Somali people

{{main|proto-Somali}}

Samaale, the legendary common ancestor of several Somali clans, is generally regarded as the source of the ethnonym Somali. One other theory is that the name is held to be derived from the words {{Lang|so|soo}} and {{Lang|so|maal}}, which together mean "go and milk". This interpretation differs depending on region, with northern Somalis implying it refers to camel's milk,Who Cares about Somalia: Hassan's Ordeal; Reflections on a Nation's Future, By Hassan Ali Jama, page 92 while southern Somalis use the transliteration {{Lang|so|sa' maal}} which refers to cow's milk.{{Cite book|last=Ahmed|first=Ali Jimale|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XpdAzRYruCwC&q=northern+southern+soo+maal+invention&pg=PA85|title=The Invention of Somalia|date=1995|publisher=The Red Sea Press|isbn=978-0-932415-99-8|language=en}} This is a reference to the ubiquitous pastoralism of the Somali people.I. M. Lewis, A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa, (Oxford University Press : 1963), p.12. Another plausible etymology proposes that the term Somali is derived from the Arabic word for wealthy ({{Lang|ar-Latn|zāwamāl}}), referring to Somali riches in livestock.{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=I. M.|author2=Said Samatar|title=A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa|publisher=LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster|year=1999|pages=11–13|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L2vXPfRsf04C| isbn = 978-3-8258-3084-7}}{{Cite book|last=Suleiman|first=Anita|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kREOAQAAMAAJ&q=Somali+studies+zu+maal|title=Somali studies: early history|date=1991|publisher=HAAN Associates|isbn=9781874209157|language=en}} Alternatively, the ethnonym is believed to have been derived from the Automoli (Asmach), a group of warriors from ancient Egypt described by Herodotus. Asmach is thought to have been their Egyptian name, with Automoli being a Greek derivative of the Hebrew word {{Lang|he-Latn|S’mali}} (meaning 'on the left hand side').{{cite book|title=Journal of the East Africa and Uganda Natural History Society, Issues 24–30|date=1926|publisher=The Society|page=103|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vwccAAAAMAAJ|access-date=17 April 2018}} However, historian Mohamed A. Rirash maintains that the most accurate etymology of the ethnonym derives from the compound term {{Lang|so|soofmaal}}—with {{Lang|so|soof}} meaning 'to herd' and {{Lang|so|maal}} referring to 'livestock'—initially serving as an occupational label for Somali pastoralists before evolving into the collective name for all ethnic Somalis.Rirash, Mohamed Abdillahi (1988). "Effects of Sixteenth Century Upheavals on the History of the Horn" (PDF). Proceedings of the Third International Congress of Somali Studies: 253.

A Tang Chinese document from the 9th century CE referred to the northern Somalia coast—which was then part of a broader region in Northeast Africa known as Barbaria, in reference to the area's Barbar (Cushitic) inhabitantsDavid D. Laitin, Said S. Samatar, Somalia: Nation in Search of a State, (Westview Press: 1987), p. 5.—as Po-pa-li.Lee V. Cassanelli, The shaping of Somali society: reconstructing the history of a pastoral people, 1600–1900, (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1982), p.9.Nagendra Kr Singh, International encyclopaedia of Islamic dynasties, (Anmol Publications PVT. LTD., 2002), p. 524.

The first clear written reference of the sobriquet Somali dates back to the early 15th century CE during the reign of Ethiopian Emperor Yeshaq I who had one of his court officials compose a hymn celebrating a military victory over the Sultanate of Ifat.I.M. Lewis, A modern history of the Somali: nation and state in the Horn of Africa, 4, illustrated edition, (James Currey: 2002), p.25. Simur was also an ancient Harari alias for the Somali people.{{cite book|last1=Fage|first1=J.D|title=The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3|date=1975|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=154|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWjxR61xAe0C&q=simur+harari&pg=PA154|access-date=10 March 2017|isbn=9780521209816}}

Somalis overwhelmingly prefer the demonym Somali over the incorrect Somalian since the former is an endonym, while the latter is an exonym with double suffixes.Michel, A. D. A. M. "Panorama of Socio-Religious Communities1." Indian Africa: Minorities of Indian-Pakistani Origin in Eastern Africa (2015): 69. The hypernym of the term Somali from a geopolitical sense is Horner and from an ethnic sense, it is Cushite.Woldu, Demelash. Exploring language uses and policy processes in Karat Town of Konso Woreda, Ethiopia. Diss. University of East Anglia, 2018.

{{History_of Somalia}}

{{History_of Somaliland}}

{{Main|History of Somalia|History of Somaliland|Maritime history of Somalia}}

File:Zeila ruins.jpeg in Zeila, a kingdom led in the 16th century by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi (Ahmed Gurey).]]

The origin of the Somali people which was previously theorized to have been from Southern Ethiopia since 1000 BC or from the Arabian Peninsula in the eleventh century has now been overturned by newer archeological and linguistic studies which puts the original homeland of the Somali people in Somaliland region, which concludes that the Somalis are the indigenous inhabitants of the Horn of Africa for the last 7000 years.{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X1dDDwAAQBAJ&q=Making+Sense+of+Somali+History:+Volume+1 | title=Making Sense of Somali History: Volume 1| page= 65|isbn=9781909112797| last1=Abdullahi| first1=Abdurahman| date=2017-09-18| publisher=Adonis and Abbey Publishers}}

Ancient rock paintings, which date back 5000 years (estimated), have been found in Somaliland region. These engravings depict early life in the territory. The most famous of these is the Laas Geel complex. It contains some of the earliest known rock art on the African continent and features many elaborate pastoralist sketches of animal and human figures. In other places, such as the Dhambalin region, a depiction of a man on a horse is postulated as being one of the earliest known examples of a mounted huntsman.{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/2011/04/26/grotto-galleries-show-early-somali-life.html|title=Grotto galleries show early Somali life|author=AFP|date=26 April 2011}}

Inscriptions have been found beneath many of the rock paintings, but archaeologists have so far been unable to decipher this form of ancient writing.Susan M. Hassig, Zawiah Abdul Latif, Somalia, (Marshall Cavendish: 2007), p.22 During the Stone Age, the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here with their respective industries and factories.pg 105 – A History of African archaeology By Peter Robertshaw

The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to 4th millennium BC.pg 40 – Early Holocene Mortuary Practices and Hunter-Gatherer Adaptations in Southern Somalia, by Steven A. Brandt World Archaeology © 1988 The stone implements from the Jalelo site in Somalia are said to be the most important link in evidence of the universality in palaeolithic times between the East and the West.Prehistoric Implements from Somalia by H. W. Seton-Karr pg 183

In antiquity, the ancestors of the Somali people were an important link in the Horn of Africa connecting the region's commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of frankincense, myrrh and spices, items which were considered valuable luxuries by the Ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, Mycenaeans and Babylonians.Phoenicia pg 199The Aromatherapy Book by Jeanne Rose and John Hulburd pg 94File:Queen_of_punt2.jpg]]According to most scholars, the ancient Land of Punt and its native inhabitants formed part of the ethnogenesis of the Somali people. The ancient Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Pharaonic Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure and Queen Hatshepsut. The pyramidal structures, temples and ancient houses of dressed stone littered around Somalia may date from this period.Man, God and Civilization pg 216

In classical antiquity, the Macrobians, who may have been ancestral to the Automoli or ancient Somalis, established a powerful tribal kingdom that ruled large parts of modern Somalia. They were reputed for their longevity and wealth, and were said to be the "tallest and handsomest of all men".[https://archive.org/stream/geographyofherod00whee/geographyofherod00whee_djvu.txt The Geography of Herodotus: Illustrated from Modern Researches and Discoveries] by James Talboys Wheeler, pg 1xvi, 315, 526 The Macrobians were warrior herders and seafarers. According to Herodotus' account, the Achaemenid emperor Cambyses II, upon his conquest of Egypt in 525 BCE, sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxury gifts for the Macrobian king to entice his submission. The Macrobian ruler, who was elected based on his stature and beauty, replied instead with a challenge for his Persian counterpart in the form of an unstrung bow: if the Persians could manage to draw it, they would have the right to invade his country; but until then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire.John Kitto, James Taylor, The popular cyclopædia of Biblical literature: condensed from the larger work, (Gould and Lincoln: 1856), p.302. The Macrobians were a regional power reputed for their advanced architecture and gold wealth, which was so plentiful that they shackled their prisoners in golden chains.

Several ancient city-states, such as Opone, Essina, Sarapion, Nikon, Malao, Damo and Mosylon near Cape Guardafui, which competed with the Sabaeans, Parthians and Axumites for the wealthy Indo-Greco-Roman trade, also flourished in Somalia.Oman in history By Peter Vine Page 324

File:Ifat.png's realm in the 14th century.]]

Islam was introduced to the area early on by the first Muslims of Mecca fleeing prosecution during the first Hejira with Masjid al-Qiblatayn being built before the Qiblah faced towards Mecca. The town of Zeila's two-mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is one of the oldest mosques in Africa.{{cite book |last=Briggs |first=Phillip |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC |title=Somaliland |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |year=2012 |isbn=978-1841623719 |page=7}}

Consequently the Somalis were some of the earliest non-Arabs that converted to Islam.{{cite book|title=The Politics of Dress in Somali Culture (African Expressive Cultures)|first=Heather|last=Akou|publisher=Indiana University Press; 1st Paperback Edition|year=2011}} The peaceful conversion of the Somali population by Somali Muslim scholars in the following centuries, the ancient city-states eventually transformed into Islamic Mogadishu, Berbera, Zeila, Barawa, Hafun and Merca, which were part of the Berberi civilization. The city of Mogadishu came to be known as the City of Islam,Society, security, sovereignty and the state in Somalia – Page 116 and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries.East Africa: Its Peoples and Resources – Page 18

The Sultanate of Ifat, led by the Walashma dynasty with its capital at Zeila, ruled over parts of what is now eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somaliland. The historian al-Umari records that Ifat was situated near the Red Sea coast, and states its size as 15 days travel by 20 days travel. Its army numbered 15,000 horsemen and 20,000 foot soldiers. Al-Umari also credits Ifat with seven "mother cities": Belqulzar, Kuljura, Shimi, Shewa, Adal, Jamme and Laboo.G.W.B. Huntingford, The Glorious Victories of Ameda Seyon, King of Ethiopia (Oxford: University Press, 1965), p. 20.

