Zenaga language

{{Short description|Moribund Berber language of Mauritania and Senegal}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}

{{Infobox language

| name = Zenaga

| nativename = {{lang|zen|ⵜⵓⵥⵥⵓⵏⴳⵉⵢⵢⴰ}} ({{lang|zen|Tuẓẓungiyya}})

| states = Mauritania

| region = Mederdra

| speakers = {{sigfig|3,480|2}}

| date = 2018–2021

| ref = e27

| script = Tifinagh

| familycolor = Afro-Asiatic

| fam2 = Berber

| fam3 = Western

| minority = {{flag|Mauritania}}

| iso2 = zen

| iso3 = zen

| glotto = zena1248

| glottorefname = Zenaga

|map2 = Lang Status 40-SE.svg

|mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Zenaga is classified as Severely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger}}}}

|notice = IPA

}}

Zenaga (autonym: {{Lang|zen|Tuẓẓungiyya}} or {{lang|zen|āwӓy ən uẓ̄nӓgӓn}}) is a Berber language spoken in Mauritania and northern Senegal by thousands of people. Zenaga Berber is spoken as a mother tongue from the town of Mederdra in southwestern Mauritania to the Atlantic coast and in northern Senegal. The language is recognized by the Mauritanian government.{{Cite web|url=https://english.alarabiya.net/en/perspective/analysis/2016/07/25/Arab-League-2016-summit-puts-spotlight-on-isolated-Mauritania-.html|title=Arab League 2016 summit puts spotlight on isolated Mauritania|website=english.alarabiya.net|language=en|access-date=2018-06-24}}

It shares its basic linguistic structure with other Berber idioms in Morocco and Algeria, but specific features are quite different. In fact, Zenaga is probably the most divergent surviving Berber language, with a significantly different sound system made even more distant by sound changes such as {{IPA|/l/}} > {{IPA|/dj/}} and {{IPA|/x/}} > {{IPA|/k/}}, as well as a profusion of glottal stops with no correspondents in other Berber varieties that are interpreted as the only segmental survivor of a Proto-Berber {{IPA|*ʔ}}.Kossmann (2001b), Taine-Cheikh (2004).

The name Zenaga comes from that of a much larger ancient Berber tribe, the Iznagen (Iẓnagen), who are known in Arabic as the Sanhaja. Adrian Room's African PlacenamesRoom, Adrian, African Placenames, McFarland & Co. Jefferson, North Carolina. 1994. gives Zenaga derivations for some place-names in Mauritania.

Demographics

Zenaga is a language descended from the Sanhaja confederation who ruled over much of North Africa during the early Middle Ages. Zenaga was once spoken throughout Mauritania and beyond but fell into decline when its speakers were defeated by the invading Maqil Arabs in the Char Bouba war of the 17th century. After this war, they were forbidden to bear arms and variously became either specialists in Islamic religious scholarship or servants to more powerful tribes. It was among the former, more prestigious group that Zenaga survived longest.

In 1940 (Dubié 1940), Zenaga was spoken by about 13,000 people belonging to four nomadic tribes distributed in an area roughly bounded by Saint-Louis, Podor, Boutilimit and Nouakchott (but including none of these cities):(Zenaga names from Nicolas (1953:102).)

  • {{lang|zen|Tashumsha}} ('the five'): 4,653 speakers out of 12,000 members
  • {{lang|zen|D-abu-djhes}} ('i-D-ab-lahs-en'): 5,000 out of 5,000
  • {{lang|zen|Gumdjedjen}} ('i-Kumleil-en'), subtribe of the Ida u el Hadj: 700 (out of Ida u el Hadj population of 4,600)
  • {{lang|zen|Tendgha}}: 2,889 out of 8,500

