Y-DNA haplogroups in populations of Sub-Saharan Africa

{{Short description|none}}

The proportions of various human Y-DNA haplogroups vary significantly from one ethnic or language group to another in Africa.

Data in the table below are based on genetic research. The second column designates linguistic affiliation of the sampled population (Semitic, Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Congo, etc.), the third column gives the total sample size studied, and the other columns indicate the percentage observed of particular haplogroups.

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class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:left; font-size: 100%"

! Population

Language groupnABE1aE1b1aE1b1bE2JR1bTReference
Alur

|| Nilo-Saharan

|| 9

|| 22

|| 0

|| 0

|| 11

|| 0

|| 67

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Wood 2005Wood, Elizabeth T et al 2005 [https://www.nature.com/articles/5201408 Contrasting patterns of Y chromosome and mtDNA variation in Africa: evidence for sex-biased demographic processes]. Eur J Hum Genet 13, 867–876 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201408

Amhara (Ethiopia)

|| Semitic

|| 48

|| 14.6

|| 2.1

|| 0

||

|| 45.8

|| 0

|| 33.3

|| 0

|| 4.2

|| Hassan 2008Hassan, Hisham Y. et al. 2008 {{Citation | year=2008 | title=Y-Chromosome Variation Among Sudanese: Restricted Gene Flow, Concordance With Language, Geography, and History | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5233268}}

Bamileke

|| Niger-Congo

|| 85

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 100

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Luis 2004J. R. Luis et al 2004, [http://www.cell.com/AJHG/abstract/S0002-9297(07)61870-9 The Levant versus the Horn of Africa: Evidence for Bidirectional Corridors of Human Migrations]

Bantus (Gabon)

|| Niger-Congo

|| 795

|| 0.5

|| 6.7

|| 0.2

|| 79.4

|| 0.1

|| 6.2

|| 0

|| 5.5

|| 0

|| Berniell 2009Berniell-Lee, Gemma et al 2009 [http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/26/7/1581.long Genetic and Demographic Implications of the Bantu Expansion: Insights from Human Paternal Lineages]

Bantus (Kenya)

|| Niger-Congo

|| 29

|| 13.8

|| 3.4

|| 0

|| 51.7

|| 13.7

|| 17.2

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Hurles 2005Hurles, Matthew E. et al 2005, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1199379/ The Dual Origin of the Malagasy in Island Southeast Asia and East Africa: Evidence from Maternal and Paternal Lineages]

Bantus (Tanzania)Tanzania: Turu, Mbugwe, Wairak, Sukuma.

|| Niger-Congo

|| 110

|| 2.7

|| 9.1

||

|| 48.2

|| 21.8

|| 16.4

|| 0

|| 0

|| 1.8

||

Bantus (South Africa)South Africa: Sotho–Tswana, Xhosa, Zulu.

|| Niger-Congo

|| 137

|| 5.1

|| 10.9

|| 0

|| 54.7

|| 4.4

|| 21.2

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Wood 2005

Bantus (South-Eastern)

|| Niger-Congo

|| 343

|| 5.0

|| 16.3

||

|| 66.2

|| 1.5

|| 10.2

||

|| 0

||

|| Naidoo 2010Naidoo, Thijessen et al 2010, [http://www.investigativegenetics.com/content/pdf/2041-2223-1-6.pdf Development of a single base extension method to resolve Y chromosome haplogroups in sub-Saharan African populations]

Beja

|| Cushitic

|| 42

|| 4.8

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 52.4

|| 0

|| 38.1

|| 4.8

|| 0

|| Hassan 2008

Benin (Fon)

|| Niger-Congo

|| 100

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 95

|| 0

|| 5

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Luis 2004

Berbers

|| Berber

|| 64

|| 3

|| 0

|| 2

|| 5

|| 80

|| 0

|| 6

|| 0

|| 0

|| Cruciani2002Cruciani, Fulvio et al 2002, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC447595/?tool=pubmed A Back Migration from Asia to Sub-Saharan Africa Is Supported by High-Resolution Analysis of Human Y-Chromosome Haplotypes]

Bissagos Islands

|| Niger–Congo

|| 21

||

||

||

|| 76.2

|| 14.3

||

||

||

||

|| Rosa 2007{{cite journal |author1=Rosa Alexandra |author2=Ornelas Carolina |author3=Jobling Mark A |author4=Brehm António |author5=Villems Richard | year = 2007| title = Y-chromosomal diversity in the population of Guinea-Bissau: a multiethnic perspective | journal = BMC Evolutionary Biology | volume = 7 | page = 124 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2148-7-124 | pmc = 1976131 | pmid=17662131 |doi-access=free }}