In the Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade including the Ajuran Sultanate, which excelled in hydraulic engineering and fortress building,Shaping of Somali society Lee Cassanelli pg.92 the Adal Sultanate, whose general Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmed Gurey) was the first commander to use cannon warfare on the continent during Adal's conquest of the Ethiopian Empire,Futuh Al Habash Shibab ad Din and the Sultanate of the Geledi, whose military dominance forced governors of the Omani empire north of the city of Lamu to pay tribute to the Somali Sultan Ahmed Yusuf.Sudan Notes and Records – Page 147 The Harla, an early group who inhabited parts of Somalia, Tchertcher and other areas in the Horn, also erected various tumuli.{{cite journal|last1=Joussaume|first1=Roger|title=Fouille d'un tumulus à Ganda Hassan Abdi dans les monts du Harar|journal=Annales d'Ethiopie|date=1976|volume=10|pages=25–39|doi=10.3406/ethio.1976.1157}} These masons are believed to have been ancestral to the Somalis ("proto-Somali").{{cite book|last=Braukämper|first=Ulrich|title=Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HGnyk8Pg9NgC&pg=PA18|year=2002|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-8258-5671-7}}File:Gondereshe2008.jpg of Gondershe was an important site in the medieval Ajuran Empire.]]Berbera was the most important port in the Horn of Africa between the 18th–19th centuries.{{cite book|last1=Prichard|first1=J. C.|title= Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind: Ethnography of the African races.|date=1837|publisher= Sherwood, Gilbert & Piper|page=160|language=en}} For centuries, Berbera had extensive trade relations with several historic ports in the Arabian Peninsula. Additionally, the Somali and Ethiopian interiors were very dependent on Berbera for trade, where most of the goods for export arrived from. During the 1833 trading season, the port town swelled to over 70,000 people, and upwards of 6,000 camels laden with goods arrived from the interior within a single day. Berbera was the main marketplace in the entire Somali seaboard for various goods procured from the interior, such as livestock, coffee, frankincense, myrrh, acacia gum, saffron, feathers, ghee, hide (skin), gold and ivory.{{cite book|title=The Colonial Magazine and Commercial-maritime Journal, Volume 2|date=1840|page=22|language=en}} Historically, the port of Berbera was controlled indigenously between the mercantile Reer Ahmed Nur and Reer Yunis Nuh sub-clans of the Habar Awal.{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=I. M.|title= A Modern History of Somalia: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa|date=1988|publisher=Westview Press|page=35|language=en}}

File:Berbera, 1884.png

According to a trade journal published in 1856, Berbera was described as "the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf.":

{{cquote|“The only seaports of importance on this coast are Feyla [Zeila] and Berbera; the former is an Arabian colony, dependent of Mocha, but Berbera is independent of any foreign power. It is, without having the name, the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf. From the beginning of November to the end of April, a large fair assembles in Berbera, and caravans of 6,000 camels at a time come from the interior loaded with coffee, (considered superior to Mocha in Bombay), gum, ivory, hides, skins, grain, cattle, and sour milk, the substitute of fermented drinks in these regions; also much cattle is brought there for the Aden market.”{{cite book|last1=Hunt|first1=Freeman|title=The Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review, Volume 34|date=1856|page=694|language=en}}}}

As a tributary of Mocha, which in turn was part of the Ottoman possessions in Western Arabia, the port of Zeila had seen several men placed as governors over the years. The Ottomans based in Yemen held nominal authority of Zeila when Sharmarke Ali Saleh, who was a successful and ambitious Somali merchant, purchased the rights of the town from the Ottoman governor of Mocha and Hodeida.{{Cite book|last=Omar|first=Mohamed Osman|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_RAOAQAAMAAJ&q=farmed+out+to|title=The scramble in the Horn of Africa: history of Somalia, 1827–1977|date=2001|publisher=Somali Publications|isbn=9781874209638|language=en}}

Allee Shurmalkee [Ali Sharmarke] has since my visit either seized or purchased this town, and hoisted independent colours upon its walls; but as I know little or nothing save the mere fact of its possession by that Soumaulee chief, and as this change occurred whilst I was in Abyssinia, I shall not say anything more upon the subject.{{Cite book |title=Travels in Southern Abyssinia: Through the Country of Adal to the Kingdom of Shoa|first1=Charles|last1=Johnston|author-link1=Charles Johnston (travel writer)|year=1844|publisher= Madden|page=33}}

However, the previous governor was not eager to relinquish his control of Zeila. Hence in 1841, Sharmarke chartered two dhows (ships) along with fifty Somali Matchlock men and two cannons to target Zeila and depose its Arab Governor, Syed Mohammed Al Barr. Sharmarke initially directed his cannons at the city walls which frightened Al Barr's followers and caused them to abandon their posts and succeeded Al Barr as the ruler of Zeila. Sharmarke's governorship had an instant effect on the city, as he maneuvered to monopolize as much of the regional trade as possible, with his sights set as far as Harar and the Ogaden.{{cite book|last1=Cornwallis Harris |first1=William|title=The Highlands of Æthiopia, Volume 1|date=1844|page=39|publisher=Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans|language=en}}{{Cite book|last=Rayne|first=Major.H|title=Sun, Sand and Somals – Leaves from the Note-Book of a District Commissioner|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ubd8CgAAQBAJ&q=sharmarki+chartered+two+dhows+and+returned+with+his+army+to+zeila&pg=PT10|date=1921|publisher=Read Books Ltd|page=75|isbn=9781447485438|language=en}}

In 1845, Sharmarke deployed a few matchlock men to wrest control of neighboring Berbera from that town's then feuding Somali local authorities.Abir, Mordechai (1968). Ethiopia: the era of the princes: the challenge of Islam and re-unification of the Christian Empire, 1769–1855. Praeger. p. 18.First Footsteps in East Africa, by Richard Burton, p. 16-p. 30Sun, Sand and Somals; leaves from the note-book of a district commissioner in British Somaliland, by Rayne Henry. pp. 15–16 Sharmarke's influence was not limited to the Somali coast as he had allies and influence in the interior of the Somali country, the Danakil coast and even further afield in Abyssinia. Among his allies were the Kings of Shewa. When there was tension between the Amir of Harar Abu Bakr II ibn `Abd al-Munan and Sharmarke, as a result of the Amir arresting one of his agents in Harar, Sharmarke persuaded the son of Sahle Selassie, ruler of Shewa, to imprison on his behalf about 300 citizens of Harar then resident in Shewa, for a length of two years.{{cite book|last1=Burton. F.|first1=Richard|title= First Footsteps in East Africa |date=1856|page=302|language=en}}

File:XaajiSuudicropped2.png on the left with his brother in-law Duale Idres. Aden, 1892.]]

In the late 19th century, after the Berlin Conference had ended, the Scramble for Africa reached the Horn of Africa. Increasing foreign influence in the region culminated in the creation of the first Darawiish, an armed resistance movement calling for the independence from the European powers.{{cite book |last1=Abdi |first1=Abdulqadir |title=Divine Madness |date=1993 |publisher=Zed Books |page=101 |quote=to the Dervish cause, such as the Ali Gheri, the Mullah's maternal kinsmen and his first converts. In fact, Swayne had instructions to fine the Ali Gheri 1000 camels for possible use in the upcoming campaign}}*{{cite book |last1=Bartram |first1=R |title=The annihilation of Colonel Plunkett's force |date=1903 |publisher=The Marion Star |url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/296280296/ |quote=By his marriage he extended his influence from Abyssinia, on the west, to the borders of Italian Somaliland, on the east. The Ali Gheri were his first followers.}}
*{{cite book |last1=Hamilton |first1=Angus |title=Field Force |publisher= Hutchinson & Co |date=1911 |page=50 |url=https://archive.org/stream/dli.ministry.06400/209.94.A.61_djvu.txt |quote=it appeared for the nonce as if he were content with the homage paid to his learnings and devotional sincerity by the Ogaden and Dolbahanta tribes. The Ali Gheri were his first followers}}
*{{cite book |last1=Leys |first1=Thomson |title=The British Sphere |publisher=Auckland Star |date=1903 |page=5 |url=https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/imageserver/newspapers/P29pZD1BUzE5MDMwNDI0LjEuNSZnZXRwZGY9dHJ1ZQ== |quote=Ali Gheri were his first followers, while these were presently joined by two sections of the Ogaden}} The Dervish had their leaders, Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, Haji Sudi and Sultan Nur Ahmed Aman, who sought a state in the Nugaal{{cite book |last1=Samatar |first1=Said |title=In the Shadow of Conquest |date=1992 |publisher=The Red Sea Press |page=68 |quote=this letter comes from ... the Dervishes to General Swayne ... They also informed us that you said you would leave the country, I mean the country of the Nugaal and Buuhoodle and its neighborhoods. This news made us extremely joyous.}} and began one of the longest African conflicts in modern history.Foreign Department-External-B, August 1899, N. 33-234, NAI, New Delhi, Inclosure 2 in No. 1. And inclosure 3 in No. 1.F.O.78/5031, Sayyid Mohamad To The Aidagalla, Enclosed Sadler To Salisbury. 69, 20 August 1899

The news of the incident that sparked the 21 year long Dervish rebellion, according to the consul-general James Hayes Sadler, was spread or as he claimed was concocted by Sultan Nur of the Habr Yunis. The incident in question was that of a group of Somali children who were converted to Christianity and adopted by the French Catholic Mission at Berbera in 1899. Whether Sultan Nur experienced the incident first hand or whether he was told of it is not clear but what is known is that he propagated the incident in June 1899, precipitating the religious rebellion of the Dervishes.F.O.78/5031, Sayyid Mohamad To The Aidagalla, Enclosed Sadler To Salisbury. 69, 20 August 1899.

The Dervish movement successfully stymied British forces four times and forced them to retreat to the coastal region.Encyclopedia of African history – Page 1406 As a result of its successes against the British, the Dervish movement received support from the Ottomans and Germans. The Ottoman government also named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation,I.M. Lewis, The modern history of Somalia: from nation to state, (Weidenfeld & Nicolson: 1965), p. 78 and the German government promised to officially recognise any territories the Dervishes were to acquire.Thomas P. Ofcansky, Historical dictionary of Ethiopia, (The Scarecrow Press, Inc.: 2004), p.405

After a quarter of a century of military successes against the British, the Dervishes were finally defeated by Britain in 1920 in part due to the successful deployment of the newly-formed Royal Air Force by the British government.{{Cite book |last=Irons |first=Roy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_8YVBAAAQBAJ |title=Churchill and the Mad Mullah of Somaliland: Betrayal and Redemption 1899–1921 |date=2013-11-04 |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=978-1-4738-3155-1 |language=en}}

File:Sultan Ali Yusuf Kenadid.jpg, 2nd Sultan of the Hobyo Sultanate.]]

Majeerteen Sultanate was founded in the early-1700s and rose to prominence in the following century, under the reign of the resourceful Boqor (King) Osman Mahamuud.Helen Chapin Metz, ed., Somalia: a country study, (The Division: 1993), p.10. His Kingdom controlled Bari Karkaar, Nugaaal, and also central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The Majeerteen Sultanate maintained a robust trading network, entered into treaties with foreign powers, and exerted strong centralized authority on the domestic front.Horn of Africa, Volume 15, Issues 1–4, (Horn of Africa Journal: 1997), p.130.Transformation towards a regulated economy, (WSP Transition Programme, Somali Programme: 2000) p.62.

The Majeerteen Sultanate was nearly dismantled in the late-1800s by a power struggle between Boqor Osman Mahamuud and his ambitious cousin, Yusuf Ali Kenadid who founded the Sultanate of Hobyo in 1878. Initially Kenadid wanted to seize control of the neighbouring Sultanate. However, he was unsuccessful in this endeavour, and was eventually forced into exile in Yemen.

African Studies Center, Northeast African studies, Volumes 11–12, (Michigan State University Press: 1989), p. 32. Both sultanates maintained written records of their activities, which still exist.{{cite book|title=Sub-Saharan Africa Report, Issues 57–67|year=1986|publisher=Foreign Broadcast Information Service|page=34|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8FlEAQAAIAAJ}}

File:Sultan Abdillahi Sultan Deria.jpg, a prominent Grand Sultan of British Somaliland of the delegation sent from British Somaliland Protectorate to the British government in London to appeal for the return of Haud Reserve Area, a territory ceded by the British to Ethiopia in 1954.]]