These tribes, according to Dubié, traditionally specialised in Islamic religious scholarship and led a nomadic lifestyle, specialising in sheep and cows (camel-herding branches of the same tribes had already switched to Arabic).{{sfn|Dubié|1940|page=319-320}} Even then, many speakers were shifting to Hassaniya Arabic, the main Arabic variety spoken in Mauritania, and all were bilingual. Zenaga was used only within the tribe, and it was considered impolite to speak it when non-speakers were present; some speakers deliberately avoided using Zenaga with their children, hoping to give them a head start in Hassaniya. However, many speakers regarded Zenaga as a symbol of their independence and their religious fervour; Dubie cites a Hassaniya proverb: "A Moor who speaks Zenaga is certainly not a Zenagui (that is, a {{lang|zen|laḥma}} or a member of a Berber tribe subjugated by the Arab Beni Hassan{{sfn|Dubié|1940|page=320}}), nor a warrior".{{sfn|Dubié|1940|page=320}}

Half a century later, the number of speakers is reportedly around 2,000. While Zenaga appears to be nearing extinction, Hassaniya Arabic contains a substantial number of Zenaga loanwords (more than 10% of the vocabulary).UNICE foundation: [http://www.unice.fr/ILF-CNRS/ofcaf/15/queffelec.html La "longue marche" de l'arabisation en mauritanie] {{in lang|fr}}

Phonology

= Vowels =

class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"

!

!Front

!Central

!Back

High

|{{IPA link|i}} {{IPA link|iː}}

|

|{{IPA link|u}} {{IPA link|uː}}

Mid

|

|{{IPA link|ə}}

|

Low

|

|{{IPA link|a}} {{IPA link|aː}}

|

class="wikitable"

!Phoneme

!Allophones{{Cite journal |last1=Cohen |first1=David |title=À propos du zénaga. Vocalisme et morphologie verbale on berbère |last2=Taine-Cheikh |first2=Catherine |year=2000 |journal=Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris |volume=95 |pages=269–322 |language=fr}}

/i/

|[i], [ɨ]

/u/

|[u], [ʊ], [o], [ɔ]

/a/

|[ä], [æ], [ɛ], [œ], [ø], [ɔ], [ɑ]

= Consonants =

class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"

! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |

! rowspan="2" |Labial

! colspan="2" |Dental

! colspan="2" |Alveolar

! rowspan="2" |Post-alv./
Palatal

! rowspan="2" |Post-
palatal

! rowspan="2" |Velar

! rowspan="2" |Pharyngeal

! rowspan="2" |Glottal

plain

!phar.

!plain

!phar.

rowspan="2" |Plosive

!voiceless

|

|

|

|{{IPA link|t}}

|({{IPA link|tˤ}})

|{{IPA link|tʲ}}

|{{IPA link|c̠}}

|{{IPA link|k}}

|

|{{IPA link|ʔ}}

voiced

|{{IPA link|b}}

|

|

|{{IPA link|d}}

|{{IPA link|dˤ}}

|{{IPA link|dʲ}}

|{{IPA link|ɟ̠}}

|

|

|

rowspan="2" |Fricative

!voiceless

|{{IPA link|f}}

|{{IPA link|θ}}

|{{IPA link|θˤ}}

|{{IPA link|s}}

|({{IPA link|sˤ}})

|{{IPA link|ʃ}}

|

|{{IPA link|x}}

|({{IPA link|ħ}})

|{{IPA link|h}}

voiced

|({{IPA link|v}})

|{{IPA link|ð}}

|{{IPA link|ðˤ}}

|{{IPA link|z}}

|{{IPA link|zˤ}}

|{{IPA link|ʒ}}

|

|{{IPA link|ɣ}}

|({{IPA link|ʕ}})

|

colspan="2" |Nasal

|{{IPA link|m}}

|

|

|{{IPA link|n}}

|

|{{IPA link|nʲ}}

|

|

|

|

colspan="2" |Trill

|

|

|

|{{IPA link|r}}

|{{IPA link|rˤ}}

|

|

|

|

|

colspan="2" |Lateral

|

|

|

|{{IPA link|l}}

|{{IPA link|lˤ}}

|

|

|

|

|

colspan="2" |Approximant

|{{IPA link|w}}

|

|

|

|

|{{IPA link|j}}

|

|

|

|

class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"

|+Geminated consonants

! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |

! rowspan="2" |Labial

! colspan="2" |Alveolar

! rowspan="2" |Post-
alveolar

! rowspan="2" |Post-
palatal

! rowspan="2" |Velar

plain

!phar.