Burkina FasoBurkina Faso ethnic groups: Mossi, Rimaibe, Fulbe.

|| Niger–Congo

|| 106

|| 0

|| 0.9

|| 3.8

|| 81.1

|| 2.8

|| 11.3

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Cruciani2002

Burunge

|| Cushitic

|| 24

|| 0

|| 25

||

|| 4

|| 33

||

||

||

||

|| Tishkoff 2007

Cameroon (North)Adamawa Cameroon: Fali, Tali, mixed.

|| Niger-Congo

|| 72

|| 1.4

|| 12.5

|| 4.2

|| 54.2

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 27.8

|| 0

|| Cruciani2002

Cameroon (North)Chadic Cameroon: Ouldeme, Daba, mixed.

|| Chadic

|| 54

|| 1.8

|| 3.7

|| 0

|| 13.0

|| 3.7

|| 7.4

|| 0

|| 70.4

|| 0

|| Cruciani2002

Cameroon (South)Southern Cameroon: Bamileke, Ewondo, Bakaka.

|| Niger-Congo

|| 89

|| 0

|| 5.6

|| 0

|| 93.3

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 1.1

|| 0

|| Cruciani2002

R.D. Congo (East)RDC: Nande, Hema.

|| Niger-Congo

|| 36

|| 2.8

|| 0

|| 0

|| 63.9

|| 13.9

|| 19.4

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Wood 2005

Copts (Sudan)

|| Semitic

|| 33

|| 0

|| 15.2

|| 0

|| 0

|| 21.2

|| 0

|| 45.5

|| 15.2

||

|| Hassan 2008

Cross River (Nigeria)

|| Niger-Congo

|| 1113

|| 0

||

||

|| 87

||

||

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Veeramah2010

Datog

|| Nilo-Saharan

|| 35

|| 3

|| 3

||

|| 11

|| 54

||

||

||

||

|| Tishkoff 2007

Daza (Chad)

|| Nilo-Saharan

||

||

||

||

||

|| 11.1

||

|| 5.6

|| 33.3

|| 44.4

||

Shriner 2018Shriner, Daniel, and Charles N Rotimi. “Genetic history of Chad.” American journal of physical anthropology vol. 167,4 (2018): 804-812. doi:10.1002/ajpa.23711

Dinka

|| Nilo-Saharan

|| 26

|| 62

|| 23

|| 0

|| 0

|| 15

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Hassan 2008

Dogon

|| Dogon

|| 55

|| 1.8

|| 7.3

|| 45.5

|| 43.6

|| 0

|| 1.8

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Wood 2005

Ethiopians

|| Semitic

|| 242

|| 17.8

|| 0.8

|| 0

||

|| 48.8

|| 0.4

|| 26.9

|| 0

|| 3.7

|| Moran 2004Moran CN et al 2004, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15503146?dopt=Abstract&holding=npg Y chromosome haplogroups of elite Ethiopian endurance runners.]

Ethiopian Jews

|| Semitic

|| 22

|| 41

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 50

|| 0

|| 5

|| 0

|| 5

|| Cruciani2002

Fulbe (Burkina Faso & Cameroon)

|| Niger-Congo

|| 37

|| 5.4

|| 0

|| 29.7

|| 48.6

||

|| 0

|| 0

||

|| 8.1

|| Cruciani2002

Fulbe (Guinea-Bissau)

|| Niger-Congo

|| 59

||

||

||

|| 13.6

||

||

||

|| 1.7

||

|| Rosa 2007

Fulbe (Sudan)

|| Niger-Congo

|| 26

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 34.6

|| 0

|| 0

|| 53.8

|| 0

|| Hassan 2008

Fulbe (Niger)

|| Niger-Congo

|| 7

||

||

||

||

||

||

||

|| 14.3

||

|| Cruciani2010Cruciani, Fulvio et al. “Human Y chromosome haplogroup R-V88: a paternal genetic record of early mid Holocene trans-Saharan connections and the spread of Chadic languages.” European journal of human genetics : EJHG vol. 18,7 (2010): 800-7. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2009.231

Fur

|| Nilo-Saharan

|| 32

|| 31.3

|| 3.1

|| 0

|| 0

|| 59.4

|| 0

|| 6.3

|| 0

|| 0

|| Hassan 2008

GhanaGhana: Ewe, Ga, Fante.