In late 1888, Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid entered into a treaty with the Italian government, making his Sultanate of Hobyo an Italian protectorate known as Italian Somalia. His rival Boqor Osman Mahamuud was to sign a similar agreement vis-a-vis his own Majeerteen Sultanate the following year. In signing the agreements, both rulers also hoped to exploit the rival objectives of the European imperial powers so as to more effectively assure the continued independence of their territories.{{cite book |first=Abdisalam M. |last=Issa-Salwe |author-link=Abdisalam Issa-Salwe|title=The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy|pages=34–35|publisher=Haan Associates |year=1996|isbn=978-1874209911|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GxMOAQAAMAAJ}} The Italians, for their part, were interested in the territories mainly because of its ports specifically Port of Bosaso which could grant them access to the strategically important Suez Canal and the Gulf of Aden.Fitzgerald, Nina J. Somalia (New York: Nova Science, 2002), p 33 The terms of each treaty specified that Italy was to steer clear of any interference in the Sultanates' respective administrations. In return for Italian arms and an annual subsidy, the Sultans conceded to a minimum of oversight and economic concessions.{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert L.|title=Italian Colonialism in Somalia|date=1966|publisher=University of Chicago|pages=416–417}} The Italians also agreed to dispatch a few ambassadors to promote both the Sultanates' and their own interests. The new protectorates were thereafter managed by Vincenzo Filonardi through a chartered company. An Anglo-Italian border protocol was later signed on 5 May 1894, followed by an agreement in 1906 between Cavalier Pestalozza and General Swaine acknowledging that Baran fell under the Majeerteen Sultanate's administration. With the gradual extension into northern Somalia of Italian colonial rule, both Kingdoms were eventually annexed in the early 20th century.The Majeerteen Sultanates However, unlike the southern territories, the northern sultanates were not subject to direct rule due to the earlier treaties they had signed with the Italians.{{cite book|last=Ismail|first=Ismail Ali|title=Governance: The Scourge and Hope of Somalia|date=2010|publisher=Trafford Publishing|isbn=978-1426983740|page=xxiii|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V4urpVdlScAC}}

By the end of 1927, following a two year military campaign against Somali rebels, Rome finally asserted full authority over the entirety of Italian Somaliland.Tripodi, Paolo (1999). The Colonial Legacy in Somalia. p=16 In 1936, the region was integrated into Italian East Africa as the Somalia Governorate.

In urban areas, "Somalia italiana" was one of the most developed on the continent in terms of standard of living.Gallo, Adriano. Memories from Somalia (http://www.hiiraan.com/op2/2011/july/memories_from_somalia_part_one.aspx) In the late 1930s the triangle area between Mogadishu, Merca and Villabruzzi was fully developed in agriculture (with a growing export of bananas to all western Europe), and was even experiencing an initial industrial development.

File:Saba Anglana.jpg, an italian Somalian singer very famous in Italy]]

The Italian Somalis, descendants of Italian colonists and somali girls were nearly 50,000 in 1940 and were concentrated in the capital Mogadishu.An Italian ambassador in the 1990s believed that the wide practice of concubinage during the colonial years had created a kind of "ethnic community" with nearly 50,000 Somalis who had at least one grandfather or a great-grandfather Italian-born

During the late 1930s the area around Mogadishu had a huge development (with new roads, railways, airport, etc..), becoming one of the best in all Africa. The British conquest of Italian Somalia in 1941 destroyed part of the infrastructure created, like the Mogadishu–Villabruzzi Railway.

Following World War II, Britain retained control of both British Somaliland and Italian Somalia as protectorates. In 1945, during the Potsdam Conference, the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somalia, but only under close supervision and on the condition — first proposed by the Somali Youth League (SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) and the Somali National League (SNL) — that Somalia achieve independence within ten years.Gates, Henry Louis, Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience, (Oxford University Press: 1999), p.1749 British Somalia remained a protectorate of Britain until 1960.Tripodi, Paolo. The Colonial Legacy in Somalia p. 68 New York, 1999.

To the extent that Italy held the territory by UN mandate, the trusteeship provisions gave the Somalis the opportunity to gain experience in political education and self-government. These were advantages that British Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the new Somali Republic state, did not have. Although in the 1950s British colonial officials attempted, through various administrative development efforts, to make up for past neglect, the protectorate stagnated. The disparity between the two territories in economic development and political experience would cause serious difficulties when it came time to integrate the two parts.Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Somalia: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1992. [http://countrystudies.us/somalia countrystudies.us]

Meanwhile, in 1948, under pressure from their World War II allies and to the dismay of the Somalis,Federal Research Division, Somalia: A Country Study, (Kessinger Publishing, LLC: 2004), p.38 the British ceded official control of the Haud (an important Somali grazing area that was brought under British protection via treaties with the Somalis in 1884 and 1886) and the Ogaden to Ethiopia, based on a treaty they signed in 1897 in which the British ceded Somali territory to the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik in exchange for his help against raids by Somali clans.David D. Laitin, Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience, (University Of Chicago Press: 1977), p.73 Britain included the proviso that the Somali nomads would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over them.Zolberg, Aristide R., et al., Escape from Violence: Conflict and the Refugee Crisis in the Developing World, (Oxford University Press: 1992), p.106 This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to purchase back the Somali lands it had turned over. The British government also granted administration of the almost exclusively Somali-inhabitedFrancis Vallat, First report on succession of states in respect of treaties: International Law Commission twenty-sixth session 6 May-26 July 1974, (United Nations: 1974), p.20 Northern Frontier District (NFD) to the Kenyan government despite an informal plebiscite demonstrating the overwhelming desire of the region's population to join the newly formed Somali Republic.David D. Laitin, Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience, (University Of Chicago Press: 1977), p.75

{{History_of Djibouti}}

File:Mahmoud Harbi.jpg to join a united Somali state.]]

A referendum was held in neighboring Djibouti (then known as French Somaliland) in 1958, on the eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. There was also widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls.Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African history, (CRC Press: 2005), p.360. The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.Barrington, Lowell, After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States, (University of Michigan Press: 2006), p.115 Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977, and Hassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as Djibouti's first president (1977–1991).

British Somaliland became independent on 26 June 1960 as the State of Somaliland, and the Trust Territory of Somalia (the former Italian Somalia) followed suit five days later.Encyclopædia Britannica, The New Encyclopædia Britannica, (Encyclopædia Britannica: 2002), p.835 On 1 July 1960, the two territories united to form the Somali Republic, albeit within boundaries drawn up by Italy and Britain.{{cite web |url=http://www.buluugleey.com/warkiidanbe/Governance.htm |title=The dawn of the Somali nation-state in 1960 |publisher=Buluugleey.com |access-date=25 February 2009 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116055005/http://www.buluugleey.com/warkiidanbe/Governance.htm |archive-date=16 January 2009 }}{{cite web|url=http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htwin/articles/20060809.aspx |title=The making of a Somalia state |publisher=Strategypage.com |date=9 August 2006 |access-date=25 February 2009}} A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa Mohamud and Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf as president of the Somali National Assembly, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as the president of the Somali Republic and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister (later to become president from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through a popular referendum, the people of Somalia ratified a new constitution, which was first drafted in 1960. The constitution was rejected by the people of Somaliland.Greystone Press Staff, The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East, (Greystone Press: 1967), p.338 In 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke.

On 15 October 1969, while paying a visit to the northern town of Las Anod, Somalia's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was shot dead by one of his own bodyguards. His assassination was quickly followed by a military coup d'état on 21 October 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which the Somali Army seized power without encountering armed opposition — essentially a bloodless takeover. The putsch was spearheaded by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre, who at the time commanded the army.Moshe Y. Sachs, Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations, Volume 2, (Worldmark Press: 1988), p.290.

Alongside Barre, the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination was led by Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police Jama Korshel. The SRC subsequently renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic,J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver, The Cambridge history of Africa, Volume 8, (Cambridge University Press: 1985), p.478.The Encyclopedia Americana: complete in thirty volumes. Skin to Sumac, Volume 25, (Grolier: 1995), p.214. dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution.Peter John de la Fosse Wiles, The New Communist Third World: an essay in political economy, (Taylor & Francis: 1982), p.279.

The revolutionary army established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the Arab world, eventually joining the Arab League (AL) in 1974.Benjamin Frankel, The Cold War, 1945–1991: Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World, (Gale Research: 1992), p.306. That same year, Barre also served as chairman of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the predecessor of the African Union (AU).Oihe Yang, Africa South of the Sahara 2001, 30th Ed., (Taylor and Francis: 2000), p.1025.

{{Main|Somali clans|}}

{{Somali clans}}

Somali clans ({{langx|so|Qabaa'ilka Soomaalida}}; {{langx|ar|القبائل الصومالية|translit=al-Qabā'il al-Sūmāliyya}}) are patrilineal kinship groups based on agnatic descent of the Somali people.{{Cite journal |last=Lewis |first=Ioan |date=2004 |title=Visible and Invisible Differences: The Somali Paradox |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/africa/article/abs/visible-and-invisible-differences-the-somali-paradox/5E8CC79BF1CED20D4FD4152201D6D86D |journal=Africa |language=en |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=489–515 |doi=10.3366/afr.2004.74.4.489 |issn=1750-0184|url-access=subscription }}{{sfn|Lewis|Samatar|1999|p=11}}{{cite book |author=Marian Aguiar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC |title=Encyclopedia of Africa |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-533770-9 |editor=Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates |page=395}} Tradition and folklore connects the origin of the Somali population by language and way of life, and societal organisations, by customs, and by a feeling of belonging to a broader family among individuals from the Arabian Peninsula.{{Cite book |last=Touval |first=Saadia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=24QGAQAAIAAJ |title=Somali Nationalism: International Politics and the Drive for Unity in the Horn of Africa |date=1963 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-59435-7 |pages=15 |language=en}}

The Somali people are mainly divided among five patrilineal clans, the Hawiye, Darod, Rahanweyn, Dir, and Isaaq.{{Cite web |title=Somali networks - structures of clan and society (GSDRC Helpdesk Research Report 949) |url=https://www.gov.uk/research-for-development-outputs/somali-networks-structures-of-clan-and-society-gsdrc-helpdesk-research-report-949 |access-date=2024-07-16 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}} The average person is able to trace his/her ancestry generations back. Somali clans in contemporary times have an established official structure in the country's political system, acknowledged by a mathematical formula for equitably distributing seats between the clans in the Federal Parliament of Somalia.{{Cite web |date=2023-05-22 |title=The role of 4.5 in democratization and governance in Somalia: Implications and considerations for the way forward (May 2023) - Somalia {{!}} ReliefWeb |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/role-45-democratization-and-governance-somalia-implications-and-considerations-way-forward-may-2023 |access-date=2024-07-16 |website=reliefweb.int |language=en}}{{Cite journal |last=Ahmed |first=Nasteha |date=2019-02-01 |title=Somalia's struggle to integrate traditional and modern governance: The 4.5 formula and 2012 provisional constitution |url=https://fount.aucegypt.edu/etds/511 |journal=Theses and Dissertations}}{{Cite book |last=Osman |first=Abdulahi A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScxEDwAAQBAJ&dq=info:rUWuOGUXLcQJ:scholar.google.com/&pg=PA58 |title=Somalia at the Crossroads: Challenges and Perspectives inReconstituting a Failed State |date=2007-07-31 |publisher=Adonis & Abbey Publishers Ltd |isbn=978-1-909112-87-2 |language=en}} Minor Somali clans include Asharaf.{{cite book|last=Abdullahi|first=Mohamed Diriye|title=Culture and Customs of Somalia|date=2001|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0313313332|pages=[https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00diri/page/8 8–10]|url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00diri/page/8}}

The clan represents the highest degree of familial affiliation. It holds territorial properties and is typically overseen by a Sultan. Clans possess ancestral lands, which are associated with the migratory patterns of the Somali people throughout their historical narrative. Each clan is administered by its designated leader and supported by its council of elders, with land being communally owned and overseen.{{Cite book |last=Ssero |first=Florence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xQj-zgEACAAJ |title=Global Review of Ethnopolitics |volume=2 |pages=25–40 |language=en}} Various Somali clans utilise distinct titles for their leaders, including Sultan,{{sfn|Lewis|Samatar|1999|pp=203–204}} Emir, Imam,Mohamed Haji Muktar, Historical Dictionary of Somalia, (Scarecrow Press: 2003), p.35 Ughaz,{{sfn|Lewis|Samatar|1999|pp=203–204}} and Garaad.{{cite book |url=https://en.sewasew.com/phrases/4612?withDetails=1 |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Gärad}} Clan leadership may be hereditary, or leaders may be elected by the council of elders composed of representatives from diverse clan lineages. The leaders of these clans fulfill both religious and political responsibilities.