rowspan="2" |Plosive

!voiceless

|

|{{IPA link|tː}}

|

|{{IPA link|tʲː}}

|{{IPA link|c̠ː}}

|{{IPA link|kː}}

voiced

|{{IPA link|bː}}

|{{IPA link|dː}}

|{{IPA link|dˤː}}

|{{IPA link|dʲː}}

|{{IPA link|ɟ̠ː}}

|

rowspan="2" |Fricative

!voiceless

|{{IPA link|fː}}

|{{IPA link|sː}}

|

|{{IPA link|ʃː}}

|

|

voiced

|

|{{IPA link|zː}}

|{{IPA link|zˤː}}

|{{IPA link|ʒː}}

|

|

colspan="2" |Nasal

|{{IPA link|mː}}

|{{IPA link|nː}}

|

|{{IPA link|nʲː}}

|

|

colspan="2" |Lateral

|

|{{IPA link|lː}}

|

|

|

|

colspan="2" |Trill

|

|{{IPA link|rː}}

|

|

|

|

  • [v] can be heard as an allophone of /f/.
  • Sounds [tˤ] and [sˤ] occur marginally.
  • Pharyngeal sounds /ħ, ʕ/ are heard from Arabic loanwords.{{Cite journal|last=Taine-Cheikh |first=Catherine |title=La corrélation de gémination consonantique en zénaga (berbère de Mauritanie) |publisher=GLECS |year=2003 |journal=Comptes rendus du Groupe Linguistique d'Études Chamito-Sémitiques |volume=34 |pages=5–66 |language=fr}}{{Cite book |last=Taine-Cheikh |first=Catherine |title=Dictionnaire zénaga-français: Le berbère de Mauritanie présenté par racines dans une perspective comparative |publisher=Köln: Köppe |year=2008}}

Dialects

There are significant dialectal differences within Zenaga, notably between the Id-ab-lahsen and Tendgha dialects.

