Arabs

{{further|Arab (etymology)}}

File:Epitaph Imru-l-Qays Louvre AO4083.jpg is an Arabic epitaph in Nabataean script of Imru' al-Qais, son of "Amr, king of all the Arabs". Basalt, found at Nimreh in the Hauran (Southern Syria), dated 7 December 328 CE.]]

The earliest documented use of the word Arab in reference to a people appears in the Kurkh Monoliths, an Akkadian-language record of the Assyrian conquest of Aram (9th century BCE). The Monoliths used the term to refer to Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula under King Gindibu, who fought as part of a coalition opposed to Assyria.{{Cite book|last=Retsö|first=Jan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pUepRuQO8ZkC&pg=PA105|title=The Arabs in Antiquity: Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0700716791|author-link=Jan Retsö}} pp. 105, 119, 125–127.

The related word ʾaʿrāb is used to refer to Bedouins today, in contrast to ʿArab which refers to Arabs in general.Wehr, Hans, and J. M. Cowan. A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (3rd ed.) Ithaca, NY: Spoken Language Services. p. 601. Both terms are mentioned around 40 times in pre-Islamic Sabaean inscriptions. The term ʿarab ('Arab') occurs also in the titles of the Himyarite kings from the time of 'Abu Karab Asad until MadiKarib Ya'fur. According to Sabaean grammar, the term ʾaʿrāb is derived from the term ʿarab. The term is also mentioned in Quranic verses, referring to people who were living in Madina and it might be a south Arabian loanword into Quranic language.{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/ABADY_Yemen_Archaeology_9_12|title=ABADY_Yemen_Archaeology_9_12|page=[https://archive.org/details/ABADY_Yemen_Archaeology_9_12/page/n142 127], 128}}

The oldest surviving indication of an Arab national identity is an inscription made in an archaic form of Arabic in 328 CE using the Nabataean alphabet, which refers to Imru' al-Qays ibn 'Amr as 'King of all the Arabs'.{{Cite book|first1=William|last1=Bowden|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fFhsk-ccTsAC&pg=PA91|title=Recent Research on the Late Antique Countryside|first2=Luke|last2=Lavan|first3=Carlos|last3=Machado|publisher=Brill|year=2004|isbn=978-9004136076|page=91}}{{Cite book|last=Ira M. Lapidus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kFJNBAAAQBAJ|title=A History of Islamic Societies|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0521514309|page=29}} Herodotus refers to the Arabs in the Sinai, southern Palestine, and the frankincense region (Southern Arabia). Other Ancient-Greek historians like Agatharchides, Diodorus Siculus and Strabo mention Arabs living in Mesopotamia (along the Euphrates), in Egypt (the Sinai and the Red Sea), southern Jordan (the Nabataeans), the Syrian steppe and in eastern Arabia (the people of Gerrha). Inscriptions dating to the 6th century BCE in Yemen include the term 'Arab'.{{Cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics|url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-644|date=2015|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.644|isbn=978-0199381135|last2=Healey|first2=J.F.|last1=Salles|first1=Jean-François|chapter=Arabs}}

The most popular Arab account holds that the word Arab came from an eponymous father named Ya'rub, who was supposedly the first to speak Arabic. Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani had another view; he states that Arabs were called gharab ('westerners') by Mesopotamians because Bedouins originally resided to the west of Mesopotamia; the term was then corrupted into Arab.

Yet another view is held by al-Masudi that the word Arab was initially applied to the Ishmaelites of the Arabah valley. In Biblical etymology, Arab (Hebrew: arvi) comes from the desert origin of the Bedouins it originally described (arava means 'wilderness').

The root ʿ-r-b has several additional meanings in Semitic languages—including 'west, sunset', 'desert', 'mingle', 'mixed', 'merchant' and 'raven'—and are "comprehensible" with all of these having varying degrees of relevance to the emergence of the name. It is also possible that some forms were metathetical from {{transliteration|sem|ʿ-B-R}}, 'moving around' (Arabic: {{transliteration|ar|DIN|ʿ-B-R}}, 'traverse') and hence, it is alleged, 'nomadic'.{{Cite web|title=The meaning of Arab land in the historical sources|url=http://uqu.edu.sa/page/ar/56829|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315055238/http://www.uqu.edu.sa/page/ar/56829|archive-date=15 March 2010}}

{{further|Pre-Islamic Arabia|Proto-Arabic language|Old Arabic}}

{{see also|Generations of Noah|Ishmaelites|Qahtanite}}

File:François-Joseph Navez - Agar et Ismaël dans le désert.jpg in the desert (1819) by François-Joseph Navez]]

Arabic is a Semitic language that belongs to the Afroasiatic language family. The majority of scholars accept the "Arabian Peninsula" has long been accepted as the original Urheimat (linguistic homeland) of the Semitic languages.Gray, Louis Herbert (2006) Introduction to Semitic Comparative LinguisticsCourtenay, James John (2009) The Language of Palestine and Adjacent RegionsKienast, Burkhart. (2001). Historische semitische SprachwissenschaftBromiley, Geoffrey W. (1995) The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia with some scholars investigating if its origins are in the Levant.{{Cite book|last=Murtonen|first=A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJc3AAAAIAAJ&q=ethiopia|title=Early Semitic: A Diachronical Inquiry into the Relationship of Ethiopic to the Other So-called South-East Semitic Languages|date=1967|publisher=Brill Archive}} The ancient Semitic-speaking peoples lived in the ancient Near East, including the Levant, Mesopotamia, and the Arabian Peninsula from the 3rd millennium BCE to the end of antiquity. Proto-Semitic likely reached the Arabian Peninsula by the 4th millennium BCE, and its daughter languages spread outward from there,{{Cite book|last=Postgate|first=J. N.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nXtlAAAAMAAJ|title=Languages of Iraq, Ancient and Modern|date=2007|publisher=British School of Archaeology in Iraq|isbn=978-0903472210}} while Old Arabic began to differentiate from Central Semitic by the start of the 1st millennium BCE.{{cite web|last1=Jallad|first1=Ahmad|date=2018|title=The earliest stages of Arabic and its linguistic classification|url=https://www.academia.edu/18470301}} Central Semitic is a branch of the Semitic language includes Arabic, Aramaic, Canaanite, Phoenician, Hebrew and others.{{cite journal|author=Aaron D. Rubin|author-link=Aaron D. Rubin|date=2008|title=The subgrouping of the Semitic languages|url=https://www.academia.edu/2603460|journal=Language and Linguistics Compass|volume=2|issue=1|pages=61–84|doi=10.1111/j.1749-818x.2007.00044.x}}{{cite book|last1=Jallad|first1=Ahmad|title=The Routledge Handbook of Arabic Linguistics|date=2018|publisher=Routledge|editor1=Elabbas Benmamoun|location=London|chapter=The earliest stages of Arabic and its linguistic classification|editor2=Reem Bassiouney|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/18470301}} The origins of Proto-Semitic may lie in the Arabian Peninsula, with the language spreading from there to other regions. This theory proposes that Semitic peoples reached Mesopotamia and other areas from the deserts to the west, such as the Akkadians who entered Mesopotamia around the late 4th millennium BCE. The origins of Semitic peoples are thought to include various regions Mesopotamia, the Levant, the Arabian Peninsula, and North Africa. Some view that Semitic may have originated in the Levant around 3800 BCE and subsequently spread to the Horn of Africa around 800 BCE from Arabia, as well as to North Africa.{{cite journal|last1=Kitchen|first1=A.|last2=Ehret|first2=C.|last3=Assefa|first3=S.|last4=Mulligan|first4=C. J.|date=29 April 2009|title=Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of Semitic languages identified an Early Bronze Age origin of Semitic in the Near East|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=276|issue=1668|pages=2703–2710|doi=10.1098/rspb.2009.0408|pmc=2839953|pmid=19403539}}Sabatino Moscati (2001). The Phoenicians. I.B. Tauris. p. 654. {{ISBN|978-1850435334}}.

According to Arab–Islamic–Jewish traditions, Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar was "father of the Arabs".{{Cite book|last=Jones|first=Lindsay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0jMOAQAAMAAJ&q=Ishmael|title=Encyclopedia of religion|date=2005|publisher=Macmillan Reference|isbn=978-0028657400}}{{cite book|author=Fredrick E. Greenspahn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0jMOAQAAMAAJ&q=Ishmael|title=Encyclopedia of Religion|publisher=Macmillan Reference|year=2005|isbn=978-0028657400|editor=Lindsay Jones|volume=7|pages=4551–4552|article=Ishmael}}

• {{cite book|last1=Noegel|first1=Scott B.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lNAWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA130|title=The A to Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism|last2=Wheeler|first2=Brannon M.|date=2010|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-1461718956}}
• {{cite web|title=Ishmael and Isaac|url=http://www.therefinersfire.org/ishmael_and_isaac.htm|website=therefinersfire.org}}A–Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism, Wheeler, Ishmael{{cite encyclopedia|year=2015|title=Abraham|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Islamica|publisher=Brill Publishers|location=Leiden and Boston|editor1-last=Madelung|editor1-first=Wilferd|volume=1|doi=10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0028|isbn=978-9004168602|issn=1875-9823|author-last=Sajjadi|author-first=Sadeq|orig-date=2008|translator-last=Negahban|translator-first=Farzin|editor2-last=Daftary|editor2-first=Farhad}}{{cite news|last=Siddiqui|first=Mona|author-link=Mona Siddiqui|title=Ibrahim – the Muslim view of Ibrahim|work=Religions|publisher=BBC|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/ibrahim.shtml|access-date=3 February 2013}} Ishmael was considered the ancestor of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam. The tribes of Central West Arabia called themselves the "people of Abraham and the offspring of Ishmael."Stacey, Aisha. [2013] 2020. "[https://www.islamreligion.com/articles/10302/signs-of-prophethood-in-noble-life-of-prophet-muhammad-part-1/ Signs of Prophethood in the Noble Life of Prophet Muhammad (part 1 of 2): Prophet Muhammad's Early Life]." The Religion of Islam. Retrieved 18 December 2017. § 18, p. 215.
• Gibb, Hamilton A. R., and J. H. Kramers. 1965. Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. pp. 191–98
• {{Cite book|last=Maalouf|first=Tony|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0BdsFRX55cC&pg=PA44|title=Arabs in the Shadow of Israel: The Unfolding of God's Prophetic Plan for Ishmael's Line|date=2003|publisher=Kregel Academic|isbn=978-0825493638}}
• {{Cite book|last=Urbain|first=Olivier|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oMLkUmraBCAC&pg=PA208|title=Music and Conflict Transformation: Harmonies and Dissonances in Geopolitics|date=2008|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1845115289}} Ibn Khaldun, an Arab scholar in the 8th century, described the Arabs as having Ishmaelite origins.{{Cite web|title=Levity.com, Islam|url=http://www.levity.com/alchemy/islam20.html|access-date=13 April 2010|publisher=Levity.com|archive-date=21 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521001536/http://www.levity.com/alchemy/islam20.html|url-status=dead}}

The Quran mentions that Ibrahim (Abraham) and his wife Hajar (Hagar) bore a prophetic child named Ishmael, who was gifted by God a favor above other nations.{{qref|6|86|b=y}} Ibrahim and Ishmael built the Kaaba in Mecca, which was originally constructed by Adam.{{qref|14|37|b=y}} According to the Samaritan book Asaṭīr:{{cite book|last=Gaster|first=Moses|title=The Asatir: the Samaritan book of Moses|publisher=Royal Asiatic Society|year=1927|location=London|chapter=VIII|oclc=540827714|author-link=Moses Gaster|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/MN40245ucmf_0#page/n271/mode/2up}}{{rp|262}} "And after the death of Abraham, Ishmael reigned twenty-seven years; And all the children of Nebaot ruled for one year in the lifetime of Ishmael; And for thirty years after his death from the river of Egypt to the river Euphrates; and they built Mecca."{{Cite book|last=Gaster|first=Moses|url=http://archive.org/details/MN40245ucmf_0|title=The Asatir [microform] the Samaritan book of the "Secrets of Moses"|date=1927|publisher=London : The Royal Asiatic society|others=Internet Archive}} The Targum Onkelos annotates (Genesis 25:16), describing the extent of their settlements: The Ishmaelites lived from Hindekaia (India) to Chalutsa (possibly in Arabia), by the side of Mizraim (Egypt), and from the area around Arthur (Assyria) up towards the north. This description suggests that the Ishmaelites were a widely dispersed group with a presence across a significant portion of the ancient Near East.{{cite book|author=Onkelos|title=Targum Onkelos|via=targum.info|language=arc|chapter=Section V. Chaiyey Sarah|author-link=Onkelos|chapter-url=http://targum.info/pj/pjgen23-5.htm}}{{Cite web|title=JCR – Comp. JPS, Targums Onkelos, Palestinian, Jerusalem – Genesis 25|url=https://juchre.org/targums/comp/gen25.htm|access-date=2023-05-02|website=juchre.org}}