Certain clans are traditionally classed as noble clans, referring to their pastoral lifestyle in contrast to the sedentary "Sab".{{sfn|Lewis|Samatar|1999|pp=11–14}} The noble clans are the Dir, Darod, Hawiye and Isaaq.{{cite journal |last=Pham |first=J. Peter |year=2011 |title=State Collapse, Insurgency, and Famine in the Horn of Africa: Legitimacy and the Ongoing Somali Crisis |journal=The Journal of the Middle East and Africa |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=153–187 |doi=10.1080/21520844.2011.617238 |s2cid=154845182}}{{cite web |date=January 2019 |title=Country Policy and Information Note Somalia: Majority clans and minority groups in south and central Somalia |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/773526/Somalia_-_Clans_-_CPIN_V3.0e.pdf |accessdate=6 October 2022 |publisher=Home Office |pages=13–14}} Out of these clans, Dir and Hawiye are regarded as descended from Samaale, the likely source of the ethnonym Somali (soomaali).{{sfn|Lewis|Samatar|1999|pp=11–13}}The Hawiye are descended from Samaale through his grandson Ahmed Bin Abdulrahman Bin Uthman.{{Cite book |last=محمود |first=زيلعي، عبد الرحمن شيخ |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OAIyzgEACAAJ |title=الصومال عروبتها وحضارتها الإسلامية |date=2018 |publisher=قنديل للطباعة والنشر والتوزيع، |isbn=978-9948-39-903-2 |language=ar}}{{Cite book |last=الشريف عيدروس النضيري العلوي |url=http://archive.org/details/BughiyatalAamalfeTarikhalSomal |title=بغية الآمال في تاريخ الصومال للشريف عيدروس |date=1954 |language=Arabic}} Darod and Isaaq have separate agnatic traditions of descent from Abdirahman bin Isma'il al-Jabarti and Ishaaq bin Ahmed respectively.I.M. Lewis, A Modern History of the Somali, fourth edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2002), p. 23 Sheikh Darod and Sheikh Ishaaq are asserted to have married women from the Dir clan, thus establishing matrilateral ties with the Samaale main stem.{{sfn|Lewis|Samatar|1999|pp=11–13}} "Sab" is a term used to refer to the agricultural clans such as the Rahanweyn, in contrast to "Samaale".Laitin, David D. & Samatar, Said S. (1987). Somalia: Nation in Search of a State, Colorado: Westview Press. {{ISBN|0-86531-555-8}}

The traditions of descent from noble elite forefathers who settled on the littoral are debated, although they are based on early Arab documents and folklore.{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=I. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NsoNDgAAQBAJ&q=Quraysh |title=Islam in Tropical Africa |date=2017-02-03 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-31139-5 |language=en}}{{cite book|author=Marian Aguiar|editor=Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates|title=Encyclopedia of Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC| year=2010| publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533770-9|page=395}}{{Cite journal |last=Hamilton |first=David |date=1967 |title=Imperialism Ancient and Modern: A Study of British Attitudes to the Claims to Sovereignty to the Northern Somali Coastline. |url=https://arcadia.sba.uniroma3.it/bitstream/2307/6139/1/15_Imperialism%20Ancient%20and%20Modern_a%20study%20of%20British%20attitudes%20to%20the%20claims%20to%20Sovereignty%20to%20the%20Northern%20Somali%20coastline.pdf |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |pages=11–12}} The tombs of the founders of Darod, Dir, Isaaq as well as the Abgaal subclan of Hawiye are all located in northern Somalia. Tradition holds this area as the ancestral homeland of the Somali people.

File:Fakr_Ud_Din_Mosque.jpg built by Fakr ad-Din, the first Sultan of the Mogadishu Sultanate]]

According to data from the Pew Research Center, the creed breakdown of Muslims in the Somali-majority Djibouti is as follows: 77% adhere to Sunnism, 8% are non-denominational Muslim, 2% are Shia and 13% declined to answer, and a further report inclusive of Somali Region stipulating 2% adherence to a minority sect (e.g. Ibadism, Quranism etc.).{{cite web|author=USA |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity |title=Religious Identity Among Muslims | Pew Research Center |publisher=Pewforum.org |date=2012-08-09 |access-date=2021-11-19}} In the neighboring country of Somalia, 99.8% of the population is Muslim according to the Pew Research Center.{{cite web |title=The Global Religious Landscape |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/files/2012/12/globalReligion-full.pdf |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=27 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806002044/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/12/globalReligion-full.pdf |archive-date=6 August 2013 |page=49}} The majority belong to the Sunni branch of Islam and the Shafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence.{{cite book |last1=Diriye Abdullahi |first1=Mohamed |title=Culture and customs of Somalia |date=2001 |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, Conn. |isbn=978-0-313-31333-2}} Sufism, the mystical sect of Islam, is also well established, with many local jama'a (zawiya) or congregations of the various tariiqa or Sufi orders.I. M. Lewis (1998) Saints and Somalis: Popular Islam in a Clan-based Society, The Red Sea Press, pp. 8–9, {{ISBN|1-56902-103-1}}. The constitution of Somalia likewise defines Islam as the state religion of the Federal Republic of Somalia, and Islamic sharia law as the basic source for national legislation. It also stipulates that no law that is inconsistent with the basic tenets of Shari'a can be enacted.{{cite web |title=The Federal Republic of Somalia Provisional Constitution |url=http://www.somaliweyn.com/pages/news/Aug_12/Somalia_Constitution_English_FOR_WEB.pdf |access-date=13 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003021031/http://somaliweyn.com/pages/news/Aug_12/Somalia_Constitution_English_FOR_WEB.pdf |archive-date=3 October 2012}}

There are some nobles who believe with great pride that they are of Arabian ancestry, and trace their stirp to Muhammad's lineage of Quraysh and those of his companions. Although they do not consider themselves culturally Arabs, except for the shared religion, their presumed noble Arabian origins genealogically unite them.{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=I. M.|title=A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa|date=1999|publisher=James Currey Publishers|isbn=978-0852552803|pages=11–12|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eK6SBJIckIsC&pg=PA11|quote=But it is their Arabian ancestry which traditionally is their greatest pride. Ultimately all Somali genealogies go back to Arabian origins, to the Prophet's lineage of Quraysh and those of his companions. (...) Nevertheless, it is their proud pretensions to noble Arabian origins which unite all the Somali clans and lineages into one vast genealogical system.}} The purpose behind claiming genealogical traditions of descent from the Arabian Peninsula is used to reinforce one's lineage and the various associated patriarchs with the spread of Islam.{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=I. M.|title=A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa|date=1999|publisher=James Currey Publishers|isbn=978-0852552803|page=11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eK6SBJIckIsC&pg=PA11|access-date=8 July 2016}}

{{Main|Somali language}}

File:Wadaad's-Writing.jpg had lost its ancient writing script,Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somalia, The writing of the Somali language, (Ministry of Information and National Guidance: 1974), p.5 Somali scholars over the following centuries developed a writing system known as Wadaad writing to transcribe the language.]]

The Somali language (Af-Soomaali) is a member of the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic family. Its nearest relatives are the Afar and Saho languages.I. M. Lewis, Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho, (Red Sea Press: 1998), p.11. Somali is the best documented of the Cushitic languages{{cite journal|title=A software tool for research in linguistics and lexicography: Application to Somali | doi=10.1007/BF01540131 | volume=2|issue=1 |journal=Computers and Translation|pages=21–36|date=January 1987 |last1=Maury |first1=Carole |last2=Lecarme |first2=Jacqueline | s2cid=6515240 }} with academic studies dating from the 19th century.

File:Shaxmednuradc1.ogg.]]

The exact number of speakers of Somali is unknown. One source estimates that there are 16.3 million speakers of Somali within Somalia and 25.8 million speakers globally.{{Cite web |title=Somalia {{!}} Ethnologue Free |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/SO/ |access-date=2024-03-05 |website=Ethnologue (Free All) |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Somali - Worldwide distribution |url=https://www.worlddata.info/languages/somali.php |access-date=2024-03-05 |website=Worlddata.info |language=en}} Recent estimates had approximately 24 million speakers of Somali, spread in Greater Somalia of which around 17 million resided in Somalia.{{cite web |date=2021 |title=Somali |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/som |access-date=June 28, 2021 |publisher=SIL International}} The Somali language is spoken by ethnic Somalis in Greater Somalia and the Somali diaspora.

Somali dialects are divided into three main groups: Northern, Benadiri, and Maay. Northern Somali (or Northern-Central Somali) forms the basis for Standard Somali. Benadiri (also known as Coastal Somali) is spoken on the Benadir coast from Adale to south of Merca, including Mogadishu, as well as in the immediate hinterland. The coastal dialects have additional phonemes which do not exist in Standard Somali. Maay is principally spoken by the Digil and Mirifle (Rahanweyn) clans in the southwestern areas of Somalia.Andrew Dalby, Dictionary of languages: the definitive reference to more than 400 languages, (Columbia University Press: 1998), p.571.

A number of writing systems have been used over the years for transcribing the Somali language. Of these, the Somali Latin alphabet is the most widely used, and has been the official writing script in Somalia since the government of former President of Somalia Mohamed Siad Barre formally introduced it in October 1972.Economist Intelligence Unit (Great Britain), Middle East annual review, (1975), p. 229 The script was developed by the Somali linguist Shire Jama Ahmed specifically for the Somali language. It uses all letters of the Latin alphabet, except p, v, and z. Besides the Latin script, other orthographies that have been used for centuries for writing Somali include the long-established Arabic script and Wadaad writing. Other writing systems developed in the twentieth century including the Osmanya, Borama and Kaddare scripts, which were invented by Osman Yusuf Kenadid, Abdurahman Sheikh Nuur and Hussein Sheikh Ahmed Kaddare respectively.David D. Laitin, Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience, (University Of Chicago Press: 1977), pp. 86–87

In addition to Somali, Arabic, which is also an Afro-Asiatic tongue, is an official national language in Somalia and Djibouti. Many Somalis speak it due to millennia-old ties with the Arab world, the far-reaching influence of the Arabic media, and religious education.Helena Dubnov, A grammatical sketch of Somali, (Kِppe: 2003), pp. 70–71. Somalia and Djibouti are also both members of the Arab League.[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/djibouti/ CIA World Factbook – Djibouti – People and Society]; *N.B. ~60% of 774,389 total pop.