References

{{reflist}}

Further reading

{{refbegin|indent=yes}}

  • {{cite journal |last1=Al-Chennafi |first1=M. |last2=Norris |first2=H. T. |title=How the Hassaniyya vernacular of Mauritania supplanted Zenaga |journal=The Maghreb-Review |volume=76 |issue=5–6 |year=1981 |pages=77–78}}
  • {{cite journal |last=Basset |first=André |year=1933 |title=Note sur les parlers zenaga |journal=Bulletin du Comité d'études historiques et scientifiques de l'Afrique Occidentale Française |pages=319–332 |language=fr}}
  • {{cite journal |author-link=René Basset |last=Basset |first=René |year=1909 |title=Mission au Senegal |journal=Bulletin de correspondence africaine |volume=39 |location=Paris |publisher=Leroux |language=fr}}
  • {{cite journal |last1=Cohen |first1=David |last2=Taine-Cheikh |first2=Catherine |year=2000 |title=À propos du zénaga. Vocalisme et morphologie verbale en berbère |journal=Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris |volume=XCV |issue=1 |pages=267–319 |doi=10.2143/BSL.95.1.503725 |language=fr}}
  • {{cite journal |last=Dubié |first=Paul |year=1940 |title=L'îlot berbérophone de Mauritanie |journal=Bulletin de l'IFAN |volume=2 |pages=315–325 |language=fr}}
  • {{cite book |last=Faidherbe |first=Louis L. |year=1877 |title=Le Zenaga des tribus Senegalaises |location=Paris |publisher=Leroux |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1035945 |id={{BNF|34706667h}}}}
  • {{cite conference |last=Kossmann |first=Maarten |year=2001a |title=L'origine du vocalisme en zénaga de Mauritanie |pages=83–95 |editor-last1=Ibriszimow |editor-first1=Dymitr |editor-last2=Vossen |editor-first2=Rainer |book-title=Etudes berbères. Actes du '1. Bayreuth-Frankfurter Kolloquium zur Berberologie' |series=Frankfurter Afrikanistische Blätter |volume=13 |location=Köln |publisher=Rüdiger Köppe |isbn=978-3-89645-015-9}}
  • {{cite journal |last=Kossmann |first=Maarten |year=2001b |title=The Origin of the Glottal Stop in Zenaga and its Reflexes in the other Berber Languages |journal=Afrika und Übersee |volume=84 |pages=61–100}}
  • {{cite journal |last=Masqueray |first=Émile |year=1879 |title=Comparaison d'un vocabulaire des Zenaga avec les vocabulaires correspondents des dialectes Chawia et des Beni Mzab |journal=Archives des missions scientifiques et littéraires |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=473–533}}
  • {{cite book |last=Nicolas |first=Francis |year=1953 |title=La langue berbère de Mauritanie |location=Dakar |series=Mémoire de l'IFAN |volume=33 |publisher=IFAN}}
  • {{cite book |contributor-last=Ould Cheikh |contributor-first=Abdel Wedoud |year=2008 |contribution=Les communautés zénagophones aujourd'hui |pages=XV-XXXIII |first=Catherine |last=Taine-Cheikh |title=Dictionnaire zénaga-français. Le berbère de Mauritanie présenté par racines dans une perspective comparative |series=Berber Studies |volume=20 |location=Köln |publisher=Rüdiger Köppe |isbn=978-3-89645-399-0}}
  • {{cite conference |last=Taine-Cheikh |first=Catherine |others=with Yaha Ould El Bara |title=Le vocalisme du berbère zénaga de Mauritanie – premiers résultats d'une analyse acoustique |book-title=Actes des Journées d'Etudes Linguistiques: 'La voyelle dans tous ses états' |location=Nantes |date=5-6 December 1997 |pages=80–85}}
  • {{cite conference |last=Taine-Cheikh |first=Catherine |year=1999 |title=Le zénaga de Mauritanie à la lumière du berbère commun |editor-first1=Marcello |editor-last1=Lamberti |editor-first2=Livia |editor-last2=Tonelli |book-title=Afroasiatica Tergestina. Papers from the 9th Italian Meeting of Afro-Asiatic (Hamito-Semitic) Linguistics, Trieste, 23–24 April 1998 |location=Padova |publisher=UNIPRESS |pages=299–324 |isbn=88-8098-107-2}}
  • {{cite book |last=Taine-Cheikh |first=Catherine |year=2002 |chapter=Morphologie et morphogenèse des diminutifs en zenaga (berbère de Mauritanie) |editor-first=Kamal |editor-last=Nait-Zerrad |title=Articles de linguistique berbère. Mémorial Werner Vycichl |location=Paris |publisher=L'Harmattan |isbn=978-2-7475-2706-4 |pages=427–454}}