{{main|History of the Arabs}}

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The nomads of Arabia have been spreading through the desert fringes of the Fertile Crescent since at least 3000 BCE, but the first known reference to the Arabs as a distinct group is from an Assyrian scribe recording the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BCE.{{Cite web|title=HISTORY OF THE ARABS|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=936&HistoryID=aa94>rack=pthc|access-date=2023-05-01|website=historyworld.net}}Noble, John Travis. 2013. "Let Ishmael Live Before You!" Finding a Place for Hagar's Son in the Priestly Tradition. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University. The history of the Arabs during the pre-Islamic period covers various regions such as Arabia, Levant, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. The Arabs were mentioned by their neighbors, such as Assyrian and Babylonian Royal Inscriptions from 9th to 6th century BCE.{{Cite book|last=Delitzsche|title=Assyriesche Lesestuche|year=1912|location=Leipzig|oclc=2008786}}{{Cite book|last=Montgomery|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.76203|title=Arabia and the Bible|publisher=U of Pennsylvania|year=1934|location=Philadelphia|oclc=639516}}{{Cite book|last=Winnet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uEFjAAAAMAAJ&q=qedar|title=Ancient Records from North Arabia|year=1970|isbn=978-0802052193|pages=51, 52|publisher=University of Toronto Press|oclc=79767|quote=king of kedar (Qedarites) is named alternatively as king of Ishmaelites and king of Arabs in Assyrian Inscriptions}}{{Cite book|last=Stetkevychc|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OVXC72Td6CsC&pg=PA76|title=Muhammad and the Golden Bough|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0253332080|quote=Assyrian records document Ishmaelites as Qedarites and as Arabs}} There are also records from Sargon's reign that mention sellers of iron to people called Arabs in Ḫuzaza in Babylon, causing Sargon to prohibit such trade out of fear that the Arabs might use the resource to manufacture weapons against the Assyrian army. The history of the Arabs in relation to the Bible shows that they were a significant part of the region and played a role in the lives of the Israelites. The study asserts that the Arab nation is an ancient and significant entity; however, it highlights that the Arabs lacked a collective awareness of their unity. They did not inscribe their identity as Arabs or assert exclusive ownership over specific territories.{{Cite web|title=The Arabs of North Arabia in later Pre-Islamic Times:Qedar, Nebaioth, and Others|url=https://research.manchester.ac.uk/en/studentTheses/the-arabs-of-north-arabia-in-later-pre-islamic-timesqedar-nebaiot|access-date=2023-05-29|website=Research Explorer The University of Manchester}}

File:Midian.png

Magan, Midian, and ʿĀd are all ancient tribes or civilizations that are mentioned in Arabic literature and have roots in the Arabia. Magan ({{langx|ar|مِجَانُ}}, {{transliteration|ar|ALA|Majan}}), known for its production of copper and other metals, the region was an important trading center in ancient times and is mentioned in the Qur'an as a place where Musa (Moses) traveled during his lifetime.{{cite web|last1=Zarins|first1=Juris|title=The Archeology Fund|url=http://www.arabian-archaeology.com/aboutlinks.htm|access-date=30 November 2021|website=The Archeology Fund|archive-date=1 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801154135/http://www.arabian-archaeology.com/aboutlinks.htm|url-status=dead}}{{cite web|author=M. Redha Bhacker and Bernadette Bhacker|title=Digging in the Land of Magan|url=http://www.archaeology.org/9705/abstracts/magan.html|publisher=Archaeological Institute of America|access-date=31 March 2023|archive-date=29 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529051003/http://www.archaeology.org/9705/abstracts/magan.html|url-status=dead}} Midian ({{langx|ar|مَدْيَن}}, {{transliteration|ar|ALA|Madyan}}), on the other hand, was a region located in the northwestern part of the Arabia, the people of Midian are mentioned in the Qur'an as having worshiped idols and having been punished by God for their disobedience.{{citation|last=Dever|first=W. G.|title=Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?|date=2006|page=34|publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.|isbn=978-0802844163|author-link=William G. Dever}}{{Cite web|title=Genesis 25:1–2|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis+25%3A1-2&version=KJV|website=Bible Gateway|version=King James Version}} Moses also lived in Midian for a time, where he married and worked as a shepherd. ʿĀd ({{langx|ar|عَادَ}}, {{transliteration|ar|ALA|ʿĀd}}), as mentioned earlier, was an ancient tribe that lived in the southern Arabia, the tribe was known for its wealth, power, and advanced technology, but they were ultimately destroyed by a powerful windstorm as punishment for their disobedience to God.{{cite book|title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936|date=1987|publisher=Brill|isbn=90-04-08265-4|volume=1|page=121}} ʿĀd is regarded as one of the original Arab tribes.F. Buhl, "ʿĀd", in Encyclopaedia of Islam, ed. by Paul Bearman and others, 2nd edn, 12 vols (Leiden: Brill, 1960–2005), {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0290}}, {{ISBN|978-9004161214}}.{{cite book|title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936|date=1987|publisher=Brill|isbn=9004082654|volume=8|page=1074}}

The historian Herodotus provided extensive information about Arabia, describing the spices, terrain, folklore, trade, clothing, and weapons of the Arabs. In his third book, he mentioned the Arabs as a force to be reckoned with in the north of the Arabian Peninsula just before Cambyses' campaign against Egypt. Other Greek and Latin authors who wrote about Arabia include Theophrastus, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, and Pliny the Elder. The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus wrote about the Arabs and their king, mentioning their relationship with Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt. The tribute paid by the Arab king to Cleopatra was collected by Herod, the king of the Jews, but the Arab king later became slow in his payments and refused to pay without further deductions.{{Cite web|title=Josephus: Antiquities of the Jews, Book XV|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/josephus/ant-15.html|access-date=2023-04-30|website=penelope.uchicago.edu}} Geshem the Arab was an Arab man who opposed Nehemiah in the Hebrew Bible (Neh. 2:19, 6:1). He was likely the chief of the Arab tribe "Gushamu" and have been a powerful ruler with influence stretching from northern Arabia to Judah. The Arabs and the Samaritans made efforts to hinder Nehemiah's rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem.{{Cite web|date=2013-02-23|title=HOW TO HANDLE OPPOSITION|url=https://abidanshah.com/2013/02/23/how-to-handle-opposition/|access-date=2023-04-30|website=abidanshah.com}}{{Cite web|title=Geshem the Arabian|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6639-geshem-the-arabian|access-date=2023-05-01|website=jewishencyclopedia.com}}{{Cite web|title=Geshem, Gashmu|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/geshem-gashmu|access-date=2023-05-01|website=encyclopedia.com}}

[[File:Roman Empire - Arabia Petraea (125 AD).svg|thumb|Arabia Petraea or simply Arabia existed from the 2nd century onwards.

Including regions in Jordan, Palestine, the Sinai Peninsula, and the northwestern Arabian Peninsula]]

File:Al-Khazneh (The Treasury), Petra, Jordan.jpg in Petra, capital of the Nabataean Kingdom, built as a mausoleum to Nabataean King Aretas IV in the first century AD]]

The term "Saracens" was a term used in the early centuries, both in Greek and Latin writings, to refer to the "Arabs" who lived in and near what was designated by the Romans as Arabia Petraea (Levant) and Arabia Deserta (Arabia).{{Cite book|last=Retsö|first=Jan|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/857081715|title=The Arabs in antiquity : their history from the Assyrians to the Umayyads|date=2003|publisher=RoutledgeCurzon|isbn=978-1315029535|location=London|oclc=857081715}}{{Cite web|title=Eyewitnesstohistory|url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/lionheart.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100402073536/http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/lionheart.htm|archive-date=2 April 2010|access-date=13 April 2010|website=Eyewitnesstohistory.com}} The Christians of Iberia used the term Moor to describe all the Arabs and Muslims of that time. Arabs of Medina referred to the nomadic tribes of the deserts as the A'raab, and considered themselves sedentary, but were aware of their close racial bonds. Hagarenes is a term widely used by early Syriac, Greek, and Armenian to describe the early Arab conquerors of Mesopotamia, Syria and Egypt, refers to the descendants of Hagar, who bore a son named Ishmael to Abraham in the Old Testament. In the Bible, the Hagarenes referred to as "Ishmaelites" or "Arabs."{{Cite web|title=Ibn Khaldun and The Myth of "Arab Invasion"|url=https://www.versobooks.com/blogs/news/3293-ibn-khaldun-and-the-myth-of-arab-invasion|access-date=2023-05-01|website=Verso}} The Arab conquests in the 7th century was a sudden and dramatic conquest led by Arab armies, which quickly conquered much of the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain. It was a significant moment for Islam, which saw itself as the successor of Judaism and Christianity.{{Cite web|title=HISTORY OF THE ARABS|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=944&HistoryID=aa94>rack=pthc|access-date=2023-05-01|website=historyworld.net}}

{{Main|Pre-Islamic Arabia|Dilmun|Gerrha|Thamud|Qedarites|Lihyan|}}

File:Receipt for garnments sent by boat to Dilmun BM 130462.jpg's rule, circa 2028 BCE.{{cite web|title=tablet|url=https://research.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=327231&page=171&partId=1&peoA=92773-3-12&people=92773|website=British Museum}}Transcription: {{cite web|title=CDLI-Archival View|url=https://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectID=P137833|website=cdli.ucla.edu}}]]

Limited local historical coverage of these civilizations means that archaeological evidence, foreign accounts and Arab oral traditions are largely relied on to reconstruct this period. Prominent civilizations at the time included, Dilmun civilization was an important trading centre{{cite journal|author=Jesper Eidema, Flemming Højlundb|date=1993|title=Trade or diplomacy? Assyria and Dilmun in the eighteenth century BC|journal=World Archaeology|volume=24|issue=3|pages=441–448|doi=10.1080/00438243.1993.9980218}} which at the height of its power controlled the Arabian Gulf trading routes. The Sumerians regarded Dilmun as holy land.{{cite book|last1=Rice|first1=Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fC6DAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA230|title=Egypt's Making: The Origins of Ancient Egypt 5000–2000 BC|year=1991|isbn=978-1134492633|page=230|publisher=Routledge}} Dilmun is regarded as one of the oldest ancient civilizations in the Middle East.{{cite news|date=21 May 2013|title=Bahrain digs unveil one of oldest civilisations|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-22596270|url-status=live|access-date=11 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113080926/http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-22596270|archive-date=13 November 2014}}{{cite web|title=Qal'at al-Bahrain – Ancient Harbour and Capital of Dilmun|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1192|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405042527/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1192|archive-date=5 April 2012|access-date=17 August 2011|publisher=UNESCO}} which arose around the 4th millennium BCE and lasted to 538 BCE. Gerrha was an ancient city of Eastern Arabia, on the west side of the Gulf, Gerrha was the center of an Arab kingdom from approximately 650 BCE to circa CE 300. Thamud, which arose around the 1st millennium BCE and lasted to about 300 CE. From the beginning of the first millennium BCE, Proto-Arabic, or Ancient North Arabian, texts give a clearer picture of the Arabs' emergence. The earliest are written in variants of epigraphic south Arabian musnad script, including the 8th century BCE Hasaean inscriptions of eastern Saudi Arabia, the Thamudic texts found throughout the Arabian Peninsula and Sinai.