{{Culture of Somalia}}

{{Main|Culture of Somalia}}

Somali culture is a diverse tradition, an amalgamation of traditions developed independently and through interaction with neighboring and far away civilizations, such as other parts of Northeast Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, India and Southeast AsiaMohamed Diriye Abdullahi, Culture and Customs of Somalia, (Greenwood Press: 2001), p.155. ,shaped by centuries of nomadic life, Islamic scholarship, and maritime trade. It encompasses a strong oral heritage, particularly in poetry, which plays a central role in social and political life. Islam is deeply integrated into Somali customs, law, and daily practice. Somali society is traditionally clan-based, with a strong emphasis on hospitality, kinship, and communal responsibility.{{Cite web |title=1.2. The role of clans in Somalia {{!}} European Union Agency for Asylum |url=https://euaa.europa.eu/country-guidance-somalia-2023/12-role-clans-somalia#:~:text=Somalis%20are%20roughly%20divided%20in,Somaliland%20and%20in%20the%20southernmost |access-date=2024-08-20 |website=euaa.europa.eu |language=en}} Artistic expression appears in various forms including music, dance, visual arts, and decorative crafts, often reflecting both Islamic and indigenous influences.

The cultural diffusion of Somali commercial enterprise can be detected in its cuisine, which contains Southeast Asian, Persian and Arab influences. Due to the Somali people's passionate love for and facility with poetry, Somalia has often been referred to by scholars as a "Nation of Poets" and a "Nation of Bards".Diriye, p. 75

{{Main|Music of Somalia|List of Somali musicians and musical groups}}File:Cabdilaahi qarshe.jpg]]Somali music is a traditional and contemporary art form that plays an important role in cultural expression and social communication. Most Somali songs are pentatonic. That is, they only use five pitches per octave in contrast to a heptatonic (seven note) scale, such as the major scale. At first listen, Somali music might be mistaken for the sounds of nearby regions such as Ethiopia, Sudan or Arabia, it is distinguished by its unique melodic structures and performance practices. Somali songs are usually the product of collaboration between lyricists (midho), songwriters (laxan) and singers (Codka or "voice").Diriye, pp. 170–171

Traditional music often features vocal performances accompanied by instruments such as the oud, kaban (a type of lute), and percussion.Abdullahi, pp.170-171 In pastoral and nomadic contexts, music functions as a medium for storytelling, oral history, and communal events. Religious music, particularly devotional chants, is also present within the broader musical tradition. In the mid-20th century, Somali music incorporated external influences and expanded through state-supported cultural initiatives and media broadcasts.{{cite news |date=18 August 2017 |title=Uncovering Somalia's forgotten music of the 1970s |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2017/07/uncovering-somalia-forgotten-music-1970s-170704123301195.html |accessdate=22 August 2017 |publisher=Al Jazeera}}

{{Main|Cinema of Somalia}}

File:Ali Said Hassan in an Event.png.]]Somali cinema developed out of the country's strong oral storytelling traditions, with the first feature-length films and film festivals appearing in the early 1960s, soon after Somalia gained independence. The establishment of the Somali Film Agency (SFA) in 1975 marked a key turning point, leading to a period of rapid growth in the national film sector. This era saw the emergence of influential figures such as Hassan Sheikh Mumin, a prominent playwright and composer whose play Shabeel Naagood (1965) became a cornerstone of Somali literature and theater. The work, later translated into English as Leopard Among the Women, explores themes such as gender roles, education, and societal change. Although the issues it describes were later to some degree redressed, the work remains a mainstay of Somali literature.{{cite journal |last=African Studies Center |first=University of California |year=1973 |title=African Arts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBUAAAAMAAJ |journal=African Arts |volume=7–8 |page=84 |access-date=29 June 2012}} Mumin composed both the play itself and the music used in it.{{cite book |last=R. J. Hayward |first=I. M. Lewis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SFfdmXY9X0UC&pg=PP18 |title=Voice and Power: The Culture of Language in North-East Africa : Essays in Honour of B.W. Andrzejewski |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1996 |isbn=0728602571 |pages=Appendix xv}} The piece is regularly featured in various school curricula, including Oxford University, which first published the English translation under its press house. In the 1970s and early 1980s, musical dramas known as riwaayado dominated the cinematic landscape, forming a bridge between live performance and film. Filmmakers such as Ali Said Hassan and Said Salah Ahmed contributed to the production of epic and historical films, including The Somali Darwish, a major work on the Dervish movement. Technological developments and expanding television access facilitated broader distribution of Somali films during this time. In the 1990s and 2000s, a new wave of more entertainment-oriented movies emerged. Referred to as Somaliwood, this upstart, youth-based cinematic movement has energized the Somali film industry and in the process introduced innovative storylines, marketing strategies and production techniques. The young directors Abdisalam Aato of Olol Films and Abdi Malik Isak are at the forefront of this quiet revolution.{{cite news |date=19 April 2007 |title=Somaliwood: Columbus Has Become A Haven for Somali Filmmaking |url=http://www.hiiraan.com/news2/2007/may/somaliwood_columbus_has_become_a_haven_for_somali_filmmaking.aspx |access-date=25 January 2008 |publisher=The Other Paper}}

{{Main|Somali art}}Somali art is rooted in a longstanding tradition of visual expression, encompassing both functional and decorative forms. Traditional Somali art includes pottery, jewelry, and wood carving, with men historically responsible for carving and women for textile production. In the medieval period, wealthy urban patrons often commissioned local artisans to decorate interiors with intricate wood and marble carvings, especially within homes, mihrabs and pillars of ancient Somali mosques which frequently featured elaborate geometric and floral motifs. Among nomadic communities, artistic woodwork was common in everyday objects such as spoons, combs, and bowls, as well as in more complex constructions like the portable aqal house. In recent decades, traditional carving techniques have been increasingly supplemented by workshop-based production using electrical machinery. {{cite book|last=Abdullahi|first=Mohamed Diriye|title=Culture and Customs of Somalia|date=2001|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0313313332|pages=[https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00diri/page/97 97]|url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00diri/page/97}}

Additionally, henna plays a prominent cultural role, particularly in festive and ceremonial contexts such as Eid and weddings. Somali women apply henna to their hands, feet, and arms, often in floral and geometric patterns similar to those seen in the Arabian Peninsula. Decorative use of kohl (kuul) around the eyes also forms part of this aesthetic tradition. Usage of the eye cosmetic in the Horn region is believed to date to the ancient Land of Punt.Studies in Ancient Technology, Volume III, (Brill Archive), p. 18.File:Musa Galal.png with modern clothing]]

Somali clothing reflects the nation's deep-rooted Islamic faith, nomadic heritage, and coastal trade influences. Traditional Somali attire is designed for modesty, comfort in a hot climate, and social or religious significance.

• Macawis, a sarong-like garment wrapped around the waist, often worn with a plain or embroidered shirt. It is the most common traditional attire for Somali men in daily life.{{cite book|last=Abdullahi|first=Mohamed Diriye|title=Culture and Customs of Somalia|date=2001|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0313313332|pages=[https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00diri/page/117 117–118]|url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00diri/page/117}}
• Khamiis (Thobe), A long, loose-fitting robe similar to the Arab thobe, typically white or light-colored, worn for prayer and formal events.Michigan State University. Northeast African Studies Committee, Northeast African Studies, Volume 8, (African Studies Center, Michigan State University: 2001), p.66.
• Jubbah, A ceremonial outer robe, similar to the Bisht, richly decorated with embroidery and tassels. Worn by religious figures, elders, and traditional leaders, it symbolizes authority and respect.
• Koofiyad, a round, embroidered cap , sometimes topped with a turban (imaama).

File:محمّد عبد اللّه حسن.jpg and a Emama(Turban)]]

• Dirac, a light, flowing dress made of chiffon or cotton, worn over an underskirt (gorgorad) and a blouse. It is often worn for special occasions, weddings, or religious festivals. It is a long, light, diaphanous voile dress made of silk, chiffon, taffeta or saree fabric. The dirac is usually sparkly and very colorful, the most popular styles being those with gilded borders or threads.
• Guntiino, a traditional garment wrapped around the body and tied at the shoulders, often worn by rural women. It is one of the oldest forms of Somali dress. The cloth is usually made out of alandi, which is a textile that is common in the Horn region and some parts of North Africa.
• File:Little Somali girl.jpegHijab and Shayla, a Somali women typically wear the hijab (headscarf), often paired with a long shawl (shayla) referred to as shaash or jilbab for added modesty. Traditional Arabian garb, such as the jilbab and abaya, is also commonly worn.
• Garbasaar, a large, colorful shawl used to wrap the upper body or head, often used for decoration or to shield from the sun.
• Jewelery, Somali women have a long tradition of wearing gold jewelry, particularly bangles. During weddings, the bride is frequently adorned in gold. Many Somali women by tradition also wear gold necklaces and anklets.

{{main|Sports in Somalia}}

File:ITA-SOM-AFIS 1958 MiNr0340 mt B002.jpg showcasing an athlete symbolizing athleticism and national pride]]

Sports play an important role in Somali society, with football being the most popular and widely followed sport. The main domestic competitions include the Somalia League and Somalia Cup, while the national team, known as the Ocean Stars, represents the country in international tournaments. The team is multi ethnic.{{cite book |last1=Minahan |first1=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfrWCQAAQBAJ |title=The Complete Guide to National Symbols and Emblems |date=2009 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0313344978 |page=909 |access-date=14 November 2016}} Basketball is also played in the country. The FIBA Africa Championship 1981 was hosted in Mogadishu from 15 to 23 December December 1981, during which the national basketball team received the bronze medal.{{cite web |title=1981 African Championship for Men |url=https://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/event/p/cid/AFMSM/sid/2399/_/1981_African_Championship_for_Men/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090907182902/http://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/event/p/cid/AFMSM/sid/2399/_/1981_African_Championship_for_Men/index.html |archive-date=7 September 2009 |publisher=FIBA}} The squad also takes part in the basketball event at the Pan Arab Games. Other team sports include badminton, baseball, table tennis, and volleyball.

In individual sports, Somali athletes have participated in a range of disciplines, including judo, boxing, athletics, weightlifting, swimming, rowing, fencing, and wrestling. In martial arts, Faisal Jeylani Aweys and Mohamed Deq Abdulle achieved notable success by winning silver and fourth place, respectively, at the 2013 Open World Taekwondo Challenge Cup. Mohamed Jama has earned international recognition by securing both world and European titles in K1 and Thai Boxing. {{cite news |date=10 February 2010 |title=Great Victory for Malta in K1 Kickboxing |url=http://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2010-02-10/others/great-victory-for-malta-in-k1-kickboxing-270164/ |access-date=18 October 2013 |newspaper=Malta Independent}} Somali athletes have gained international prominence in long-distance running, with figures such as Mo Farah, Abdi Bile and Mohammed Ahmed achieving global success.