|| Niger-Congo

|| 91

|| 0

|| 0

|| 2.2

|| 92.3

|| 1.1

|| 0

|| 0

|| 1.1

|| 0

|| Wood 2005

Guinea-Bissau

|| Niger-Congo

|| 282

|| 3.2

|| 0.4

|| 15.6

|| 72.0

|| 6.0

|| 0.7

|| 0

|| 0.7

|| 0

|| Rosa 2007

Hadza

|| Hadza (Isolate)

|| 80

|| 0

|| 57.5

||

|| 26.2

|| 15.0

||

||

||

||

|| Tishkoff 2007Tishkoff, Sarah A. et al 2007 [http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/10/2180.full History of Click-Speaking Populations of Africa Inferred from mtDNA and Y Chromosome Genetic Variation]

Hausa (Sudan)

|| Chadic

|| 32

|| 12.5

|| 15.6

|| 0

|| 12.5

|| 3.1

|| 0

|| 0

|| 40.6

|| 0

|| Hassan 2008

Hausa (Nigeria)

|Chadic

|81

|9

|5

|6

|43

|

|

|

|32

|

|Nguidi 2024{{Cite journal |last1=Nguidi |first1=Masinda |last2=Gomes |first2=Verónica |last3=Vullo |first3=Carlos |last4=Rodrigues |first4=Pedro |last5=Rotondo |first5=Martina |last6=Longaray |first6=Micaela |last7=Catelli |first7=Laura |last8=Martínez |first8=Beatriz |last9=Campos |first9=Afonso |last10=Carvalho |first10=Elizeu |last11=Orovboni |first11=Victoria O. |last12=Keshinro |first12=Samuel O. |last13=Simão |first13=Filipa |last14=Gusmão |first14=Leonor |date=2024-07-08 |title=Impact of patrilocality on contrasting patterns of paternal and maternal heritage in Central-West Africa |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=14 |pages=15653 |doi=10.1038/s41598-024-65428-z |issn=2045-2322 |pmid=38977763|pmc=11231350 }}

Hema

|| Niger-Congo

|| 18

|| 6

|| 0

|| 2.2

|| 28

|| 28

|| 39

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Wood 2005

Herero

|| Niger-Congo

|| 24

||

||

|| 4.2

|| 70.8

||

||

||

|| 12.5

||

|| I = 4.2%; R1a = 4.2%. (Wood 2005)

Hutu (Rwanda)

|| Niger-Congo

|| 69

|| 0

|| 4

|| 0

|| 83

|| 3

|| 8

|| 0

|| 1

|| 0

|| Luis 2004

IgboCalculated by averaging the haplogroup frequencies of the IG-C (Calabar), IG-E (Enugu) and IG-N (Nenwe) Igbo samples (see [http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/10/92/table/T1 Table 1]) in [http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/10/92/table/T4 Table 4].

|| Niger-Congo

|| 209

|| A3b2=0

||

||

|| 89.3

||

||

|| 0

||

|| 0

|| Veeramah 2010{{cite journal|title=Little genetic differentiation as assessed by uniparental markers in the presence of substantial language variation in peoples of the Cross River region of Nigeria|journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|year=2010|first=Krishna R|last=Veeramah|volume=10|pages=92|pmid=20356404|pmc=2867817|doi=10.1186/1471-2148-10-92|display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }} & [http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/supplementary/1471-2148-10-92-s1.pdf Supplementary material]

Iraqw

|| Cushitic

|| 9

|| 0

|| 22

|| 0

|| 11

|| 56

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Wood 2005

Kanembu

|| Nilo-Saharan

||

|| 0

|| 50

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 50

|| 0

|| Shriner 2018

KhoisanKhoisan: !Kung/Sekele, Tsumkwe San, Dama, Nama.

|| Khoisan

|| 90

|| 47.7

|| 14.4

|| 0

|| 24.4

|| 6.7

|| 2.2

|| 1.1

|| 0

|| 0

|| Wood 2005

Khoisan

|| Khoisan

|| 183

|| 44.3

|| 11.5

|| 0

|| 23.0

|| 16.4

|| 1.6

|| 0

|| 1.6

|| 0

|| Naidoo 2010

Khoisan (South Africa)Khoisan from South Africa: Khwe, !Kung, and mixed.

|| Khoisan

|| 129

|| 33.3

|| 12.4

|| 0

|| 35.7

|| 14.7

|| 3.9

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Tishkoff 2007

Kikuyu & Kamba

|| Niger-Congo

|| 42

|| 2

|| 2

|| 0

|| 73

|| 19

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Wood 2005{{Dead link|date=March 2020}}