File:Qedarites Map.svg

The Qedarites were a largely nomadic ancient Arab tribal confederation centred in the Wādī Sirḥān in the Syrian Desert. They were known for their nomadic lifestyle and for their role in the caravan trade that linked the Arabian Peninsula with the Mediterranean world. The Qedarites gradually expanded their territory over the course of the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, and by the 6th century BCE, they had consolidated into a kingdom that covered a large area in northern Arabia, southern Palestine, and the Sinai Peninsula. The Qedarites were influential in the ancient Near East, and their kingdom played a significant role in the political and economic affairs of the region for several centuries.{{Cite web|last=Kessler|first=P. L.|title=Kingdoms of the Arabs – Kedar / Kedarites|url=https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsMiddEast/ArabicKedar.htm|access-date=2023-03-31|website=The History Files}}

File:Queen of Sheba0027.jpg

Sheba ({{langx|ar|سَبَأٌ}} Saba) is kingdom mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) and the Quran, though Sabaean was a South Arabian languaged and not an Arabic one. Sheba features in Jewish, Muslim, and Christian traditions, whose lineage goes back to Qahtan son of Hud, one of the ancestors of the Arabs,{{Cite web|title=Landmarks of the Ancient Kingdom of Saba, Marib|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1700/|access-date=2023-03-23|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}{{qref|27|6–93|b=y}}{{qref|34|15–18|b=y}} Sheba was mentioned in Assyrian inscriptions and in the writings of Greek and Roman writers.{{Cite web|date=2015-05-04|title=British Museum – The kingdoms of ancient South Arabia|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/online_tours/middle_east/ancient_south_arabia/the_kingdoms_of_ancient_south.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504061448/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/online_tours/middle_east/ancient_south_arabia/the_kingdoms_of_ancient_south.aspx|archive-date=4 May 2015|access-date=2023-03-25}} One of the ancient written references that also spoke of Sheba is the Old Testament, which stated that the people of Sheba supplied Syria and Egypt with incense, especially frankincense, and exported gold and precious stones to them.{{Cite web|title=Saba' {{!}} History, Kingdom, & Sabaeans {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Saba-ancient-kingdom-Arabia|access-date=2023-03-25|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}} File:Dhamar Ali Yahbur (bust).jpg king who reigned in late 3rd or early 4th century CE. Displayed in the Sana'a National Museum.]] Sabaeans are mentioned several times in the Hebrew Bible. In the Quran,{{Cite book|last=Wheeler|first=Brannon M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lo9jAavEHdIC&pg=PA166|title=Prophets in the Quran: An Introduction to the Quran and Muslim Exegesis|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|year=2002|isbn=0-8264-4956-5|page=166}} they are described as either {{transliteration|ar|Sabaʾ}} ({{lang|ar|سَبَأ}}, not to be confused with {{transliteration|ar|Ṣābiʾ}}, {{lang|ar|صَابِئ}}), or as {{transliteration|ar|Qawm Tubbaʿ|italics=yes}} ({{langx|ar|قَوْم تُبَّع|lit=People of Tubbaʿ|link=no}}).{{qref|44|37|b=y}}{{qref|50|12–14|b=y}} They were known for their prosperous trade and agricultural economy, which was based on the cultivation of frankincense and myrrh. These highly valued aromatic resins were exported to Egypt, Greece, and Rome, making the Sabaeans wealthy and powerful, they also traded in spices, textiles, and other luxury goods. The Maʾrib Dam was one of the greatest engineering achievements of the ancient world, and it provided water for the city of Maʾrib and the surrounding agricultural lands.{{Citation|last=Zaidi|first=Asghar|title=Conceptualising Well-being of Older People|date=2017|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315234182-2|work=Well-being of Older People in Ageing Societies|pages=33–53|access-date=2023-03-25|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781315234182-2|isbn=978-1315234182}}Kenneth A. Kitchen The World of "Ancient Arabia" Series. Documentation for Ancient Arabia. Part I. Chronological Framework and Historical Sources p.110

Lihyan also called Dadān or Dedan was a powerful and highly organized ancient Arab kingdom that played a vital cultural and economic role in the north-western region of the Arabian Peninsula and used Dadanitic language.{{cite web|author=|title=Liḥyān – Ancient Kingdom, Arabia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Lihyan|access-date=7 March 2017|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}} The Lihyanites were known for their advanced organization and governance, and they played a significant role in the cultural and economic life of the region. The kingdom was centered around the city of Dedan (modern-day Al Ula), and it controlled a large territory that extended from Yathrib in the south to parts of the Levant in the north.{{Cite web|title=Lion Tombs of Dedan|url=https://www.saudiarabiatourismguide.com/lion-tombs-dedan//|access-date=2023-03-31|website=saudiarabiatourismguide.com}} The Arab genealogies consider the Banu Lihyan to be Ishmaelites, and used Dadanitic language.{{cite book|last=Nethanel ben Isaiah|title=Sefer Me'or ha-Afelah|date=1983|publisher=Mechon Moshe|location=Kiryat Ono|page=119|language=he|translator=Yosef Qafih|oclc=970925649|author-link=Nethanel ben Isaiah}}

The Kingdom of Ma'in was an ancient Arab kingdom with a hereditary monarchy system and a focus on agriculture and trade.{{Cite journal|last=Rossi|first=Irene|date=2014|title=The Minaeans beyond Maʿīn|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43782855|journal=Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies|volume=44|pages=111–123|issn=0308-8421|jstor=43782855}} Proposed dates range from the 15th century BCE to the 1st century CE Its history has been recorded through inscriptions and classical Greek and Roman books, although the exact start and end dates of the kingdom are still debated. The Ma'in people had a local governance system with councils called "Mazood," and each city had its own temple that housed one or more gods. They also adopted the Phoenician alphabet and used it to write their language. The kingdom eventually fell to the Arab Sabaean people.{{Cite journal|last=Weimar|first=Jason|date=November 2021|title=The Minaeans after Maʿīn? The latest presently dateable Minaic text and the God of Maʿīn|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aae.12176|journal=Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy|volume=32|issue=S1|pages=376–387|doi=10.1111/aae.12176|issn=0905-7196|s2cid=233780447}}{{Cite web|title=Ma'in {{!}} History, Minaeans, & Temple {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Main-ancient-kingdom-Yemen|access-date=2023-03-23|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}File:Qataban lion bronze.jpgQataban was an ancient kingdom located in the South Arabia, which existed from the early 1st millennium BCE till the late 1st or 2nd centuries CE.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Kitchen|2001|page=123}} It developed into a centralized state in the 6th century BCE with two co-kings ruling poles.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=48}} Qataban expanded its territory, including the conquest of Ma'in and successful campaigns against the Sabaeans.{{sfn|Kitchen|2001|page=123}}{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}{{sfn|Schiettecatte|2017}} It challenged the supremacy of the Sabaeans in the region and waged a successful war against Hadramawt in the 3rd century BCE.{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=46}} Qataban's power declined in the following centuries, leading to its annexation by Hadramawt and Ḥimyar in the 1st century CE.{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=42}}{{sfn|Kitchen|2001|page=123}}{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=47}}{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}

The Kingdom of Hadhramaut it was known for its rich cultural heritage, as well as its strategic location along important trade routes that connected the Middle East, South Asia, and East Africa.{{Cite journal|last1=Sedov|first1=Alexander V.|last2=Bâtâyiʿ|first2=Ahmad|date=1994|title=Temples of Ancient Hadramawt|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41223417|journal=Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies|volume=24|pages=183–196|issn=0308-8421|jstor=41223417}} The Kingdom was established around the 3rd century BCE, and it reached its peak during the 2nd century CE, when it controlled much of the southern Arabian Peninsula. The kingdom was known for its impressive architecture, particularly its distinctive towers, which were used as watchtowers, defensive structures, and homes for wealthy families.{{Cite web|title=Hadhramaut|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Hadhramaut|access-date=2023-03-26|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}} The people of Hadhramaut were skilled in agriculture, especially in growing frankincense and myrrh. They had a strong maritime culture and traded with India, East Africa, and Southeast Asia.{{Cite web|title=Arabian Peninsula, 1–500 A.D.|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/05/wap.html|access-date=2023-03-26|website=The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History}} Although the kingdom declined in the 4th century, Hadhramaut remained a cultural and economic center. Its legacy can still be seen today.{{Cite web|title=Hadramawt|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/hadramawt|access-date=2023-03-26|website=encyclopedia.com}}

File:HymiariteKingdomAugustusImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg Kingdom, southern coast of the Arabian peninsula.]]

The ancient Kingdom of Awsān (8th–7th century BCE) was indeed one of the most important small kingdoms of South Arabia, and its capital Ḥajar Yaḥirr was a significant center of trade and commerce in the ancient world. The destruction of the city in the 7th century BCE by the king and Mukarrib of Saba' Karab El Watar is a significant event in the history of South Arabia. The victory of the Sabaeans over Awsān is also a testament to the military might and strategic prowess of the Sabaeans, who were one of the most powerful and influential kingdoms in the region.{{Cite web|title=History of Arabia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Arabia-31558|access-date=2023-06-07|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}

The Himyarite Kingdom or Himyar, was an ancient kingdom that existed from around the 2nd century BCE to the 6th century CE. It was centered in the city of Zafar, which is located in present-day Yemen. The Himyarites were an Arab people who spoke a South Arabian language and were known for their prowess in trade and seafaring,{{Cite journal|last1=Playfair|first1=Col|year=1867|title=On the Himyaritic Inscriptions Lately brought to England from Southern Arabia|journal=Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London|volume=5|pages=174–177|doi=10.2307/3014224|jstor=3014224}} they controlled the southern part of Arabia and had a prosperous economy based on agriculture, commerce, and maritime trade, they were skilled in irrigation and terracing, which allowed them to cultivate crops in the arid environment. The Himyarites converted to Judaism in the 4th century CE, and their rulers became known as the "Kings of the Jews", this conversion was likely influenced by their trade connections with the Jewish communities of the Red Sea region and the Levant, however, the Himyarites also tolerated other religions, including Christianity and the local pagan religions.

{{main|Nabataeans|Palmyra|Palmyrene Empire|Itureans|Osroene|Kingdom of Hatra|Arbayistan|Adiabene|Emesene dynasty}}

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The Nabataeans were nomadic Arabs who settled in a territory centred around their capital of Petra in what is now Jordan.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA483|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East|date=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1438126760}}* [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/263437/Herod Herod] at Encyclopædia Britannica: "Herod was born in southern Palestine. His father, Antipater, was an Edomite (a Semitic people, identified by some scholars as Arab, who converted to Judaism in the 2nd century BCE). Antipater was a man of great influence and wealth who increased both by marrying the daughter of a noble from Petra (in southwestern Jordan), at that time the capital of the rising Arab Nabataean kingdom. Thus, Herod was of Arab origin, although he was a practicing Jew."

• {{cite web|last=Perowne|first=Stewart Henry|date=25 June 2015|title=Herod – king of Judaea|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Herod-king-of-Judaea|url-status=unfit|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150625081825/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Herod-king-of-Judaea|archive-date=25 June 2015|access-date=22 November 2020|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}} Their early inscriptions were in Aramaic, but gradually switched to Arabic, and since they had writing, it was they who made the first inscriptions in Arabic. The Nabataean alphabet was adopted by Arabs to the south, and evolved into modern Arabic script around the 4th century. This is attested by Safaitic inscriptions (beginning in the 1st century BCE) and the many Arabic personal names in Nabataean inscriptions. From about the 2nd century BCE, a few inscriptions from Qaryat al-Faw reveal a dialect no longer considered proto-Arabic, but pre-classical Arabic. Five Syriac inscriptions mentioning Arabs have been found at Sumatar Harabesi, one of which dates to the 2nd century CE.{{cite web|title=Herod|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Herod-king-of-Judaea|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=10 August 2023}}{{cite book|last1=Catherwood|first1=Christopher|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=krKeBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT63|title=A Brief History of the Middle East|date=2011|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|isbn=978-1849018074}}

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Arabs are first recorded in Palmyra in the late first millennium BCE.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA278 278]}} The soldiers of the sheikh Zabdibel, who aided the Seleucids in the battle of Raphia (217 BCE), were described as Arabs; Zabdibel and his men were not actually identified as Palmyrenes in the texts, but the name "Zabdibel" is a Palmyrene name leading to the conclusion that the sheikh hailed from Palmyra.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA359 359]}} After the Battle of Edessa in 260 CE. Valerian's capture by the Sassanian king Shapur I was a significant blow to Rome, and it left the empire vulnerable to further attacks. Zenobia was able to capture most of the Near East, including Egypt and parts of Asia Minor. However, their empire was short-lived, as Aurelian was able to defeat the Palmyrenes and recover the lost territories. The Palmyrenes were helped by their Arab allies, but Aurelian was also able to leverage his own alliances to defeat Zenobia and her army. Ultimately, the Palmyrene Empire lasted only a few years, but it had a significant impact on the history of the Roman Empire and the Near East.