{{Main|Somali cuisine}}

Somali cuisine is an intricate and diverse fusion of a multitude of culinary influences, drawing from the rich tapestry of Arab, Indian, and Italian flavours. This culinary tapestry is a direct result of Somalia's longstanding heritage of vibrant trade and bustling commerce.{{Cite book |last=Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi |author-link=Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi |url=http://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00diri |title=Culture and Customs of Somalia (Culture and Customs of Africa) |date=2001 |publisher=Greenwood Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-313-31333-2 |page=109}}

The essential components that form the foundation of Somali dishes encompass staples like rice and pasta, along with an extensive selection of meats ranging from lamb to beef and chicken. Aromatic spices such as cumin, cardamom, and coriander are frequently utilized to infuse dishes with tantalizing flavors.{{Cite web |title=Report on Somali Diet |url=https://ethnomed.org/resource/report-on-somali-diet/ |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=EthnoMed |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |last=Hooyoshousecom |date=2023-06-30 |title=Exploring the Aromatic World of Traditional Somali Spice Blends |url=https://hooyoshouse.medium.com/exploring-the-aromatic-world-of-traditional-somali-spice-blends-3ab93879b74e |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=Medium |language=en}}

The culinary landscape of Somali cuisine also boasts an impressive assortment of hearty stews, traditional flatbreads, and delectable pastries, with highlights like the beloved "Canjeero/Lahooh", a delightful variation of the tangy fermented pancake-like flatbread that is savoured not only in Somalia but also in its neighbouring countries like Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Yemen.{{Cite web |date=2019-01-01 |title=Yemenite Lahoh (Lachoch) |url=https://www.deliciousisrael.com/blog/lahoh |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=Delicious Israel |language=en-US}}{{Cite book |last=Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi |author-link=Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi |url=http://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00diri |title=Culture and Customs of Somalia (Culture and Customs of Africa) |date=2001 |publisher=Greenwood Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-313-31333-2 |page=113}}{{Cite web |title=Somali Anjero (Canjeero) Anjero Somali {{!}} Xawaash.com |url=http://xawaash.com/?p=1548 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004063819/http://xawaash.com/?p=1548 |archive-date=4 October 2023 |access-date=2024-04-22 |language=en-US}}

Additionally, a distinctive feature of Somali culinary tradition is the incorporation of camel meat and milk. They are considered a delicacy and serve as cherished and fundamental elements in the rich tapestry of Somali cuisine.{{Cite journal |last1=Guliye |first1=A.Y. |last2=Noor |first2=I.M. |last3=Bebe |first3=B.O. |last4=Kosgey |first4=I.S. |title=Role of Camels ( Camelus Dromedarius ) in the Traditional Lifestyle of Somali Pastoralists in Northern Kenya |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.5367/000000007780223669 |journal=Outlook on Agriculture |language=en |publication-date=March 2007 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2007OutAg..36...29G |doi=10.5367/000000007780223669 |issn=0030-7270 |url-access=subscription}}

Somali rice, the usual staple for dinner or lunch, is typically seasoned and mixed with various ingredients such as meat, vegetables, and, in a somewhat unique manner, raisins, adding a sweet note to the dish. Also, it is not uncommon for this dish to be presented in a visually appealing manner by incorporating multiple colors, as certain portions may be artificially tinted with shades of yellow or orange using saffron and other spices to enhance its aesthetic appeal.{{Cite web |date=January 14, 2013 |title=Somali Rice Pilaf (Bariis Maraq) Riz Pilaf Somali البيلاف الصومالي |url=http://xawaash.com/?p=5892 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923064942/http://xawaash.com/?p=5892 |archive-date=23 September 2023 |access-date=22 April 2024 |website=Xawaash}}

File:Djiboutian_rice_(bariis)_and_fish_(kalluun),_Liver_(beerka)_with_vegetable_also_(Sabaayad)_pancakes.jpg

An enduring testament to the influence of Italian colonial rule in Somalia is the widespread adoption of pasta and lasagne in the local culinary landscape, especially in the south, showcasing how these dishes have integrated into the traditional diet alongside rice.{{Cite web |date=26 September 2017 |title=How Lasagna Landed in Africa |url=https://www.saveur.com/how-lasagna-landed-africa/#:~:text=Somalia%3A%20Colonized,be%20mixed%20in. |website=saveur}}{{Cite news |last=Rose |first=Nick |title=Spaghetti and Bananas Is Somali Comfort Food |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/spaghetti-and-bananas-is-somali-comfort-food/ |work=Vice}}

Tea and coffee, both well-loved beverages, are also really popular. Among the early adopters of coffee consumption were the Somalis, who have the historical distinction of being among the first individuals documented to have enjoyed this stimulating drink. Additionally, Somali merchants played a pivotal role in the global coffee trade, being one of the first to export coffee beans.{{Cite web |date=19 May 2020 |title=The History of Coffee |url=https://www.cafedirect.co.uk/shop/the-history-of-coffee/#:~:text=Historians%20believe%20that%20coffee%20was%20being%20exported%20from%20Ethiopia%20to%20Yemen%20by%20Somali%20merchants%20at%20the%20beginning%20of%20the%2015th%20Century.%20Mocha%2C%20a%20city%20in%20Yemen%2C%20became%20the%20centre%20of%20the%20coffee%20trade%20around%20this%20time. |website=Cafedirect}}{{Cite book |last=Gavin |first=R. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cscbDgqCsOMC&q=harar |title=Aden Under British Rule, 1839–1967 |date=1975 |publisher=Hurst |isbn=978-0-903983-14-3 |language=en}} The unique Somali coffee, known locally as 'Qahwo' and tea 'Shah', stand out due to their preparation method which involves a blend of various spices meticulously selected to enhance their rich and complex flavor profile.{{Cite web |date=12 June 2011 |title=Qahwe |url=https://www.mysomalifood.com/qahwe/ |website=mysomalifood}}

'Xalwo', which is closely associated with Omani 'Halwa', is a smooth jelly-like treat that is made with a blend of spices, seeds, nuts, and caramelized sugar.{{Cite web |title=Halwa, Mahyawa and Multiple Registers of Life in the Gulf |url=https://archive-stories.com/Halwa-Mahyawa-and-Multiple-Registers-of-Life-in-the-Gulf#:~:text=Halwa/Xalwo,or%20sesame%20seeds. |website=archive-stories}} This delightful confection is well-loved in Somalia and is commonly served together with Somali 'Qahwo'. After meals, homes are traditionally perfumed using frankincense or incense ({{lang|so|unsi}}), which is prepared inside an incense burner referred to as a dabqaad.{{Cite book |last=Abdullahi |first=Mohammed |title=Culture and Customs of Somalia (Culture and Customs of Africa) |date=2012 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=9780313313332 |pages=98–99}}

{{Main|Somali literature|List_of_Somali_writers}}

Somali literature encompasses a longstanding oral and written tradition, with poetry serving as a central medium for cultural expression, historical transmission, and social discourse. Somali scholars have for centuries contributed to Islamic literature, producing works in fields such as poetry and Hadith. Early Somali writing was primarily in Arabic script and Wadaad writing, a system used by religious scholars and their associates.{{cite web|title=Omniglot – Somali writing scripts|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/somali.htm|publisher=Omniglot}}Although Arabic was the preferred language for formal scholarship, Somali-language manuscripts were also produced, particularly in the form of religious poetry (Qasida), recitations, and chants. The rest of the historical literature in Somali largely consists of translations from Arabic.{{cite book|last1=Andrezewski|first1=B. W.|title=In Praise of Somali Literature|publisher=Lulu|isbn=978-1291454536|pages=130–131|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90CdBQAAQBAJ|date=July 2013}} Among these texts are the Somali poems by Sheikh Uways and Sheikh Ismaaciil Faarah. The rest of the existing historical literature in Somali principally consists of translations of documents from Arabic.{{cite book |last1=Andrezewski |first1=B. W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90CdBQAAQBAJ |title=In Praise of Somali Literature |date=July 2013 |publisher=Lulu |isbn=978-1291454536 |page=232}}

This Qasida by Uways Al-Barawi called the Hadiyat al-ʿAnam ila Qabr al-Nabi (Guidance of Humanity to the Tomb of the Prophet) extols Muhammad.{{cite journal|last1=Reese |first1=Scott S. |date= 2001 |title= The Best of Guides: Sufi Poetry and Alternate Discourses of Reform in Early Twentieth-Century Somalia|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3181395 |journal=Journal of African Cultural Studies |volume=14 |issue=1 Islamic Religious Poetry in Africa |pages= 49–68|doi=10.1080/136968101750333969 |jstor=3181395 |s2cid=162001423 |url-access=subscription }}

{{Verse translation|{{script/Arabic|إذا ماشئت تيسير المراد فصل على رسولك خير هادى

وقل مستنجدا في كل ناد صلاة الله مانادى المنادى

على المختار مولانا الحماد

حبيب الله افضل من ترقى وقبره فاق كرسيا ومرقى

وكل مواضع الخيرات صدقا يفوح المسك والريحان حقا

لقبر محمد نور الفؤاد

تنور جميع ارجاء الحبيب - يرى الانوار قاصده بطيب

ويلقاه البعيد مع القريب - يعم الال جيران الحبيب

بعرف عبيره اهل البلاد}}|Whenever you wish to make easy your objective then give a prayer to your messenger [Muhammad] the best of Guides

And say, seeking aid in every circle blessings of Allah, as the crier cries on the Chosen, our master the praised

Beloved of Allah preferred of those who ascended, his tomb is above any throne or high place

As in every pious place, sincerely musk and spices give fragrances, truly to the tomb of Muhammad light of the heart

Every aspect of the Habib gives light the one who seeks him, sees the lights with goodness

The distances meets it along with the near it will encompass the family, the neighbors of the beloved

As well as the people of the community, with knowledge of his fragrance|lang=arabic-Latn|attr1=Uways Al Barawi Hadiyat al-ʿAnam ila Qabr al-Nabi}}

{{Main|Xeer}}

File:Mahad-Awad.jpg of the Federal Parliament of Somalia ]]

Somalis for centuries have practiced a form of customary law, which they call xeer. Xeer is a polycentric legal system where there is no monopolistic agent that determines what the law should be or how it should be interpreted. It is assumed to have developed exclusively in the Horn of Africa since approximately the 7th century. Given the dearth of loan words from foreign languages within the xeer's nomenclature, the customary law appears to have evolved in situ.{{cite web|url=https://www.mises.org/story/2701|title=Mises Daily|work=Mises Institute|date=4 September 2007}}

Xeer is defined by a few fundamental tenets that are immutable and which closely approximate the principle of jus cogens in international law: payment of blood money (locally referred to as diya or mag), assuring good inter-clan relations by treating women justly, negotiating with "peace emissaries" in good faith, and sparing the lives of socially protected groups (e.g. children, women, the pious, poets and guests), family obligations such as the payment of dowry, and sanctions for eloping, rules pertaining to the management of resources such as the use of pasture land, water, and other natural resources, providing financial support to married female relatives and newlyweds, donating livestock and other assets to the poor.{{cite web|title=Stateless Justice in Somalia|url=http://www.hdcentre.org/files/Somalia%20report.pdf|date=1 June 2005|author=Dr Andre Le Sage|publisher=Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118151830/http://www.hdcentre.org/files/Somalia%20report.pdf|archive-date=18 January 2012}} The Xeer legal system also requires a certain amount of specialization of different functions within the legal framework. Thus, one can find odayal (judges), xeer boggeyaal (jurists), guurtiyaal (detectives), garxajiyaal (attorneys), murkhaatiyal (witnesses) and waranle (police officers) to enforce the law.{{cite web|url=http://www.hiiraan.com/op2/2008/oct/back_to_somali_roots.aspx|title=Back to Somali roots|work=hiiraan.com}}

{{Somali Architecture}}

{{Main|Somali architecture}}

Somali architecture is a rich and diverse tradition of engineering and designing. It involves multiple different construction types, such as stone cities, castles, citadels, fortresses, mosques, mausoleums, towers, tombs, tumuli, cairns, megaliths, menhirs, stelae, dolmens, stone circles, monuments, temples, enclosures, cisterns, aqueducts, and lighthouses. Spanning the ancient, medieval and early modern periods in Greater Somalia, it also includes the fusion of Somali architecture with Western designs in contemporary times.{{cite book|last=Abdullahi|first=Mohamed Diriye|title=Culture and Customs of Somalia|date=2001|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0313313332|page=[https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00diri/page/105 105]|url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00diri/page/105}}

In ancient Somalia, pyramidical structures known in Somali as taalo were a popular burial style. Hundreds of these dry stone monuments are found around the country today. Houses were built of dressed stone similar to the ones in Ancient Egypt. There are also examples of courtyards and large stone walls enclosing settlements, such as the Wargaade Wall.