  • {{cite book |last=Taine-Cheikh |first=Catherine |year=2003 |chapter=L'adjectif et la conjugaison suffixale en berbère |editor-first1=Jérôme |editor-last1=Lentin |editor-first2=Antoine |editor-last2=Lonnet |title=Mélanges David Cohen. Études sur le langage, les langues, les dialectes, les littératures, offertes par ses élèves, ses collègues, ses amis |location=Paris |publisher=Maisonneuve & Larose |isbn=978-2-7068-1674-1 |pages=661–674}}
  • {{cite book |last=Taine-Cheikh |first=Catherine |year=2003 |chapter=La corrélation de gémination consonantique en zénaga (berbère de Mauritanie) |title=Comptes rendus du GLECS |volume=34 (1998–2002) |pages=5–66}}
  • {{cite book |last=Taine-Cheikh |first=Catherine |year=2004 |chapter=Les verbes à finale laryngale en zénaga |editor-first1=K. |editor-last1=Nait-Zerrad |editor-first2=R. |editor-last2=Vossen |editor-first3=D. |editor-last3=Ibriszimow |title=Nouvelles études berbères. Le verbe et autres articles. Actes du '2. Bayreuth-Frankfurter Kolloquium zur Berberologie' |location=Köln |publisher=Rüdiger Köppe |isbn=3-89645-387-4 |pages=171–190}}
  • {{cite conference |last=Taine-Cheikh |first=Catherine |year=2005 |chapter=Le problème des verbes dérivés en berbère et l'exemple du zénaga |editor-first1=P. |editor-last1=Fronzarolli |editor-first2=P. |editor-last2=Marrassini |title=Quaderni di Semitistica. Proceedings of the 10th Meeting of Hamito-Semitic (Afroasiatic) Linguistics (Florence, 18–20 April 2001) |volume=25 |pages=391–409}}
  • {{cite conference |last=Taine-Cheikh |first=Catherine |year=2005 |title=Les marques de 1ère personne en berbère. Réflexions à partir des données du zénaga |editor-first=A. |editor-last=Mengozzi |book-title=Studi Afroasiatici. XI Incontro Italiano di Linguistica Camitosemitica |location=Milano |publisher=Franco Angeli |pages=97–112}}
  • Taine-Cheikh, Catherine. 2005. " Du rôle de la quantité vocalique en morphogénie. Réflexions à partir de l'arabe et du berbère de Mauritanie ", Faits de Langues n° 26 [special issue on Hamito=Semitic languages (afro-asiatiques, vol. 1), Éd. A. Lonnet & A. Mettouchi], Paris, Ophrys, pp. 41–63.
  • Taine-Cheikh, Catherine. 2005. " Le rôle des phénomènes d'agglutination dans la morphogenèse de l'arabe et du berbère, éd. G. Lazard & C. Moyse, Linguistique typologique [Actes du 3ème colloque "Typologie des langues et universaux linguistiques", Paris, 18–19 novembre 2002], Lille: Presses du Septentrion, pp. 288–315.
  • Taine-Cheikh, Catherine. 2005. " Moyen et réfléchi: typologie comparée de l’arabe et du berbère (exemples mauritaniens) ", Matériaux arabes et sudarabiques (GELLAS) [2003–2005. "En hommage à Omar Bencheikh (1940–2005)"], n° 11 (nouvelle série), Paris, pp. 37–52.
  • Taine-Cheikh, Catherine. 2005. " Les numéraux en berbère. Le cas du zénaga ", Éd. A. M. Di Tolli, Studi Maġribini Nuova Serie, vol. 3 (2005 "Studi Berberi e Mediterranei. Miscellanea offerta in onore di Luigi Serra"), Napoli: Università degli Studi di Napoli "L'Orientale", pp. 269–280.
  • {{cite book |last=Taine-Cheikh |first=Catherine |year=2006 |chapter=Alternances vocaliques et affixations dans la morphologie nominale du berbère: le pluriel en zénaga |editor-first1=R. |editor-last1=Vossen |editor-first2=D. |editor-last2=Ibriszimow |title=Études berbères III. Le nom, le pronom et autres articles |series=Berber Studies |volume=14 |location=Köln |publisher=R. Köppe |pages=253–267}}
  • Taine-Cheikh, Catherine. 2007. " Les propositions relatives en zénaga et la question des relateurs en berbère ", Éd. M. Moriggi, XII Incontro Italiano di Linguistici Camito-semitica (Afroasiatica). Atti, Rubbettino: Medioevo Romanzo e Orientale, pp. 301–310.
  • Taine-Cheikh, Catherine. 2007. " Voix moyenne et variations d'actance: le réfléchi en arabe et en berbère (exemples de Mauritanie) ", Éd. A. Rousseau, D. Bottineau et D. Roulland, L'énoncé réfléchi", Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, pp. 321–342.
  • Taine-Cheikh, Catherine. 2007. " Périphérie géographique et perméabilité aux contacts. Le cas du Maghreb ", Romano-Arabica, n° 6–7 (2006–2007 "Peripheral Arabic Dialects", Éd. George Grigore), pp. 159–178.