Most scholars identify the Itureans as an Arab people who inhabited the region of Iturea,{{cite journal|author=David F. Graf|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/topoi_1764-0733_2003_act_4_1_2871|title=Arabs in Syria: Demography and Epigraphy|journal=Topoi. Orient-Occident|publisher=Topoi. Orient-Occident. Supplément|year=2003|volume=4|issue=1|pages=319–340}}{{cite book|author=Irfan Shahîd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W4H97SA6pMAC&q=ituraeans+old+arab+people+irfan+shahid&pg=PA5|title=Rome and the Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks|year=1984|isbn=978-0884021155|edition=Hardcover|page=5}}{{cite book|author=Mark A. Chancey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YrrRaeP5po0C&q=arab|title=The Myth of a Gentile Galilee (Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series)|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=0521814871|edition=Hardcover|page=44}}{{cite book|author1=Zuleika Rodgers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5I8zfmwEjjUC&q=itureans+arabs&pg=PA207|title=A Wandering Galilean: Essays in Honour of Seán Freyne (Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism)|author2=Margaret Daly-Denton|author3=Anne Fitzpatrick-McKinley|publisher=Brill|year=2009|isbn=978-9004173552|edition=Hardcover|page=207}} emerged as a prominent power in the region after the decline of the Seleucid Empire in the 2nd century BCE, from their base around Mount Lebanon and the Beqaa Valley, they came to dominate vast stretches of Syrian territory,Steve Mason, Life of Josephus,Brill, 2007 p.54, n.306. and appear to have penetrated into northern parts of Palestine as far as the Galilee. Tanukhids were an Arab tribal confederation that lived in the central and eastern Arabian Peninsula during the late ancient and early medieval periods. As mentioned earlier, they were a branch of the Rabi'ah tribe, which was one of the largest Arab tribes in the pre-Islamic period. They were known for their military prowess and played a significant role in the early Islamic period, fighting in battles against the Byzantine and Sassanian empires and contributing to the expansion of the Arab empire.Ball, Warwick (2001), Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire, Routledge, {{ISBN|0415113768}} pp. 98–102

File:Northern Mesopotamian vassal kingdoms AD 200.png

The Osroene Arabs, also known as the Abgarids,{{cite book|last1=Bowman|first1=Alan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&q=%22arab+principality+of+edessa%22&pg=PA508|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337|last2=Garnsey|first2=Peter|last3=Cameron|first3=Averil|date=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521301992}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Osroene|title=Osroëne | Middle East, Syria, Armenia | Britannica|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}{{cite book|last1=Skolnik|first1=Fred|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JD0OAQAAMAAJ&q=%22the+Arab+kingdom%22|title=Encyclopaedia Judaica|last2=Berenbaum|first2=Michael|date=2007|publisher=Macmillan Reference US|isbn=978-0028659435}} were in possession of the city of Edessa in the ancient Near East for a significant period of time. Edessa was located in the region of Osroene, which was an ancient kingdom that existed from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. They established a dynasty known as the Abgarids, which ruled Edessa for several centuries. The most famous ruler of the dynasty was Abgar V, who is said to have corresponded with Jesus Christ and is believed to have converted to Christianity.{{iranica|abgar-dynasty-of-edessa-2nd-century-bc-to-3rd-century-ad}}{{blockquote|The fame of Edessa in history rests, however, mainly on its claim to have been the first kingdom to adopt Christianity as its official religion. According to the legend current for centuries throughout the civilized world, Abgar Ukkama wrote to Jesus, inviting him to visit him at Edessa to heal him from sickness. In return he received the blessing of Jesus and subsequently was converted by the evangelist Addai. There is, however, no factual evidence for Christianity at Edessa before the reign of Abgar the Great, 150 years later. Scholars are generally agreed that the legend has confused the two Abgars. It cannot be proved that Abgar the Great adopted Christianity; but his friend Bardaiṣan was a heterodox Christian, and there was a church at Edessa in 201. It is testimony to the personality of Abgar the Great that he is credited by tradition with a leading role in the evangelization of Edessa.}} The Abgarids played an important role in the early history of Christianity in the region, and Edessa became a center of Christian learning and scholarship.{{cite web|last1=Ring|first1=Steven|title=History of Syriac texts and Syrian Christianity – Table 1|url=http://www.syriac.talktalk.net/chron_tab1.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227034200/http://www.syriac.talktalk.net/chron_tab1.html|archive-date=2018-02-27|access-date=2018-02-26|website=syriac.talktalk.net}} The Kingdom of Hatra was an ancient city located in the region of Mesopotamia, it was founded in the 2nd or 3rd century BCE and flourished as a major center of trade and culture during the Parthian Empire. The rulers of Hatra were known as the Arsacid dynasty, which was a branch of the Parthian ruling family. However, in the 2nd century CE, the Arab tribe of Banu Tanukh seized control of Hatra and established their own dynasty. The Arab rulers of Hatra assumed the title of "malka," which means king in Arabic, and they often referred to themselves as the "King of the Arabs."{{cite journal|last1=de Jong|first1=Albert|date=2013|title=Hatra and the Parthian Commonwealth|url=https://www.academia.edu/18709085|journal=Oriens et Occidens – Band 21|pages=143–161|url-access=registration}}File:KingdomOfEmesa.png

The Osroeni and Hatrans were part of several Arab groups or communities in upper Mesopotamia, which also included the Arabs of Adiabene which was an ancient kingdom in northern Mesopotamia, its chief city was Arbela (Arba-ilu), where Mar Uqba had a school, or the neighboring Hazzah, by which name the later Arabs also called Arbela.Yaqut, Geographisches Wörterbuch, ii. 263; Payne-Smith, Thesaurus Syriacus, under "Hadyab"; Hoffmann, Auszüge aus Syrischen Akten, pp. 241, 243.{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=54}} This Arab presence in upper Mesopotamia was acknowledged by the Sasanians, who called the region Arbayistan, meaning "land of the Arabs", is first attested as a province in the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht inscription of the second Sasanian King of Kings, Shapur I ({{reign|240|270}}),{{sfnp|Brunner|1983b|p=750}} which was erected in {{circa}} 262.{{sfnp|Rapp|2014|p=28}} The Emesene were a dynasty of Arab priest-kings that ruled the city of Emesa (modern-day Homs, Syria) in the Roman province of Syria from the 1st century CE to the 3rd century CE. The dynasty is notable for producing a number of high priests of the god El-Gabal, who were also influential in Roman politics and culture. The first ruler of the Emesene dynasty was Sampsiceramus I, who came to power in 64 CE. He was succeeded by his son, Iamblichus, who was followed by his own son, Sampsiceramus II. Under Sampsiceramus II, Emesa became a client kingdom of the Roman Empire, and the dynasty became more closely tied to Roman political and cultural traditions.{{cite book|last1=Bowman|first1=Alan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&q=Emesa+dynasty+arab+city&pg=PA502|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337|last2=Garnsey|first2=Peter|last3=Cameron|first3=Averil|date=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521301992}}; {{cite book|last1=Hornblower|first1=Simon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&q=%22arab+kingdom%22+emesa&pg=PA754|title=The Oxford Classical Dictionary|last2=Spawforth|first2=Antony|last3=Eidinow|first3=Esther|date=2012|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0199545568}}; {{harvnb|Ball|2000}}; {{cite book|last1=Burns|first1=Jasper|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hL99AgAAQBAJ&q=Emesa+arab+tribe&pg=PA181|title=Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars|date=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1134131853}}; {{cite book|last1=Prado|first1=Leonardo de Arrizabalaga y|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zHbXDgAAQBAJ&q=emesa+arab&pg=PA191|title=Varian Studies Volume One: Varius|date=2017|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|isbn=9781443893855}}; {{harvnb|Birley|2002}}; {{cite book|last=Shahid|first=Irfan|title=Rome and The Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs|date=1984|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks|isbn=0884021157|page=37}}; {{cite book|last1=Freisenbruch|first1=Annelise|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUR_3B97ctQC&q=%22arab+kingdom%22+emesa&pg=PA182|title=Caesars' Wives: Sex, Power, and Politics in the Roman Empire|date=2011|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1416583059}}

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}}The Ghassanids, Lakhmids and Kindites were the last major migration of pre-Islamic Arabs out of Yemen to the north. The Ghassanids increased the Semitic presence in then-Hellenized Syria, the majority of Semites were Aramaic peoples. They mainly settled in the Hauran region and spread to modern Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan. Greeks and Romans referred to all the nomadic population of the desert in the Near East as Arabi. The Romans called Yemen "Arabia Felix".{{Cite web|title=Dionysius Periegetes|url=http://www.cartographic-images.net/Cartographic_Images/117_Dionysius_Periegetes.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914113448/http://cartographic-images.net/Cartographic_Images/117_Dionysius_Periegetes.html|archive-date=14 September 2018|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Cartographic-images.net}} The Romans called the vassal nomadic states within the Roman Empire Arabia Petraea, after the city of Petra, and called unconquered deserts bordering the empire to the south and east Arabia Magna. File:Lakhmid.pngThe Lakhmids as a dynasty inherited their power from the Tanukhids, the mid Tigris region around their capital Al-Hira. They ended up allying with the Sassanids against the Ghassanids and the Byzantine Empire. The Lakhmids contested control of the Central Arabian tribes with the Kindites with the Lakhmids eventually destroying the Kingdom of Kinda in 540 after the fall of their main ally Himyar. The Persian Sassanids dissolved the Lakhmid dynasty in 602, being under puppet kings, then under their direct control.Harold Bailey [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ko_RafMSGLkC&pg=PR59 The Cambridge history of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods], Vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, 1983, {{ISBN|052120092X}} p. 59 The Kindites migrated from Yemen along with the Ghassanids and Lakhmids, but were turned back in Bahrain by the Abdul Qais Rabi'a tribe. They returned to Yemen and allied themselves with the Himyarites who installed them as a vassal kingdom that ruled Central Arabia from "Qaryah Dhat Kahl" (the present-day called Qaryat al-Faw). They ruled much of the Northern/Central Arabian peninsula, until they were destroyed by the Lakhmid king Al-Mundhir, and his son 'Amr.

The Ghassanids were an Arab tribe in the Levant in the early third century. According to Arab genealogical tradition, they were considered a branch of the Azd tribe. They fought alongside the Byzantines against the Sasanians and Arab Lakhmids. Most Ghassanids were Christians, converting to Christianity in the first few centuries, and some merged with Hellenized Christian communities. After the Muslim conquest of the Levant, few Ghassanids became Muslims, and most remained Christian and joined Melkite and Syriac communities within what is now Jordan, Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon.{{Cite book|last=Ganie|first=Mohammad Hafiz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mlxcEAAAQBAJ&dq=abu+quhafa&pg=PA13|title=Abu Bakr: The Beloved of My Beloved|publisher=Mohammad Hafiz Ganie|isbn=979-8411225921|access-date=2022-03-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131335/https://books.google.com/books?id=mlxcEAAAQBAJ&dq=abu+quhafa&pg=PA13|archive-date=2023-01-17|url-status=live}} The Salihids were Arab foederati in the 5th century, were ardent Christians, and their period is less documented than the preceding and succeeding periods due to a scarcity of sources. Most references to the Salihids in Arabic sources derive from the work of Hisham ibn al-Kalbi, with the Tarikh of Ya'qubi considered valuable for determining the Salihids' fall and the terms of their foedus with the Byzantines.{{Cite journal|last=Barker|first=John W.|date=1996-04-01|title=Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fifth Century|url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&issn=00030279&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA19027534&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102112427/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&issn=00030279&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA19027534&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 November 2023|journal=The Journal of the American Oriental Society|language=English|volume=116|issue=2|pages=304–306|doi=10.2307/605736|jstor=605736}}

{{main|Spread of Islam|Arab conquests}}

File:The Early Muslim Conquests 630s to 820s.svg

During the Middle Ages, Arab civilization flourished and the Arabs made significant contributions to the fields of science, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, and literature, with the rise of great cities like Baghdad, Cairo, and Cordoba, they became centers of learning, attracting scholars, scientists, and intellectuals.{{Cite journal|last=Wenner|first=Manfred W.|date=1980|title=The Arab/Muslim Presence in Medieval Central Europe|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/163627|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=12|issue=1|pages=59–79|doi=10.1017/S0020743800027136|issn=0020-7438|jstor=163627|s2cid=162537404}}{{Cite web|title=A Golden age of Arab culture|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000074817|access-date=2023-03-26|website=unesdoc.unesco.org}} Arabs forged many empires and dynasties, most notably, the Rashidun Empire, the Umayyad Empire, the Abbasid Empire, the Fatimid Empire, among others. These empires were characterized by their expansion, scientific achievements, and cultural flourishing, extended from Spain to India. The region was vibrant and dynamic during the Middle Ages and left a lasting impact on the world.