The peaceful introduction of Islam in the early medieval era of Somalia's history brought Islamic architectural influences from Arabia and Persia. This had the effect of stimulating a shift in construction from drystone and other related materials to coral stone, sundried bricks, and the widespread use of limestone in Somali architecture. Many of the new architectural designs, such as mosques, were built on the ruins of older structures. This practice would continue over and over again throughout the following centuries.Diriye, p. 102

The Somali flag is an ethnic flag conceived to represent ethnic Somalis.{{cite book |last1=Costantino |first1=Maria |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sGYhngEACAAJ |title=The Illustrated Flag Handbook |date=2002 |publisher=Silverdale Books |isbn=978-1856056694 |page=185 |access-date=20 October 2014}} It was created in 1954 by the Somali scholar Mohammed Awale Liban, after he had been selected by the labour trade union of the Trust Territory of Somalia to come up with a design.{{cite web |title=History of the flag |url=http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/so.html#history |access-date=20 October 2014 |publisher=CRW Flags}} Upon independence in 1960, the flag was adopted as the national flag of the nascent Somali Republic.{{cite web |title=Somalia Flag |url=http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/flags/countrys/africa/somalia.htm |access-date=20 October 2014 |publisher=World Atlas}} The five-pointed Star of Unity in the flag's center represents the Somali ethnic group inhabiting the five territories in Greater Somalia.{{cite web |title=The World Factbook – Somalia |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/flags/flagtemplate_so.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915100458/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/flags/flagtemplate_so.html |archive-date=15 September 2012 |access-date=20 October 2014 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}

{{Main|Somali diaspora|List of Somalis|Greater Somalia}}

The Somali people primarily inhabit the Horn of Africa, in a region often referred to as Greater Somalia. This area encompasses the modern-day nation of Somalia as well as parts of Djibouti, eastern Ethiopia (the Somali Region), and northeastern Kenya.{{cite web|title=Djibouti|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/djibouti/|publisher=CIA World Factbook|access-date=30 April 2016}}{{Cite journal |last=Zoppi |first=Marco |date=2015 |title=Greater Somalia, the never-ending dream?: Contested Somali borders: the power of tradition vs. the tradition of power |url=https://forskning.ruc.dk/en/publications/greater-somalia-the-never-ending-dream-contested-somali-borders-t |journal=Journal of African History, Politics and Society |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=43–64}}These territories are historically and culturally linked through shared language, religion, and clan affiliations. The concept of Greater Somalia reflects a longstanding national identity that predates colonial borders. Following the outbreak of the Somali civil war in the early 1990s, significant numbers of Somalis were displaced, leading to the emergence of a widespread global diaspora. Today, substantial Somali communities are found in countries such as the United Arab Emirates,{{cite news|title=Somalis cash in on Dubai boom|url=http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4535642.stm|access-date=29 January 2015|agency=BBC|archive-date=7 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107163723/http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4535642.stm|url-status=dead}} Saudi Arabia, Yemen United States, the United Kingdom,{{ONSCoB2016|access-date=9 December 2017}} Canada,{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/ethnic/pages/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Data=Count&Table=2&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000|title=Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada – Data table|date=2 April 2008|work=statcan.ca|access-date=5 November 2008|archive-date=6 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106221808/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/hlt/97-562/pages/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Table=2&Data=Count&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000|url-status=dead}} Sweden, Norway, and the Netherlands among others, where they have established diaspora communities while maintaining strong transnational ties to their homeland.[http://www.innercitypress.com/UNPOSstrategy.doc Somali Diaspora] – Inner City Press UN migration estimates of the international migrant stock 2015 suggest that 1,998,764 people from Somalia were living abroad.{{cite web |date=2015 |title=Table 16. Total migrant stock at mid-year by origin and by major area, region, country or area of destination, 2015 |url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/data/UN_MigrantStockByOriginAndDestination_2015.xlsx |access-date=17 June 2020 |work=Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by Destination and Origin |publisher=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs}}{{cite news |last1=Connor |first1=Phillip |last2=Krogstad |first2=Jens Manuel |date=1 June 2016 |title=5 facts about the global Somali diaspora |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/06/01/5-facts-about-the-global-somali-diaspora/ |access-date=17 June 2020 |work=Fact Tank |publisher=Pew Research Center}}{{Cite journal|last=van Heelsum|first=A|date=2011|title=Why Somalis move? An investigation into migratory processes among Somalis|url=https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/1412527/148905_2011_Why_Somalis_move.pdf|journal=Paper Presented at ECAS 4: 4th European Conference on African Studies, 15–18 June 2011, Uppsala, Sweden: African Engagements: On Whose Terms?}}{{Clear}}

According to Y chromosome studies by Sanchez et al. (2005), Cruciani et al. (2004, 2007), the Somalis are paternally closely related to other Afro-Asiatic-speaking groups in Northeast Africa.{{Cite journal|last1=Sanchez|first1=Juan J.|last2=Hallenberg|first2=Charlotte|last3=Børsting|first3=Claus|last4=Hernandez|first4=Alexis|last5=Morling|first5=Niels|date=July 2005|title= High frequencies of Y chromosome lineages characterized by E3b1, DYS19-11, DYS392-12 in Somali males|journal=European Journal of Human Genetics|volume=13|issue=7|pages=856–866|doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201390|issn=1018-4813|pmid=15756297|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last1=Cruciani|first1=Fulvio|last2=Fratta|first2=Roberta La|last3=Santolamazza|first3=Piero|last4=Sellitto|first4=Daniele|last5=Pascone|first5=Roberto|last6=Moral|first6=Pedro|last7=Watson|first7=Elizabeth|last8=Guida|first8=Valentina|last9=Colomb|first9=Eliane Beraud|date=1 May 2004|title=Phylogeographic Analysis of Haplogroup E3b (E-M215) Y Chromosomes Reveals Multiple Migratory Events Within and Out Of Africa|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|language=en|volume=74|issue=5|pages=1014–1022|doi=10.1086/386294|issn=0002-9297|pmc=1181964|pmid=15042509}}{{Cite journal|last1=Cruciani|first1=Fulvio|last2=La Fratta|first2=Roberta|last3=Trombetta|first3=Beniamino|last4=Santolamazza|first4=Piero|last5=Sellitto|first5=Daniele|last6=Colomb|first6=Eliane Beraud|last7=Dugoujon|first7=Jean-Michel|last8=Crivellaro|first8=Federica|last9=Benincasa|first9=Tamara|date=June 2007|title=Tracing past human male movements in northern/eastern Africa and western Eurasia: new clues from Y-chromosomal haplogroups E-M78 and J-M12|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=24|issue=6|pages=1300–1311|doi=10.1093/molbev/msm049|issn=0737-4038|pmid=17351267|doi-access=free}} Besides comprising the majority of the Y-DNA in Somalis, the E1b1b (formerly E3b) haplogroup also makes up a significant proportion of the paternal DNA of Ethiopians, Sudanese, Egyptians, Berbers, North African Arabs, as well as many Mediterranean populations.{{Cite journal|last1=Hassan|first1=Hisham Y.|last2=Underhill|first2=Peter A.|last3=Cavalli-Sforza|first3=Luca L.|last4=Ibrahim|first4=Muntaser E.|date=November 2008|title=Y-chromosome variation among Sudanese: restricted gene flow, concordance with language, geography, and history|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=137|issue=3|pages=316–323|doi=10.1002/ajpa.20876|issn=1096-8644|pmid=18618658|s2cid=26519766}} Sanchez et al. (2005) observed the E-M78 subclade of E1b1b1a in about 70.6% of their Somali male samples. According to Cruciani et al. (2007), the presence of this sub-haplogroup in the Horn region may represent the traces of an ancient migration from Egypt/Libya.{{harvnb|Cruciani|La Fratta|Trombetta|Santolamazza|2007}} use the term Northeastern Africa to refer to Egypt and Libya, as shown in Table 1 of the study. Prior to {{harvnb|Cruciani|La Fratta|Trombetta|Santolamazza|2007}}, {{harvnb|Semino et al.|2004}} East Africa as a possible place of origin of E-M78, based upon Ethiopian testing. This was because of the high frequency and diversity of E-M78 lineages in the region of Ethiopia. However, {{harvnb|Cruciani|La Fratta|Trombetta|Santolamazza|2007}} were able to study more data, including populations from North Africa who were not represented in the {{harvnb|Semino|Magri|Benuzzi|Lin|2004}} study, and found evidence that the E-M78 lineages which make up a significant proportion of some populations in that region, were relatively young branches (see E-V32 below). They therefore concluded that "Northeast Africa" was the likely place of origin of E-M78 based on "the peripheral geographic distribution of the most derived subhaplogroups with respect to northeastern Africa, as well as the results of quantitative analysis of UEP and microsatellite diversity". So according to {{harvnb|Cruciani|La Fratta|Trombetta|Santolamazza|2007}} E-M35, the parent clade of E-M78, originated in East Africa, subsequently spread to Northeast Africa, and then there was a "back migration" of E-M215 chromosomes that had acquired the E-M78 mutation. {{harvnb|Cruciani|La Fratta|Trombetta|Santolamazza|2007}} therefore note this as evidence for "a corridor for bidirectional migrations" between Northeast Africa (Egypt and Libya in their data) on the one hand and East Africa on the other. The authors believe there were "at least 2 episodes between 23.9–17.3 ky and 18.0–5.9 ky ago".