  • {{cite book |last=Taine-Cheikh |first=Catherine |year=2008 |chapter=Les verbes dérivés à préfixe "S" en berbère: le cas du zénaga, entre grammaire et lexique |editor-first=G. |editor-last=Takács |title=Semito-Hamitic Festschrift for A. B. Dolgopolsky and H. Jungraithmayr |location=Berlin |publisher=Dietrich Reimer |pages=284–309}}
  • {{cite book |last=Taine-Cheikh |first=Catherine |year=2008 |chapter=Arabe(s) et berbère en contact: le cas mauritanien |editor-first1=M. |editor-last1=Lafkioui |editor-first2=V. |editor-last2=Brugnatelli |trans-title=Berber in Contact. Linguistic and Sociolinguistic Perspectives |title=Le berbère en contact. Études en linguistique et sociolinguistique |series=Berber Studies |volume=22 |location=Köln |publisher=Rüdiger Köppe |isbn=978-3-89645-922-0 |pages=113–139}}
  • Taine-Cheikh, Catherine, "Dictionnaire zénaga-français. Le berbère de Mauritanie présenté par racines dans une perspective comparative", (Berber Studies; n° 20, 2008) Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, XCIX + 650 p. [avec un avant-propos d'Abdel Wedoud Ould Cheikh], {{ISBN|978-3-89645-399-0}}
  • Taine-Cheikh, Catherine. 2009. " La lexicographie du zénaga et le problème de classement par racines ", Éd. R. Vossen, D. Ibriszimow & H.J. Stroomer, Etudes berbères IV. Essais lexicologiques et lexicographiques et autres articles. Actes du "4. Bayreuth-Frankfurt-Leidener Kolloquium zur Berberologie", 21–23 septembre 2006. (Berber Studies; n° 25). Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag {{ISBN|978-3-89645-925-1}}, pp. 231–247,
  • Taine-Cheikh, Catherine. 2009. " Les morphèmes de futur en arabe et en berbère. Réflexions pour une typologie ", Faits de Langues; n° 33 [special issue on the future], Paris: Ophrys, pp. 91–102.
  • Taine-Cheikh, Catherine. 2009. " L'aoriste en zénaga : Contribution à l'étude des aspects en berbère ", Éd. S. Chaker, A. Mettouchi et G. Philippson, Études de phonétique et linguistique berbères. Hommage à Naïma LOUALI (1961–2005), Paris: Peeters [series: SELAF n° 452, Maghreb-Sahara n° 23], pp. 231–249.
  • Taine-Cheikh, Catherine. 2009. " À propos de l'expression de l'état en zénaga. Apophonie et sous-catégorisation verbale en berbère et en arabe ", Éd. S. Baldi, Studi Maġribini Nuova Serie, vol. VII ("International Afro-Asiatic Congress. 11th–13th September 2008", at the University of Naples "L'Orientale", Italy, ed. by ), pp. 95–109.
  • {{cite book |last=Taine-Cheikh |first=Catherine |year=2010 |title=Dictionnaire français–zénaga (berbère de Mauritanie). Avec renvois au classement par racines du Dictionnaire zénaga–français |series=Berber Studies |volume=27 |location=Köln |publisher=Rüdiger Köppe |isbn=978-3-89645-927-5}}
  • {{cite book |last=Taine-Cheikh |first=Catherine |year=2010 |chapter=Ordre, injonction, souhait et serment en zénaga (étude comparative) |editor-first1=H. J. |editor-last1=Stroomer |editor-first2=M. |editor-last2=Kossmann |editor-first3=D. |editor-last3=Ibriszimow |editor-first4=R. |editor-last4=Vossen |title=Etudes berbères V. Essais sur des variations dialectales et autres articles |location=Köln |publisher=Rüdiger Köppe |series=Berber Studies |volume=28 |pages=191–212 |isbn=978-3-89645-928-2}}
  • Taine-Cheikh, Catherine. 2010. " The role of the Berber deictic ad and TAM markers in dependent clauses in Zenaga ", Éd. I. Bril (éd.), "Clause Linking and Clause Hierarchy. Syntax and pragmatics", Amsterdam / Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 355–398.
  • Taine-Cheikh, Catherine. 2010. " Aux origines de la culture matérielle des nomades de Mauritanie. Réflexions à partir des lexiques arabes et berbères ". "The Maghreb Review" ["Spécial issue on Mauritania", Part 1, Éd. P. Bonte et S. Boulay], 35 (n° 1–2), pp. 64–88.

{{refend}}

{{Incubator|zen}}{{Languages of Mauritania}}

{{Languages of Senegal}}

{{Berber languages}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Berbers in Mauritania

Category:Berbers in Senegal

Category:Western Berber languages

Category:Languages of Mauritania

Category:Languages of Senegal

Category:Endangered languages of Africa

Category:Verb–subject–object languages

Category:Endangered Afroasiatic languages