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from: 622 till: 632 color:era text:Muhammad

from: 632 till: 634 color:age text:Abu Bakr

from: 634 till: 644 color:era text:Umar ibn al-Khattab

from: 644 till: 656 color:age text:Uthman ibn Affan

from: 656 till: 661 color:era text:Ali ibn Abi Talib

from: 661 till: 666 color:age text:Muawiyah I

The rise of Islam began when Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina in an event known as the Hijra. Muhammad spent the last ten years of his life engaged in a series of battles to establish and expand the Muslim community. From 622 to 632, he led the Muslims in a state of war against the Meccans.Collins Early Medieval Europe pp. 142–143, 150, 160 During this period, the Arabs conquered the region of Basra, and under the leadership of Umar, they established a base and built a mosque there. Another conquest was Midian, but due to its harsh environment, the settlers eventually moved to Kufa. Umar successfully defeated rebellions by various Arab tribes, bringing stability to the entire Arabian peninsula and unifying it. Under the leadership of Uthman, the Arab empire expanded through the conquest of Persia, with the capture of Fars in 650 and parts of Khorasan in 651.Cunliffe Europe Between the Oceans pp. 421–423 The conquest of Armenia also began in the 640s. During this time, the Rashidun Empire extended its rule over the entire Sassanid Empire and more than two-thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire. However, the reign of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth caliph, was marred by the First Fitna, or the First Islamic Civil War, which lasted throughout his rule. After a peace treaty with Hassan ibn Ali and the suppression of early Kharijite disturbances, Muawiyah I became the Caliph.Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe p. 15 This marked a significant transition in leadership.Collins Early Medieval Europe pp. 376–377

{{main|Rashidun Caliphate}}

{{See also|Succession to Muhammad|Saqifa|Election of Uthman|Assassination of Uthman}}

{{Further|First Fitna|Muslim conquest of Persia|Muslim conquest of the Levant|Arab conquest of Egypt|Muslim conquest of the Maghreb}}

After the death of Muhammad in 632, Rashidun armies launched campaigns of conquest, establishing the Caliphate, or Islamic Empire, one of the largest empires in history. It was larger and lasted longer than the previous Arab empire Tanukhids of Queen Mawia or the Arab Palmyrene Empire. The Rashidun state was a completely new state and unlike the Arab kingdoms of its century such as the Himyarite, Lakhmids or Ghassanids.

During the Rashidun era, the Arab community expanded rapidly, conquering many territories and establishing a vast Arab empire, which is marked by the reign of the first four caliphs, or leaders, of the Arab community.{{cite book|author1=C. T. R. Hewer|title=Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps|author2=Allan Anderson|date=2006|publisher=Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd|isbn=978-0334040323|edition=illustrated|page=37}} These caliphs are Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali, who are collectively known as the Rashidun, meaning "rightly guided." The Rashidun era is significant in Arab and Islamic history as it marks the beginning of the Arab empire and the spread of Islam beyond the Arabian Peninsula. During this time, the Arab community faced numerous challenges, including internal divisions and external threats from neighboring empires.{{Cite book|last=Triana|first=María|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VC4lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159|title=Managing Diversity in Organizations: A Global Perspective|date=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1317423683|pages=159}}

Under the leadership of Abu Bakr, the Arab community successfully quelled a rebellion by some tribes who refused to pay Zakat, or Islamic charity. During the reign of Umar ibn al-Khattab, the Arab empire expanded significantly, conquering territories such as Egypt, Syria, and Iraq. The reign of Uthman ibn Affan was marked by internal dissent and rebellion, which ultimately led to his assassination. Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, succeeded Uthman as caliph but faced opposition from some members of the Islamic community who believed he was not rightfully appointed. Despite these challenges, the Rashidun era is remembered as a time of great progress and achievement in Arab and Islamic history. The caliphs established a system of governance that emphasized justice and equality for all members of the Islamic community. They also oversaw the compilation of the Quran into a single text and spread Arabic teachings and principles throughout the empire. Overall, the Rashidun era played a crucial role in shaping Arab history and continues to be revered by Muslims worldwide as a period of exemplary leadership and guidance.{{cite book|author1=Azyumardi Azra|title=Indonesia, Islam, and Democracy: Dynamics in a Global Context|date=2006|publisher=Equinox Publishing (London)|isbn=978-9799988812|page=9}}

{{main|Umayyad dynasty|Umayyad Caliphate}}

{{Further|Arab conquest of armenia|Arab conquest of the Maghreb|Muslim conquest of Spain|Muslim conquest of Transoxiana

|Umayyad campaigns in India}}

{{See also|Abbadid|Taifa|Nasrid dynasty (Sistan)|Zengid dynasty|Ikhshidid dynasty|Caliphate of Córdoba|Al-Andalus|}}

In 661, the Rashidun Caliphate fell into the hands of the Umayyad dynasty and Damascus was established as the empire's capital. The Umayyads were proud of their Arab identity and sponsored the poetry and culture of pre-Islamic Arabia. They established garrison towns at Ramla, Raqqa, Basra, Kufa, Mosul and Samarra, all of which developed into major cities.{{Cite book|last=Lunde|first=Paul|title=Islam|publisher=Dorling Kindersley Publishing|year=2002|isbn=978-0789487971|location=New York|pages=50–52}} Caliph Abd al-Malik established Arabic as the Caliphate's official language in 686.John Joseph Saunders, A history of medieval Islam, Routledge, 1965, page 13 Caliph Umar II strove to resolve the conflict when he came to power in 717, demanding that all Muslims be treated as equals, but his intended reforms did not take effect, as he died after only three years of rule. By now, discontent with the Umayyads swept the region and an uprising occurred in which the Abbasids came to power and moved the capital to Baghdad.

File:La civilització del califat de Còrdova en temps d'Abd-al-Rahman III.jpg during the reign of Abd al-Rahman III. Receiving the Ambassador by Dionisio Baixeras Verdaguer 1885 CE.]]

Umayyads expanded their Empire westwards capturing North Africa from the Byzantines. Before the Arab conquest, North Africa was conquered or settled by various people including Punics, Vandals and Romans. After the Abbasid Revolution, the Umayyads lost most of their territories with the exception of Iberia.

Their last holding became known as the Emirate of Córdoba. It was not until the rule of the grandson of the founder of this new emirate that the state entered a new phase as the Caliphate of Córdoba. This new state was characterized by an expansion of trade, culture and knowledge, and saw the construction of masterpieces of al-Andalus architecture and the library of Al-Ḥakam II which housed over 400,000 volumes. With the collapse of the Umayyad state in 1031 CE, Al-Andalus was divided into small kingdoms.Clifford Edmund Bosworth [https://books.google.com/books?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC&pg=PA264 Historic cities of the Islamic world], Brill, Leyden, 2007, {{ISBN|9004153888}} p. 264

{{main|Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid Revolution}}

{{Further|Anarchy at Samarra|Siege of Baghdad (1258)|Mongol invasions of the Levant||}}

File:Harun al-Rashid receives envoys from Charlemagne.jpg (r. 786–809) receiving a delegation sent by Charlemagne at his court in Baghdad.|left]]

The Abbasids were the descendants of Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the same Banu Hashim clan. The Abbasids led a revolt against the Umayyads and defeated them in the Battle of the Zab effectively ending their rule in all parts of the Empire with the exception of al-Andalus. In 762, the second Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur founded the city of Baghdad and declared it the capital of the Caliphate. Unlike the Umayyads, the Abbasids had the support of non-Arab subjects. The Islamic Golden Age was inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from Damascus to the newly founded city of Baghdad. The Abbasids were influenced by the Quranic injunctions and hadith such as "The ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of martyrs" stressing the value of knowledge.

File:001124-MalwiyaMosque-Samerra-IMG_7824-2.jpg, Iraq]]

During this period the Arab Empire became an intellectual centre for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established the "House of Wisdom" in Baghdad. Rival dynasties such as the Fatimids of Egypt and the Umayyads of al-Andalus were also major intellectual centres with cities such as Cairo and Córdoba rivaling Baghdad.Vartan Gregorian, "Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith", Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pp. 26–38 {{ISBN|081573283X}} The Abbasids ruled for 200 years before they lost their central control when Wilayas began to fracture in the 10th century; afterwards, in the 1190s, there was a revival of their power, which was ended by the Mongols, who conquered Baghdad in 1258 and killed the Caliph Al-Musta'sim. Members of the Abbasid royal family escaped the massacre and resorted to Cairo, which had broken from the Abbasid rule two years earlier; the Mamluk generals taking the political side of the kingdom while Abbasid Caliphs were engaged in civil activities and continued patronizing science, arts and literature.

{{main|Fatimid dynasty|Fatimid Caliphate}}

File:Skylitzes_Simeon_sending_envoys_to_the_Fatimids.jpg (left) sending envoys to Caliph al-Mahdi (right). 12th-century miniature from the Madrid Skylitzes]]

The Fatimid caliphate was founded by al-Mahdi Billah, a descendant of Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad, the Fatimid Caliphate was a Shia that existed from 909 to 1171 CE. The empire was based in North Africa, with its capital in Cairo, and at its height, it controlled a vast territory that included parts of modern-day Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Syria, and Palestine. The Fatimid state took shape among the Kutama, in the West of the North African littoral, in Algeria, in 909 conquering Raqqada, the Aghlabid capital. In 921 the Fatimids established the Tunisian city of Mahdia as their new capital. In 948 they shifted their capital to Al-Mansuriya, near Kairouan in Tunisia, and in 969 they conquered Egypt and established Cairo as the capital of their caliphate.

File:Azhar mosque.jpg in Cairo, Egypt in the historic Islamic core of the city, Cairo was established as the new capital of the Fatimid Caliphate in 970]]

The Fatimids were known for their religious tolerance and intellectual achievements, they established a network of universities and libraries that became centers of learning in the Islamic world. They also promoted the arts, architecture, and literature, which flourished under their patronage. One of the most notable achievements of the Fatimids was the construction of the Al-Azhar Mosque and Al-Azhar University in Cairo. Founded in 970 CE, it is one of the oldest universities in the world and remains an important center of Islamic learning to this day. The Fatimids also had a significant impact on the development of Islamic theology and jurisprudence. They were known for their support of Shia Islam and their promotion of the Ismaili branch of Shia Islam. Despite their many achievements, the Fatimids faced numerous challenges during their reign. They were constantly at war with neighboring empires, including the Abbasid Caliphate and the Byzantine Empire. They also faced internal conflicts and rebellions, which weakened their empire over time. In 1171 CE, the Fatimid Caliphate was conquered by the Ayyubid dynasty, led by Saladin. Although the Fatimid dynasty came to an end, its legacy continued to influence Arab-Islamic culture and society for centuries to come.Shorter Shi'ite Encyclopaedia, By: Hasan al-Amin, {{Cite web|title=Fatimid Dynasty in Egypt|url=http://www.imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?id=574|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616060639/http://imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?id=574|archive-date=16 June 2010|access-date=5 October 2010}}

{{Main|Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Caliphate}}

{{Further|Arab Revolt|Campaigns of the Arab Revolt|Middle Eastern theatre of World War I||}}

File:Sharif Hussein portrait.jpeg (1854–1931) was a prominent Arab leader who served as the Sharif and Emir of Mecca from 1908 until 1917. He was a member of the Hashemite dynasty, which claimed descent from Muhammad.|left]]

From 1517 to 1918, The Ottomans defeated the Mamluk Sultanate in Cairo, and ended the Abbasid Caliphate in the battles of Marj Dabiq and Ridaniya. They entered the Levant and Egypt as conquerors, and brought down the Abbasid caliphate after it lasted for many centuries. In 1911, Arab intellectuals and politicians from throughout the Levant formed al-Fatat ("the Young Arab Society"), a small Arab nationalist club, in Paris. Its stated aim was "raising the level of the Arab nation to the level of modern nations." In the first few years of its existence, al-Fatat called for greater autonomy within a unified Ottoman state rather than Arab independence from the empire. Al-Fatat hosted the Arab Congress of 1913 in Paris, the purpose of which was to discuss desired reforms with other dissenting individuals from the Arab world.Zeine N. Zeine (1973) The Emergence of Arab Nationalism (3rd ed.). Delmar, New York: Caravan Books Inc. {{ISBN|0882060007}}. pp. 60–61, 83–92. However, as the Ottoman authorities cracked down on the organization's activities and members, al-Fatat went underground and demanded the complete independence and unity of the Arab provinces.Choueiri, pp. 166–168.