After haplogroup E1b1b, the second most frequently occurring Y-DNA haplogroup among Somalis is the West Asian haplogroup T (M184).{{cite journal | doi = 10.1086/382286 | last1 = Underhill | first1 = JR|name-list-style=vanc| last2 = Rowold | first2 = DJ| year = 2004 | last3 = Regueiro | first3 = M | last4 = Caeiro | first4 = B | last5 = Cinnioğlu | first5 = C | last6 = Roseman | first6 = C | last7 = Underhill | first7 = PA | last8 = Cavalli-Sforza | first8 = LL | last9 = Herrera | first9 = RJ | title = The Levant versus the Horn of Africa: Evidence for Bidirectional Corridors of Human Migrations | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 74 | issue = 3| pages = 532–544 | pmid = 14973781 | pmc = 1182266}} The clade is observed in more than 10% of Somali males generally, with a peak frequency amongst the Somali Dir clan members in Djibouti (100%){{cite journal|last1=Iacovacci|first1=Giuseppe|last2=D’Atanasio|first2=Eugenia|last3=Marini|first3=Ornella|last4=Coppa|first4=Alfredo|last5=Sellitto|first5=Daniele|last6=Trombetta|first6=Beniamino|last7=Berti|first7=Andrea|last8=Cruciani|first8=Fulvio|date=1 March 2017|title=Forensic data and microvariant sequence characterization of 27 Y-STR loci analyzed in four Eastern African countries|url=https://www.docdroid.net/Dedb2N1/forensic-data-and-microvariant-sequence0acharacterization-of-27-y-str-loci-analyzed-in-four-eastern0aafrican-countries-iacovacci-et-al-2016.pdf.html|journal=Forensic Science International: Genetics|language=en|volume=27|pages=123–131|doi=10.1016/j.fsigen.2016.12.015|issn=1872-4973|pmid=28068531|url-access=subscription}}; 25/34 total local samples belonged to haplogroup T (24/24 Dir, 1/1 Hawiye, 0/9 Isaak). and Somalis in Dire Dawa (82.4%), a city with a majority Dir population.{{cite thesis|last1=Plaster|first1=Christopher Andrew|year=2011|title=Variation in Y chromosome, mitochondrial DNA and labels of identity in Ethiopia|type=PhD thesis|publisher=University College London|via=UCL Discovery|url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1331901/3/1331901_CP_Thesis-SUBMITTED-DRAFT-POST-VIVA.pdf}} Haplogroup T, like haplogroup E1b1b, is also typically found among other populations of Northeast Africa, the Maghreb, the Near East and the Mediterranean.{{Cite book|title=The Evolution of Human Populations in Arabia|last1=Cabrera|first1=Vicente M.|last2=Abu-Amero|first2=Khaled K.|last3=Larruga|first3=José M.|last4=González|first4=Ana M.|date=2010|publisher=Springer, Dordrecht|pages=79–87|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-90-481-2719-1_6|chapter = The Arabian peninsula: Gate for Human Migrations Out of Africa or Cul-de-Sac? A Mitochondrial DNA Phylogeographic Perspective|series = Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology|isbn = 978-90-481-2718-4}}

In Somalis, the Time to Most Recent Common Ancestor (TMRCA) was estimated to be 4000–5000 years (2,500 BCE) for the haplogroup E-M78 cluster γ and 2100–2200 years (150 BCE) for Somali T-M184 bearers.

Deep subclade E-Y18629 is commonly found in Somalis and has a formation date of 3,700 YBP (years before present) and a TMRCA of 3,300 YBP.{{cite web|url=https://www.yfull.com/tree/E-Y18629/|title=E-Y18629 YTree|website=www.yfull.com|access-date=9 September 2019}}

According to mtDNA studies a significant proportion of the maternal lineages of Somali females consists of sub saharan clades such as L haplogroup, the most frequently observed haplogroups are L0a1d, L2a1h and L3f.{{Cite journal |last1=Mikkelsen |first1=Martin |last2=Fendt |first2=Liane |last3=Röck |first3=Alexander W. |last4=Zimmermann |first4=Bettina |last5=Rockenbauer |first5=Eszter |last6=Hansen |first6=Anders J. |last7=Parson |first7=Walther |last8=Morling |first8=Niels |date=July 2012 |title=Forensic and phylogeographic characterisation of mtDNA lineages from Somalia |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22527188/ |journal=International Journal of Legal Medicine |volume=126 |issue=4 |pages=573–579 |doi=10.1007/s00414-012-0694-6 |issn=1437-1596 |pmid=22527188}}

African mitochondrial (mt) phylogeny is coarsely resolved but the majority of population data generated so far is limited to the analysis of the first hypervariable segment (HVS-1) of the control region (CR). Therefore, this study aimed on the investigation of the entire CR of 190 unrelated Somali individuals to enrich the severely underrepresented African mtDNA pool. The majority (60.5 %) of the haplotypes were of sub-Saharan origin with L0a1d, L2a1h and L3f being the most frequently observed haplogroups.

Our sub-Saharan samples consisted almost entirely of the L1 or L2 haplogroups only. In addition, there existed a significant amount of homogeneity within the M1 haplogroup. This sharp cline indicates a history of little admixture between these regions. This could imply a more recent ancestry for M1 in Africa, as older lineages are more diverse and widespread by nature, and may be an indication of a back-migration into Africa from the Middle East."

"We analysed mtDNA variation in ~250 persons from Libya, Somalia, and Congo/Zambia, as representatives of the three regions of interest. Our initial results indicate a sharp cline in M1 frequencies that generally does not extend into sub-Saharan Africa. While our North and especially East African samples contained frequencies of M1 over 20%,

File:Ethio-Somali component.png

File:Northeast_African_genomic_variation_ADMIXTURE_plot.PNG

File:Young Somali man2a.jpg

Research shows that Somalis have a mixture of a type of native African ancestry unique and autochthonous to the Horn of Africa, as well as ancestry originating from a non-African back-migration. A medical genomics study concluded that its data reveal a remarkably homogeneous Somali population that shares an ancient origin with Afro-Asiatic-speaking groups in the Horn of Africa and the Middle East.

According to an autosomal DNA study by Hodgson et al. (2014), the Afro-Asiatic languages were likely spread across Africa and the Near East by an ancestral population(s) carrying a newly identified non-African genetic component, which the researchers dub as the "Ethio-Somali". This component today is most common among Afro-Asiatic-speaking populations in the Horn of Africa. It reaches a frequency peak among ethnic Somalis, representing the majority of their ancestry. The Ethio-Somali component is most closely related to the Maghrebi non-African genetic component, and is believed to have diverged from all other non-African ancestries at least 23,000 years ago. On this basis, the researchers suggest that the original Ethio-Somali carrying population(s) probably arrived in the pre-agricultural period from the Near East, having crossed over into northeastern Africa via the Sinai Peninsula. The population then likely split into two branches, with one group heading westward toward the Maghreb and the other moving south into the Horn.{{Cite journal|last1=Hodgson|first1=Jason A.|last2=Mulligan|first2=Connie J.|last3=Al-Meeri|first3=Ali|last4=Raaum|first4=Ryan L.|date=12 June 2014|title=Early Back-to-Africa Migration into the Horn of Africa|journal=PLOS Genetics|volume=10|issue=6|pages=e1004393|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004393|issn=1553-7404|pmc=4055572|pmid=24921250 |doi-access=free }} Ancient DNA analysis indicates that this foundational ancestry in the Horn region is akin to that of Neolithic farmers of the southern Levant.{{cite journal|last1=Lazaridis|first1=Iosif|last2=Nadel|first2=Dani|last3=Rollefson|first3=Gary|last4=Merrett|first4=Deborah C.|last5=Rohland|first5=Nadin|last6=Mallick|first6=Swapan|last7=Fernandes|first7=Daniel|last8=Novak|first8=Mario|last9=Gamarra|first9=Beatriz|title=The genetic structure of the world's first farmers|journal=Nature|year=2016|volume=536|issue=7617|pages=419–24|biorxiv=10.1101/059311|doi=10.1038/nature19310|pmid=27459054|pmc=5003663|bibcode=2016Natur.536..419L }}

Furthermore, according to Hodgson et al. both the African ancestry (Ethiopic) and the non-African ancestry (Ethio-Somali) in Cushitic speaking populations is significantly differentiated from all neighboring African and non-African ancestries today. The overall genetic ancestry of Cushitic and Semitic speaking populations in the Horn of Africa represents ancestries not found outside of HOA populations. The researchers state:

"The African Ethiopic ancestry is tightly restricted to HOA populations and likely represents an autochthonous HOA population. The non-African ancestry in the HOA, which is primarily attributed to a novel Ethio-Somali inferred ancestry component, is significantly differentiated from all neighboring non-African ancestries in North Africa, the Levant, and Arabia."{{Cite journal|last1=Hodgson|first1=Jason A.|last2=Mulligan|first2=Connie J.|last3=Al-Meeri|first3=Ali|last4=Raaum|first4=Ryan L.|date=2014-06-12|title=Early Back-to-Africa Migration into the Horn of Africa|journal=PLOS Genetics|volume=10|issue=6|pages=e1004393|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004393|issn=1553-7404|pmc=4055572|pmid=24921250|quote=The African Ethiopic ancestry is tightly restricted to HOA populations and likely represents an autochthonous HOA population. The non-African ancestry in the HOA, which is primarily attributed to a novel Ethio-Somali inferred ancestry component, is significantly differentiated from all neighboring non-African ancestries in North Africa, the Levant, and Arabia. |doi-access=free }}

Moreover, Hodgson et al. (2014) elaborates further:

"We find that most of the non-African ancestry in the HOA can be assigned to a distinct non-African origin Ethio-Somali ancestry component, which is found at its highest frequencies in Cushitic and Semitic speaking HOA populations."{{Cite journal|last1=Hodgson|first1=Jason A.|last2=Mulligan|first2=Connie J.|last3=Al-Meeri|first3=Ali|last4=Raaum|first4=Ryan L.|date=2014-06-12|title=Early Back-to-Africa Migration into the Horn of Africa|journal=PLOS Genetics|volume=10|issue=6|pages=e1004393|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004393|issn=1553-7404|pmc=4055572|pmid=24921250|quote=We find that most of the non-African ancestry in the HOA can be assigned to a distinct non-African origin Ethio-Somali ancestry component, which is found at its highest frequencies in Cushitic and Semitic speaking HOA populations. |doi-access=free }}

File:Osman Yuusuf Keenadiid.gif scholar, Osman Yusuf Kenadid.]]

{{Main|Somali studies}}

The scholarly term for research concerning Somalis and Greater Somalia is Somali studies. It consists of several disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, linguistics, historiography and archaeology. The field draws from old Somali chronicles, records and oral literature, in addition to written accounts and traditions about Somalis from explorers and geographers in the Horn of Africa and the Middle East. Since 1980, prominent Somalist scholars from around the world have also gathered annually to hold the International Congress of Somali Studies.

• Somalia
• Somaliland
• Afar people
• Culture of Somalia
• Demographics of Somalia
• Greater Somalia

{{Reflist|group=Note}}

{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

{{Reflist|30em}}

• Hanley, Gerald, Warriors: Life and Death Among the Somalis, (Eland Publishing Ltd, 2004)
• Tripodi, Paolo (1999). The Colonial Legacy in Somalia. New York: St. Martin's Press Inc.

{{Wiktionary|Wikisaurus:Somali}}

{{commons category}}

{{Scholia|topic}}

• [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=som Ethnologue population estimates for Somali speakers]
• [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/sotoc.html US Library of Congress Country Study of Somalia]
• {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Somaliland | volume= 25 |last= Cana |first= Frank Richardson |author-link= | pages = 378–384;see page 379 |quote= Inhabitants.—The Somali belong to the Eastern (Abyssinia) Hamitic family....|short= 1}}

{{Ethnic groups in Somalia}}

{{Ethnic groups in Ethiopia}}

{{Ethnic groups in Djibouti}}

{{Ethnic groups in Kenya}}

{{Ethnic groups in Yemen}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Somali People}}

Category:Cushitic-speaking peoples

Category:Indigenous peoples of East Africa

Category:Ethnic groups in Djibouti

Category:Ethnic groups in Ethiopia

Category:Ethnic groups in Kenya

Category:Muslim communities in Africa

Category:Pastoralists

Category:Female genital mutilation