https://www.countway.harvard.edu/menuNavigation/chom/awm.html |date=3 November 2014 }}, Countway Library, Harvard Medical School
• "Changing the Face of Medicine", 2003 Exhibition at the National Library of Medicine;[http://www.nih.gov/news/NIH-Record/11_11_2003/story05.htm "NLM Exhibit Honors Outstanding Women"], NIH Record, 11 November 2003. exhibition website at [https://www.nlm.nih.gov/changingthefaceofmedicine Changing the Face of Medicine] .
• [http://www.cbc.ca/news/health/women-are-changing-the-face-of-medicine-1.981567 Women are Changing the face of medicine]
• [http://archives.drexelmed.edu/womanmd/home.php Women Physicians: 1850s–1970s] – online exhibit at the Drexel University College of Medicine [http://archives.drexelmed.edu/ Archives and Special Collections on Women in Medicine and Homeopathy]
• [http://collections.countway.harvard.edu/onview/exhibits/show/stethoscope-sorority "The Stethoscope Sorority"], an online exhibit from the [https://www.countway.harvard.edu/menuNavigation/chom/awm.html Archives for Women in Medicine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103043744/https://www.countway.harvard.edu/menuNavigation/chom/awm.html |date=3 November 2014 }}
• [https://discoverarchives.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/women-in-medicine-and-biomedical-sciences-in-canada-oral-history-project-collection Women in Medicine Oral History Project Collection] held at the [https://utarms.library.utoronto.ca/ University of Toronto Archives and Records Management Services]
• [https://www.cedars-sinai.org/blog/celebrating-national-women-physicians-day.html What's It Like to Be a Woman in Medicine?] – online website at Cedar Sinai

{{Africa topic|Women in}}

{{Americas topic|Women in}}

{{Asia topic|Women in}}

{{Europe topic|Women in}}

{{Oceania topic|Women in}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Women scientists