File:MPK1-426 Sykes Picot Agreement Map signed 8 May 1916.jpg

The Arab Revolt was a military uprising of Arab forces against the Ottoman Empire during World War I, began in 1916, led by Sherif Hussein bin Ali, the goal of the revolt was to gain independence for the Arab lands under Ottoman rule and to create a unified Arab state. The revolt was sparked by a number of factors, including the Arab desire for greater autonomy within the Ottoman Empire, resentment towards Ottoman policies, and the influence of Arab nationalist movements. The Arab Revolt was a significant factor in the eventual defeat of the Ottoman Empire. The revolt helped to weaken Ottoman military power and tie up Ottoman forces that could have been deployed elsewhere. It also helped to increase support for Arab independence and nationalism, which would have a lasting impact on the region in the years to come.William Easterly, The White Man's Burden, (2006) p. 295Jeremy Wilson (1989) Lawrence of Arabia: The Authorised Biography of T. E. Lawrence. William Heinemann. {{ISBN|978-0434872350}}. p. 548 The Empire's defeat and the occupation of part of its territory by the Allied Powers in the aftermath of World War I, the Sykes–Picot Agreement had a significant impact on the Arab world and its people. The agreement divided the Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire into zones of control for France and Britain, ignoring the aspirations of the Arab people for independence and self-determination.{{Cite book|last=Mikaberidze|first=Alexander|title=Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2011|isbn=978-1598843361|pages=799–802}}

{{main|Islamic Golden Age|Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe|Arab Renaissance}}

{{Further|List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world|Arab Agricultural Revolution}}

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The Golden Age of Arab Civilization known as the "Islamic Golden Age", traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century.{{cite book|last=Saliba|first=George|title=A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam|date=1994|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=0814780237|pages=245, 250, 256–257|author-link=George Saliba}}{{cite journal|last1=King|first1=David A.|year=1983|title=The Astronomy of the Mamluks|journal=Isis|volume=74|issue=4|pages=531–55|doi=10.1086/353360|s2cid=144315162}}{{cite encyclopedia|title=Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century|encyclopedia=Islam and the Challenge of Modernity, Proceedings of the Inaugural Symposium on Islam and the Challenge of Modernity: Historical and Contemporary Contexts, Kuala Lumpur, 1–5 August 1994|publisher=International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC)|url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html|last=Hassan|first=Ahmad Y|date=1996|editor=Sharifah Shifa Al-Attas|pages=351–99|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402150434/http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html|archive-date=2 April 2015}} The period is traditionally said to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to Siege of Baghdad in 1258.{{cite book|url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=JdC90uc8PfQC|page=9 }}|title=Islamic Radicalism and Multicultural Politics|date=2011|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1136959608|page=9|access-date=26 August 2012}} During this time, Arab scholars made significant contributions to fields such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. These advancements had a profound impact on European scholars during the Renaissance.{{Cite web|title=University Libraries {{!}} The University of Iowa|url=https://www.lib.uiowa.edu/|access-date=2023-04-25}}

The Arabs shared its knowledge and ideas with Europe, including translations of Arabic texts.{{Cite web|last=Al-Tamimi|first=Aymenn Jawad|date=2022-05-13|title=A 13th-Century Text Teaches Us About Arabs and Europeans|url=https://newlinesmag.com/essays/a-13th-century-text-teaches-us-about-arabs-and-europeans/|access-date=2023-03-26|website=New Lines Magazine}} These translations had a significant impact on culture of Europe, leading to the transformation of many philosophical disciplines in the medieval Latin world. Additionally, the Arabs made original innovations in various fields, including the arts, agriculture, alchemy, music, and pottery, and traditional star names such as Aldebaran, scientific terms like alchemy (whence also chemistry), algebra, algorithm, etc. and names of commodities such as sugar, camphor, cotton, coffee, etc.{{Cite web|title=Biology – The Arab world and the European Middle Ages|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/biology/The-Arab-world-and-the-European-Middle-Ages|access-date=2023-03-26|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}{{Cite journal|last=Wenner|first=Manfred W.|date=August 1980|title=The Arab/Muslim Presence in Medieval Central Europe|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/abs/arabmuslim-presence-in-medieval-central-europe/DC701B38E873F9B25B995114D47C3711|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=12|issue=1|pages=59–79|doi=10.1017/S0020743800027136|issn=1471-6380|s2cid=162537404}}{{Cite book|title=The Arab influence in medieval Europe|date=1996|publisher=Ithaca Press|isbn=086372213X|editor1=Dionisius A. Agius|edition=1st pbk|location=Reading, UK|oclc=38255663|editor2=Richard Hitchcock}}{{Cite book|last=Ali|first=Samer M.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/794925469|title=Arabic literary salons in the Islamic Middle Ages : poetry, public performance, and the presentation of the past|date=2010|publisher=University of Notre Dame Press|isbn=978-0268074654|location=Notre Dame|oclc=794925469}}

From the medieval scholars of the Renaissance of the 12th century, who had focused on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural sciences, philosophy, and mathematics, rather than on such cultural texts. Arab logician, most notably Averroes, had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Iberia and Sicily, which became important centers for this transmission of ideas. From the 11th to the 13th century, many schools dedicated to the translation of philosophical and scientific works from Classical Arabic to Medieval Latin were established in Iberia, most notably the Toledo School of Translators. This work of translation from Arab culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history.{{Cite book|last1=Perry|first1=Marvin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kKGgoNo4un0C&pg=PA261|title=Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society, Comprehensive Edition|last2=Jacob|first2=Margaret|last3=Jacob|first3=James|last4=Chase|first4=Myrna|last5=Laue|first5=Theodore Von|date=2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0547147017}}

During the Timurid Renaissance spanning the late 14th, the 15th, and the early 16th centuries, there was a significant exchange of ideas, art, and knowledge between different cultures and civilizations. Arab scholars, artists, and intellectuals played a role in this cultural exchange, contributing to the overall intellectual atmosphere of the time. They participated in various fields, including literature, art, science, and philosophy.{{Cite web|first=R|last=Carney|date=2021-06-06|title=Timurid Architecture and the Timurid Renaissance|url=https://architectureofcities.com/timurid-architecture|access-date=2023-05-29|website=Architecture of Cities}} In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Arab Renaissance was a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged. The term "Nahda" means "awakening" or "renaissance" in Arabic, and refers to a period of renewed interest in Arabic language, literature, and culture.Stephen Sheehi, Foundations of Modern Arab Identity. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004 [http://florida.theorangegrove.org/og/file/079a66de-df27-a87d-4946-095679fb5de4/1/Sheehi,9781616101343.pdf]Adnan A. Musallam, [http://admusallam.bethlehem.edu/publications/EndofTheOttomanEra.htm Arab Press, Society and Politics at the End of The Ottoman Era] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719151528/http://admusallam.bethlehem.edu/publications/EndofTheOttomanEra.htm|date=19 July 2011}}{{cite book|last=Pacini|first=Andrea|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KMfYAAAAMAAJ|title=Christian Communities in the Arab Middle East: The Challenge of the Future|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0198293880|pages=38, 55|access-date=21 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310101859/https://books.google.com/books?id=KMfYAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=10 March 2021|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Arab world|Arab League|Charter of the Arab League|Arab Maghreb Union|Gulf Cooperation Council}}

{{See also|Arab nationalism|Pan-Arabism|Arab Union|Arab socialism|}}{{See also|Arab Federation|United Arab Republic|United Arab States|Federation of Arab Republics|Arab Islamic Republic|Union of Arab Republics (1972)}}

File:Arab League-Map-WS.PNG

The modern period in Arab history refers to the time period from the late 19th century to the present day. During this time, the Arab world experienced significant political, economic, and social changes. One of the most significant events of the modern period was the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the end of Ottoman rule led to the emergence of new nation-states in the Arab world.{{Cite web|title=Ottoman Empire – The decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1566–1807|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ottoman-Empire|access-date=2021-07-07|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}{{Cite web|title=Geography of the Modern Middle East and North Africa|url=http://www.middleeastpdx.org/resources/original/geography-of-the-modern-middle-east-and-north-africa/|access-date=2021-07-07|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185925/http://www.middleeastpdx.org/resources/original/geography-of-the-modern-middle-east-and-north-africa/|url-status=dead}}

Sharif Hussein was supposed, in the event of the success of the Arab revolution and the victory of the Allies in World War I, to be able to establish an independent Arab state consisting of the Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent, including Iraq and the Levant. He aimed to become "King of the Arabs" in this state, however, the Arab revolution only succeeded in achieving some of its objectives, including the independence of the Hejaz and the recognition of Sharif Hussein as its king by the Allies.{{Cite journal|last=Teitelbaum|first=Joshua|date=1998|title=Sharif Husayn ibn Ali and the Hashemite Vision of the Post-Ottoman Order: From Chieftaincy to Suzerainty|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4283920|journal=Middle Eastern Studies|volume=34|issue=1|pages=103–122|doi=10.1080/00263209808701212|issn=0026-3206|jstor=4283920}}File:Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg literal meanings being "the Arab diaspora"{{Cite book|author=Hans Wehr|title=Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic|edition=4th|page=1195|author-link=Hans Wehr}} predecessors in the Nahda movement (or the "Arab Renaissance"). (From left to right): Nasib Arida, Kahlil Gibran, Abd al-Masih Haddad, and Mikhail Naimy.|left]] Arab nationalism emerged as a major movement in the early 20th century, with many Arab intellectuals, artists, and political leaders seeking to promote unity and independence for the Arab world."[http://www.meforum.org/518/requiem-for-arab-nationalism Requiem for Arab Nationalism]" by Adeed Dawisha, Middle East Quarterly, Winter 2003 This movement gained momentum after World War II, leading to the formation of the Arab League and the creation of several new Arab states. Pan-Arabism that emerged in the early 20th century and aimed to unite all Arabs into a single nation or state. It emphasized on a shared ancestry, culture, history, language and identity and sought to create a sense of pan-Arab identity and solidarity.Charles Smith, The Arab-Israeli Conflict, in International Relations in the Middle East by Louise Fawcett, p. 220.Sela, 151

The roots of pan-Arabism can be traced back to the Arab Renaissance or Al-Nahda movement of the late 19th century, which saw a revival of Arab culture, literature, and intellectual thought. The movement emphasized the importance of Arab unity and the need to resist colonialism and foreign domination. One of the key figures in the development of pan-Arabism was the Egyptian statesman and intellectual, Gamal Abdel Nasser, who led the 1952 revolution in Egypt and became the country's president in 1954. Nasser promoted pan-Arabism as a means of strengthening Arab solidarity and resisting Western imperialism. He also supported the idea of Arab socialism, which sought to combine pan-Arabism with socialist principles. Similar attempts were made by other Arab leaders, such as Hafez al-Assad, Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, Faisal I of Iraq, Muammar Gaddafi, Saddam Hussein, Gaafar Nimeiry and Anwar Sadat.{{Cite web|title=The Rise and Fall of Pan-Arabism|url=https://www.graduateinstitute.ch/communications/news/rise-and-fall-pan-arabism|access-date=2023-03-27|website=graduateinstitute.ch}}

File:Flag of Hejaz (1917).svg of the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire is a prominent symbol of Arab nationalism. Its design and colors are the basis of many of the Arab states' flags. The Pan-Arab colors are black, white, green and red. Individually, each of the four Pan-Arab colors were intended to represent a certain aspect of the Arabs and their history.]]