ǃKung

|| Khoisan

|| 64

|| 36

|| 8

|| 0

|| 39

|| 11

|| 6

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Cruciani2002

Luo

|| Nilo-Saharan

|| 9

|| 11

|| 22

|| 0

|| 66

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Wood 2005

Maasai

|| Nilo-Saharan

|| 26

|| 27

|| 8

|| 0

|| 16

|| 50

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Wood 2005

Malagasy

|| Austronesian

|| 35

|| 0

|| 8.6

|| 0

|| 34.3

|| 0

|| 8.6

|| 5.7

||

|| 0

|| O = 34.3% (Hurles 2005)

Mandinka

|| Niger-Congo

|| 39

|| 5

|| 3

|| 3

|| 79

|| 8

|| 3

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Wood 2005

Mandinka (Guinea-Bissau)

|| Niger-Congo

|| 45

||

||

||

|| 86.7

|| 4.4

||

||

||

||

|| Rosa 2007

Masalit

|| Nilo-Saharan

|| 32

|| 18.8

|| 3.1

|| 0

|| 0

|| 71.9

|| 0

|| 6.3

|| 0

|| 0

|| Hassan 2008

Mossi

|| Niger-Congo

|| 49

|| 0

|| 2

||

|| 90

|| 2

||

||

||

||

|| Tishkoff 2007

Namibia (Nama)

|| Khoisan

|| 11

|| 64

|| 0

|| 0

|| 18

|| 9

|| 0

|| 0

||

|| 0

|| Wood 2005

Nande

|| Niger-Congo

|| 18

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 100

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Wood 2005

Niger–CongoNiger–Congo from: Gambia, Senegal, Mali, Ghana, Cameroon, CAR, DRC, Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Namibia, South Africa, and Zimbabwe.

|| Niger-Congo

|| 705

|| 2.7

|| 9.6

|| 4.5

|| 68.2

|| 3.9

|| 6.9

|| 0.1

|| 1.4

|| 0

|| Wood 2005

Nilo-SaharanNilo-Saharan: Alur, Mbuti (R.D.Congo), Massai, Luo (Kenya). Clade was exclusively carried by the Maasai amongst the Nilo-Saharan speakers - [http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v13/n7/extref/5201408x1.gif Appendix A]

||Nilo-Saharan

|| 91

|| 12.1

|| 35.2

|| 0

|| 29.7

|| 14.3

|| 8.8

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Wood 2005

Nilo-SaharanNilo-Saharan: 14 populations from R.D.Congo, Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania and Cameroon

|| Nilo-Saharan

|| 345

|| 23.2

|| 17.4

||

|| 9.9

|| 33.9

|| 2.6

|| 6.1

||

||

|| {{nowrap|Wood 2005, Hassan 2008,
Tishkoff 2007, Cruciani 2002}}

Nubians

|| Nilo-Saharan, Semitic

|| 39

|| 0

|| 7.7

|| 0

|| 0

|| 23.1

|| 0

|| 43.6

|| 10.3

|| 0

|| Hassan 2008

Nuba

|| Nilo-Saharan

|| 28

|| 46.4

|| 14.3

|| 0

|| 0

|| 39.3

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Hassan 2008

Nuer

|| Nilo-Saharan

|| 12

|| 33.3

|| 50

|| 0

|| 0

|| 16.7

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Hassan 2008

Oromo (Ethiopia)

|| Cushitic

|| 78

|| 10.3

|| 1.3

|| 0

||

|| 62.8

|| 1.3

|| 3.8

|| 0

|| 5.1

|| Hassan 2008

Ouldeme

|| Chadic

|| 13

||

||

||

||

||

||

||

|| 95.5

||

|| Cruciani2010

Pygmy (Mbuti)

|| Nilo-Saharan

|| 47

|| 2

|| 59

|| 0

|| 34

|| 0

|| 4

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Wood 2005

Pygmy (Western)Pygmies: Baka, Bakola.

|| Niger-Congo

|| 60

|| 5

|| 53.3

||

|| 28.3

|| 0

||

|| 0

|| 3.3

|| 0

|| Berniell 2009

São Tomé and Príncipe

|| Indo-European

|| 150

|| 1.3

|| 0

|| 0

|| 84.0

|| 0

||

|| 0

|| 8.7

|| 0

|| Gonçalves 2008Rita Gonçalves, Hélder Spínola & António Brehm (2010) [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1875176808001686 Y-chromosome lineages in São Tomé e Príncipe and Cabo Verde islands: Different input of European influence.] Forensic Science International: Genetics Supplement Series, Volume 1, Issue 1, August 2008, Pages 210-211