Many proposed unions aimed to create a unified Arab entity that would promote cooperation and integration among Arab countries. However, the initiatives faced numerous challenges and obstacles, including political divisions, regional conflicts, and economic disparities.{{cite news|date=2 February 1958|title=Egypt, Syria Union Aim at Arab Unity|work=The San Francisco Examiner|agency=Associated Press|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/96294492/egypt-syria-union-aims-at-arab-unity/}} The United Arab Republic (UAR) was a political union formed between Egypt and Syria in 1958, with the goal of creating a federal structure that would allow each member state to retain its identity and institutions. However, by 1961, Syria had withdrawn from the UAR due to political differences, and Egypt continued to call itself the UAR until 1971, when it became the Arab Republic of Egypt. In the same year the UAR was formed, another proposed political union, the Arab Federation, was established between Jordan and Iraq, but it collapsed after only six months due to tensions with the UAR and the 14 July Revolution. A confederation called the United Arab States, which included the UAR and the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen, was also created in 1958 but dissolved in 1961."Arab Unity." The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East. Ed. Avraham Sela. New York: Continuum, 2002. pp. 160–166. Later attempts to create a political and economic union among Arab countries included the Federation of Arab Republics, which was formed by Egypt, Libya, and Syria in the 1970s but dissolved after five years due to political and economic challenges. Muammar Gaddafi, the leader of Libya, also proposed the Arab Islamic Republic with Tunisia, aiming to include Algeria and Morocco,Aghrout, A. & Sutton, K. (1990). Regional Economic Union in the Maghrib. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 28(1), 115 instead the Arab Maghreb Union was formed in 1989.{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3QEAQAAIAAJ&q=%22united+states+of+north+africa%22|title=Africa Research Bulletin|date=7 August 1973|publisher=Blackwell}}

During the latter half of the 20th century, many Arab countries experienced political upheaval and conflicts, including, revolutions. The Arab-Israeli conflict remains a major issue in the region, and has resulted in ongoing tensions and periodic outbreaks of violence. In recent years, the Arab world has faced new challenges, including economic and social inequalities, demographic changes, and the impact of globalization.{{Cite news|date=19 September 2020|title=The Arab-Israeli conflict is fading|newspaper=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2020/09/19/the-arab-israeli-conflict-is-fading}} The Arab Spring was a series of pro-democracy uprisings and protests that swept across several countries in the Arab world in 2010 and 2011. The uprisings were sparked by a combination of political, economic, and social grievances and called for democratic reforms and an end to authoritarian rule. While the protests resulted in the downfall of some long-time authoritarian leaders, they also led to ongoing conflicts and political instability in other countries.{{Cite web|title=Uprisings in the region and ignored indicators|url=http://www.payvand.com/news/11/feb/1080.html|website=Payvand|access-date=31 March 2023|archive-date=25 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425231858/http://www.payvand.com/news/11/feb/1080.html|url-status=dead}}

{{Further|Arab identity}}

{{Multiple image|align=right|total_width=320|image_style=border:none;|image1=PLATE8DX foruth sixth.jpg|width1=900|height1=1000|alt1=Costumes of Arab men, fourth to sixth century|image2=PLATE8CX.jpg|width2=900|height2=1000|alt2=Costumes of Arab women, fourth to sixth century.|footer=Artistic rendering of pre-Islamic costumes of Arab men and Arab women between fourth to sixth century}}

Arab identity is defined independently of religious identity, and pre-dates the spread of Islam, with historically attested Arab Christian kingdoms and Arab Jewish tribes. Today, however, most Arabs are Muslim, with a minority adhering to other faiths, largely Christianity, but also Druze and Baháʼí.{{Cite book|last=Ori Stendel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t7Ao8dYsCskC&pg=PA45|title=The Arabs in Israel|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|year=1996|isbn=978-1898723240|page=45|access-date=4 March 2014}}{{Cite book|first=Mohammad Hassan|last=Khalil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PmgkD3Hel5IC&pg=PA297|title=Between Heaven and Hell: Islam, Salvation, and the Fate of Others|date=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0199945412|page=297|access-date=1 March 2014}} Paternal descent has traditionally been considered the main source of affiliation in the Arab world when it comes to membership into an ethnic group or clan.{{Cite book|last=Parolin|first=Gianluca Paolo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xSDE7LgTFvUC&q=Arab+paternal&pg=PA127|title=Citizenship in the Arab World: Kin, Religion and Nation-state|date=2009|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|isbn=978-90-8964-045-1}}

Arab identity is shaped by a range of factors, including ancestry, history, language, customs, and traditions.{{Cite book|last=Phillips|first=Christopher|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1058434843|title=Everyday Arab identity : the daily reproduction of the Arab world|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0203096741|location=Abingdon, Oxon|oclc=1058434843}} Arab identity has been shaped by a rich history that includes the rise and fall of empires, colonization, and political turmoil. Despite the challenges faced by Arab communities, their shared cultural heritage has helped to maintain a sense of unity and pride in their identity. Today, Arab identity continues to evolve as Arab communities navigate complex political, social, and economic landscapes. Despite this, the Arab identity remains an important aspect of the cultural and historical fabric of the Arab world, and continues to be celebrated and preserved by communities around the world.{{Cite book|last=Carmichael|first=Joel|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1198893560|title=The shaping of the Arabs : a study in ethnic identity|date=2016|isbn=978-1-000-11333-4|location=London|oclc=1198893560}}

{{Further|Tribes of Arabia|Arab migrations to the Maghreb|Arab migrations to the Levant}}

File:Early_Islamic_Syria,_ca._640s.png, al-Urdunn and Hims, while the Qays inhabited al-Jazirah, the Byzantine frontier and Qinnasrin.]]

Arab tribes are prevalent in the Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia, Levant, Egypt, Maghreb, the Sudan region and Horn Africa.{{Cite web|date=2021-10-02|title=ص204 – كتاب الأعلام للزركلي – يعلى بن أمية – المكتبة الشاملة الحديثة|url=https://al-maktaba.org/book/12286/7605|website=maktaba.org|access-date=2022-08-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002101301/https://al-maktaba.org/book/12286/7605|archive-date=2021-10-02}}{{Cite book|last=Webb|first=Peter|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/964933606|title=Imagining the Arabs : Arab identity and the rise of Islam|date=2016|isbn=978-1474408271|location=Edinburgh, UK|oclc=964933606}}* {{cite book|last=Hourani|first=Albert|title=A history of the Arab peoples|date=2010|publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0674058194|edition=1st Harvard Press paperback|location=Cambridge, Mass.}}

• {{Cite web|title=History of Migration|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=bbv|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Historyworld.net}}
• Power, Bethany G. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20160903042434/http://people.umass.edu/educ613/WorldhistoryI/WHI.3.html The Emergence and Expansion of Islam to 1500]." Education 613: MTEL Guide. University of Massachusetts. Archived from the [http://people.umass.edu/educ613/WorldhistoryI/WHI.3.html original] on 3 September 2016.
• {{cite web|title=History of the Arabs (book)|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=ebh|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Historyworld.net}}

The Arabs of the Levant are traditionally divided into Qays and Yaman tribes. The distinction between Qays and Yaman dates back to the pre-Islamic era and was based on tribal affiliations and geographic locations.; they include Banu Kalb, Kinda, Ghassanids, and Lakhmids.Hugh Kennedy The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State p. 33 Routledge, 2013 {{ISBN|1134531133}} The Qays were made up of tribes such as Banu Kilab, Banu Tayy, Banu Hanifa, and Banu Tamim, among others. The Yaman, on the other hand, were composed of tribes such as Banu Hashim, Banu Makhzum, Banu Umayya, and Banu Zuhra, among others.

There are also many Arab tribes indigenous to Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Iran, including from well before the Arab conquest of Persia in 633 CE.{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Arab settlements in Iran|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arab-iii|access-date=9 April 2011|last=Daniel|first=E. L.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429164853/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arab-iii|archive-date=29 April 2011|url-status=dead}} The largest group of Iranian Arabs are the Ahwazi Arabs, including Banu Ka'b, Bani Turuf and the Musha'sha'iyyah sect. Smaller groups are the Khamseh nomads in Fars province and the Arabs in Khorasan.

As a result of the centuries-long Arab migration to the Maghreb, various Arab tribes (including Banu Hilal, Banu Sulaym and Maqil) also settled in the Maghreb and formed the sub-tribes which exist to present-day. The Banu Hilal spent almost a century in Egypt before moving to Libya, Tunisia and Algeria, and another century later moved to Morocco.{{Cite web|last=Clio|title=François Decret, Les invasions hilaliennes en Ifrîqiya – Clio – Voyage Culturel|url=https://www.clio.fr/BIBLIOTHEQUE/les_invasions_hilaliennes_en_ifriqiya.asp|access-date=28 September 2015|website=clio.fr}}

According to Arab traditions, tribes are divided into different divisions called Arab skulls, which are described in the traditional custom of strength, abundance, victory, and honor. A number of them branched out, which later became independent tribes (sub-tribes). The majority of Arab tribes are descended from these major tribes.{{Cite book|last=Al Andulsi|first=Ibn Abd Rabuh|title=Al Aqid Al Fareed|year=939}}{{Cite book|last=Al-Qthami|first=Hmood|title=North of Hejaz|publisher=Dar Al Bayan|year=1985|location=Jeddah|pages=235}}{{cite web|last1=Ali|first1=Jawad|date=2001|title=A Detailed Account of the History of Arabs Before Islam|url=http://islamport.com/w/tkh/Web/2300/2310.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304201846/http://islamport.com/w/tkh/Web/2300/2310.htm|archive-date=2016-03-04|access-date=2020-09-11|website=Al Madinah Digital Library|publisher=Dar Al Saqi}}{{Cite book|last=Al Zibeedi|first=Murtathi|title=Taj Al Aroos min Jawahir Al Qamoos|year=1965}}{{Cite book|last=Al Hashimi|first=Muhammed Ibn Habib Ibn Omaya Ibn Amir|title=Al Mahbar|publisher=Dar Al Afaaq|year=859|location=Beirut}}

They are:

File:Banu Adnan.png

• Bakr, has descendants in Arabia and Iraq.Trudy Ring, Noelle Watson, Paul Schellinger. 1995. International Dictionary of Historic Places. Vol. 3 Southern Europe. Routledge. p.190.
• Kinanah, has descendants in Arabia, Iraq, Egypt, Sudan, Palestine, Tunisia, Morocco, and Syria.{{cite book|title=E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Volume 4|year=1993|isbn=978-9004097902|editor=M. Th. Houtsma|pages=1017–1018|chapter=Kinana|publisher=Brill}}
• Hawazin, has descendants in Arabia, Libya, Algeria, Morocco, Sudan, and Iraq.{{Cite web|date=2018-02-26|title=نهاية الأرب في معرفة أنساب العرب • الموقع الرسمي للمكتبة الشاملة|url=http://shamela.ws/browse.php/book-31382/page-229|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180226213159/http://shamela.ws/browse.php/book-31382/page-229|archive-date=2018-02-26|access-date=2022-08-21}}{{Cite web|date=2019-09-03|title=موسوعة تاريخ المغرب العربي – ʻAbd al-Fattāḥ Miqlad Ghunaymī, عبد الفتاح مقلد الغنيمي – كتب Google|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IbVIAAAAMAAJ&q=%D8%A8%D9%86%D9%8A+%D8%B3%D8%B9%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D9%86+%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220826054305/https://books.google.com/books?id=IbVIAAAAMAAJ&q=%D8%A8%D9%86%D9%8A+%D8%B3%D8%B9%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D9%86+%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8|archive-date=2022-08-26|access-date=2022-08-21}}{{Cite web|date=2019-12-17|title=موسوعة العشائر العراقية – Thāmir ʻAbd al-Ḥasan ʻĀmirī – كتب Google|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bBBO1pj5XCAC&q=%D8%B3%D8%B9%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D9%86+%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220826054305/https://books.google.com/books?id=bBBO1pj5XCAC&q=%D8%B3%D8%B9%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D9%86+%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82|archive-date=2022-08-26|access-date=2022-08-21}}
• Tamim, has descendants in Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Palestine, Algeria, and Morocco{{Cite web|date=2021-10-02|title=ص204 – كتاب الأعلام للزركلي – يعلى بن أمية – المكتبة الشاملة الحديثة|url=https://al-maktaba.org/book/12286/7605|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002101301/https://al-maktaba.org/book/12286/7605|archive-date=2021-10-02|access-date=2022-08-21}}
• Azd, has descendants in Arabia, Iraq, Levant, and North Africa.{{Cite web|title=الموسوعة الشاملة – قلائد الجمان في التعريف بقبائل عرب الزمان|url=http://islamport.com/w/nsb/Web/489/27.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324041246/http://islamport.com/w/nsb/Web/489/27.htm|archive-date=2018-03-24|access-date=2022-08-21}}
• Ghatafan, has descendants in Arabia and the Maghreb.{{Citation|last=Fück|first=J. W.|title=G̲h̲aṭafān|date=2012-04-24|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/ghatafan-SIM_2476?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&s.q=Gha%E1%B9%ADaf%C4%81n|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|access-date=2022-08-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220314181616/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/ghatafan-SIM_2476?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&s.q=Gha%E1%B9%ADaf%C4%81n|url-status=live|publisher=Brill|archive-date=2022-03-14}}
• Madhhij, has descendants in Arabia and Iraq.عشائر العراق – عباس العزاوي
• Abd al-Qays, has descendants in Arabia.
• Al Qays (القيس), has descendants in Arabia.
• Quda'a, has descendants in Arabia, Syria, and North Africa.