Sandawe

|| Sandawe (Isolate)

|| 68

|| 4

|| 14

||

|| 43

|| 34

||

||

||

||

|| Tishkoff 2007

Senegalese

|| Niger-Congo

|| 139

|| 0

|| 0

|| 5.0

|| 81.3

|| 6.5

|| 2.9

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Hassan 2008

Shilluk

|| Nilo-Saharan

|| 15

|| 53.3

|| 26.7

|| 0

|| 0

|| 20

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Hassan 2008

Shuwa Arabs

|| Semitic

|| 5

||

||

||

||

||

||

||

|| 40

||

|| Cruciani2010

Somalis

|| Cushitic

|| 201

|| 0.5

|| 1.0

|| 0

|| 1.5

|| 81.1

|| 0.5

|| 3.0

|| 0

|| 10.4

|| R1a=1, Sanchez2005Sánchez, Juan J et al 2005, [http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v13/n7/full/5201390a.html High frequencies of Y chromosome lineages characterized by E3b1, DYS19-11, DYS392-12 in Somali males]

South African Whites

|| Indo-European

|| 157

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0.6

|| 0.6

|| 9.6

|| 0

|| 3.8

|| 51.6

||

|| Others=33.8

Sudanese ArabsNorthern Sudan: Gaalien, Meseria, Arakien.

|| Semitic

|| 102

|| 2.9

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 16.7

|| 0

|| 47.1

|| 15.7

|| 0

|| Hassan 2008

South Sudan (Nilotic)South Sudan: Dinka, Shilluk, Nuer.

|| Nilo-Saharan

|| 81

|| 50.6

|| 24.7

|| 0

|| 0

|| 24.7

|| 0

|| 0

||

|| 0

|| Hassan 2008

West Sudan (Darfur)Western Sudan: Fur, Masalit, Borgu. Clade introduced from North Africa. High frequencies likely due to a population bottleneck.

|| Nilo-Saharan

|| 90

|| 27.8

|| 2.2

|| 0

|| 0

|| 62.2

|| 0

|| 4.4

||

|| 0

|| Hassan 2008

Tuareg (Burkina Faso)Tgor: Tuareg from Burkina Faso, around the village of Gorom-Gorom.

|| Berber

|| 38

||

||

|| 0

|| 16.7

|| 77.8

|| 0

||

|| 0

||

|| Pereira 2010{{Cite journal|last1=Pereira|first1=Luísa|last2=Černý|first2=Viktor|last3=Cerezo|first3=María|last4=Silva|first4=Nuno M|last5=Hájek|first5=Martin|last6=Vašíková|first6=Alžběta|last7=Kujanová|first7=Martina|last8=Brdička|first8=Radim|last9=Salas|first9=Antonio|date=August 2010|title=Linking the sub-Saharan and West Eurasian gene pools: maternal and paternal heritage of the Tuareg nomads from the African Sahel|journal=European Journal of Human Genetics|volume=18|issue=8|pages=915–923|doi=10.1038/ejhg.2010.21|issn=1018-4813|pmc=2987384|pmid=20234393}}

Tuareg (Mali)Tgos: Tuareg from Mali, near Gossi.

|| Berber

|| 21

||

||

|| 0

|| 9.1

|| 90.9

|| 0

||

|| 0

||

|| Pereira 2010

Tuareg (Niger)Ttan: Tuareg from Niger, in the vicinity of Tanut.

|| Berber

|| 31

||

||

|| 0

|| 44.4

|| 16.7

|| 0

||

|| 33.3

||

|| Pereira 2010

Tutsi (Rwanda)

|| Niger-Congo

|| 94

|| 0

|| 15

|| 0

|| 80

|| 1

|| 4

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Luis 2004

Wolof

|| Niger-Congo

|| 34

|| 0

|| 0

|| 12.0

|| 68.0

|| 12.0

|| 3.0

|| 0

|| 0

||

|| Wood 2005

Yoruba

|| Niger-Congo

|| 13

|| 0

|| 8

|| 0

|| 92

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Tishkoff 2007

Yoruba

|| Niger-Congo

|| 28

||

||

||

|| 93.1

||

||

||

||

||

||IHC 2005International HapMap Consortium, 2005, [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v437/n7063/pdf/nature04226.pdf "A haplotype map of the human genome", Nature, no. 437 (27 October), pp. 1299-1320.]

Yoruba

|| Niger-Congo

|| 21

||

||

||

||

||

||

||

|| 4.8

||

|| Cruciani 2010

Xhosa

|| Niger-Congo

|| 80

|| 5

|| 5

|| 0

|| 54

|| 5

|| 28

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Wood 2005

Zulu

|| Niger-Congo

|| 29

|| 3

|| 20

|| 0

|| 55

|| 0

|| 21

|| 0

|| 0

|| 0

|| Wood 2005

See also

Notes

References

{{reflist}}