{{further|Demographics of the Arab League|list of Arab countries by population}}

File:Arab people around the world.svg

The total number of Arabs living in the Arab nations is estimated at 366 million by the CIA Factbook (as of 2014). The estimated number of Arabs in countries outside the Arab League is estimated at 17.5 million, yielding a total of close to 384 million. The Arab world stretches around {{Convert|13000000|km2|sqmi|abbr=}}, from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the east and from the Mediterranean Sea in the north to the Horn of Africa and the Indian Ocean in the southeast.

{{main|Arab diaspora}}

Arab diaspora refers to descendants of the Arab immigrants who, voluntarily or as refugees, emigrated from their native lands in non-Arab countries, primarily in East Africa, South America, Europe, North America, Australia and parts of South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Caribbean, and West Africa. According to the International Organization for Migration, there are 13 million first-generation Arab migrants in the world, of which 5.8 million reside in Arab countries. Arab expatriates contribute to the circulation of financial and human capital in the region and thus significantly promote regional development. In 2009, Arab countries received a total of US$35.1 billion in remittance in-flows and remittances sent to Jordan, Egypt and Lebanon from other Arab countries are 40 to 190 per cent higher than trade revenues between these and other Arab countries.[http://www.egypt.iom.int/Doc/IOM%20Intra%20regional%20labour%20mobility%20in%20Arab%20region%20Facts%20and%20Figures%20(English).pdf Intra-Regional Labour Mobility in the Arab World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507114953/http://www.egypt.iom.int/Doc/IOM%20Intra%20regional%20labour%20mobility%20in%20Arab%20region%20Facts%20and%20Figures%20(English).pdf|date=7 May 2016}}, International Organization for Migration (IOM) Cairo The 250,000 strong Lebanese community in West Africa is the largest non-African group in the region.{{Cite news|date=20 May 2011|title=Lebanese in west Africa: Far from home|newspaper=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/baobab/2011/05/lebanese_west_africa}}{{Cite news|date=10 January 2010|title=Tenacity and risk – the Lebanese in West Africa|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8479134.stm}} Arab traders have long operated in Southeast Asia and along the East Africa's Swahili coast. Zanzibar was once ruled by Omani Arabs.{{Cite news|date=18 July 2012|title=Zanzibar profile|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14115176}} Most of the prominent Indonesians, Malaysians, and Singaporeans of Arab descent are Hadhrami people with origins in southern Arabia in the Hadramawt coastal region."[http://www.managementtoday.co.uk/news/648273/ The world's successful diasporas]". Managementtoday.co.uk. 3 April 2007.

{{main|Arabs in Europe|Arabs in Austria|Arabs in Bulgaria|Arabs in Finland|Arabs in France|Arabs in Germany|Arabs in Greece|Arabs in Italy|Arabs in the Netherlands|Arabs in Romania|Arabs in Serbia|Arabs in Spain|Arabs in Sweden|Arabs in Switzerland|Arabs in Turkey|British Arabs|Arabs in Malta|Arma people}}

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There are millions of Arabs living in Europe, mostly concentrated in France (about 6,000,000 in 2005{{Cite magazine|date=29 January 2008|title=French-Arabs battle stereotypes – Entertainment News, French Cinema, Media|url=https://variety.com/2008/film/global/french-arabs-battle-stereotypes-1117979837/|url-status=live|magazine=Variety|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100221202920/http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117979837.html?categoryid=2879&cs=1|archive-date=21 February 2010|access-date=22 August 2010}}). Most Arabs in France are from the Maghreb but some also come from the Mashreq areas of the Arab world. Arabs in France form the second largest ethnic group after French people.[http://www.economist.com/node/13377324 France's ethnic minorities: To count or not to count]. The Economist (26 March 2009). Retrieved on 12 July 2013. In Italy, Arabs first arrived on the southern island of Sicily in the 9th century. The largest modern societies on the island from the Arab world are Tunisians and Moroccans, who make up 10.9% and 8% respectively of the foreign population of Sicily, which in itself constitutes 3.9% of the island's total population.{{Cite web|title=Cittadini stranieri 2020 – Sicilia|url=https://www.tuttitalia.it/sicilia/statistiche/cittadini-stranieri-2020/|access-date=9 September 2021|website=Tuttitalia.it|language=Italian}} The modern Arab population of Spain numbers 1,800,000,{{Cite web|date=4 December 2013|title=¿Cuántos musulmanes hay en España?|url=http://islamhoy.com/actualidad/analisis/estudio-demografico-orientativo-sobre-la-poblacion-musulmana-en-espana/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609101638/http://islamhoy.com/actualidad/analisis/estudio-demografico-orientativo-sobre-la-poblacion-musulmana-en-espana/|archive-date=9 June 2013|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Islamhoy.com}}{{Cite web|last=Medina|first=Miguel Ángel|title=Los musulmanes son el 3,6% de la población en España (1,7 millones)|url=http://blogs.elpais.com/miradas-arabes/2014/02/poblacion-cuantos-musulmanes-espana-3-por-ciento-2014.html|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Blogs.elpais.com}}{{Cite web|date=30 March 2015|title=Los musulmanes en España superan los 1,8 millones|url=http://www.europapress.es/sociedad/noticia-musulmanes-espana-superan-18-millones-20150330182141.html|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Europapress.es}}{{Cite web|date=9 October 2012|title=La cifra de musulmanes en España alcanza los 1,6 millones, de los que casi un tercio viven en Cataluña|url=http://www.alertadigital.com/2012/10/09/la-cifra-de-musulmanes-en-espana-casi-alcanza-los-16-millones-de-los-que-casi-un-tercio-viven-en-cataluna/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201040941/http://www.alertadigital.com/2012/10/09/la-cifra-de-musulmanes-en-espana-casi-alcanza-los-16-millones-de-los-que-casi-un-tercio-viven-en-cataluna/|archive-date=1 December 2017|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Alertadigital.com}} and there have been Arabs in Spain since the early 8th century when the Muslim conquest of Hispania created the state of Al-Andalus.{{Cite web|title=spanish property|url=http://www.villa.spain-property-costa-blanca.com/archives/2003/12/03/the-history-of-arabs-in-spain/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171129191002/http://www.villa.spain-property-costa-blanca.com/archives/2003/12/03/the-history-of-arabs-in-spain|archive-date=29 November 2017|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Villa.spain-property-costa-blanca.com}}{{Cite web|title=Arab Influences on Spanish Language and Culture|url=http://www.donquijote.org/culture/spain/society/customs/arab-influence-on-spanish-language-and-culture|website=donQuijote}}{{Cite web|title=BBC – Religions – Islam: Muslim Spain (711–1492)|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/spain_1.shtml|publisher=BBC}} In Germany the Arab population numbers over 1,401,950.{{cite web|title=Anzahl der Ausländer in Deutschland nach Herkunftsland in den Jahren 2015 und 2016|url=https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/1221/umfrage/anzahl-der-auslaender-in-deutschland-nach-herkunftsland/|work=statista|language=de}}{{Cite web|title=Arabische Christen in Deutschland|url=http://www.cz-herborn.de/arabische/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230235841/http://www.cz-herborn.de/arabische/|archive-date=30 December 2013|access-date=27 September 2014}} in the United Kingdom between 366,769{{Cite web|title=REPORT ON THE 2011 CENSUS – MAY 2013 – Arabs and Arab League Population in the UK|url=http://www.naba.org.uk/library/reports/appendix_6.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008073407/http://www.naba.org.uk/library/reports/appendix_6.html|archive-date=8 October 2014|access-date=9 April 2015|publisher=National Association of British Arabs}} and 500,000,{{Cite web|title=British Arabs|url=http://www.naba.org.uk/Content/articles/Diaspora/british_arabs.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103180941/http://www.naba.org.uk/Content/articles/Diaspora/british_arabs.htm|archive-date=3 January 2015|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Naba.org.uk}} and in Greece between 250,000 and 750,000{{Cite web|date=19 May 2016|title=Refugees, migrants reach 54,574 in Greece on Wednesday|url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/208747/article/ekathimerini/news/refugees-migrants-reach-54574-in-greece-on-wednesday|access-date=19 May 2016|website=Kathimerini}}). In addition, Greece is home to people from Arab countries who have the status of refugees (e.g. refugees of the Syrian civil war).{{Cite book|last=Hannes Kniffka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j2wbAQAAIAAJ|title=Elements of culture-contrastive linguistics|date=June 1995|publisher=P. Lang|isbn=978-0820429274|page=244}} In the Netherlands 180,000, and in Denmark 121,000. Other countries are also home to Arab populations, including Norway, Austria, Bulgaria, Switzerland, North Macedonia, Romania and Serbia.{{Citation|title=Intra-Regional Labour Mobility in the Arab World, Facts and Figures|url=http://www.egypt.iom.int/Doc/IOM%20Intra%20regional%20labour%20mobility%20in%20Arab%20region%20Facts%20and%20Figures%20(English).pdf|year=2010|access-date=21 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507114953/http://www.egypt.iom.int/Doc/IOM%20Intra%20regional%20labour%20mobility%20in%20Arab%20region%20Facts%20and%20Figures%20(English).pdf|url-status=dead|publisher=International Organization for Migration|archive-date=7 May 2016}} As of late 2015, Turkey had a total population of 78.7 million, with Syrian refugees accounting for 3.1% of that figure based on conservative estimates. Demographics indicated that the country previously had 1,500,000{{Cite web|title=Turkey – Arabs|url=http://countrystudies.us/turkey/29.htm|website=countrystudies.us}} to 2,000,000 Arab residents,{{Cite web|title=Turkey's demographic challenge|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/02/turkey-demographic-challenge-arabs-syria-refugees-isis-160218063810080.html|publisher=Al Jazeera}} Turkey's Arab population is now 4.5 to 5.1% of the total population, or approximately 4–5 million people.{{Cite web|title=The Impact of Syrian Refugees on Turkey|url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/the-impact-of-syrian-refugees-on-turkey|website=washingtoninstitute.org}}

{{Main|Arab immigration to the United States|Arab Americans|Arab Americans in Metro Detroit|History of the Middle Eastern people in Metro Detroit|Arab Canadians|Arab Brazilians|Arab Mexicans|Arab Chileans|Arab Colombians|Arab Uruguayans|Arab Venezuelans|Arab Cubans|Arab Haitians|Arab immigration to Honduras|Arab Argentines|Lebanese Paraguayans|Arab Uruguayans}}

{{See also|Arab American Institute|Arab American National Museum|Arab American Action Network|Arab American Book Award}}{{multiple image

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Arab immigration to the United States began in significant numbers during the 1880s, and today, an estimated 2 million Americans trace their roots to an Arab background according the Census Bureau.{{Cite book|last=Kayyali|first=Randa|title=The Arab Americans|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=2006|page=26}} Arab Americans are found in every state, but more than two thirds of them live in just ten states, and one-third live in Los Angeles, Detroit, and New York City specifically.{{Cite web|title=Demographics|url=http://www.aaiusa.org/demographics|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161023235625/http://www.aaiusa.org/demographics|archive-date=23 October 2016|access-date=18 December 2017|publisher=Arab American Institute}}{{Cite book|last=Kayyali|first=Randa|title=The Arab Americans|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=2006|page=35}} Most Arab Americans were born in the US, and nearly 82% of US-based Arabs are citizens.{{Cite book|last=Orfalea|first=Gregory|url=https://archive.org/details/arabamericans00greg|title=The Arab Americans: A History|publisher=Olive Branch Press|year=2006|page=[https://archive.org/details/arabamericans00greg/page/189 189]|url-access=registration}}{{Cite web|title=Arab American Population Highlights|url=http://aai.3cdn.net/9298c231f3a79e30c6_g7m6bx9hs.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723000336/http://aai.3cdn.net/9298c231f3a79e30c6_g7m6bx9hs.pdf|archive-date=23 July 2011|access-date=7 July 2011}} Arab American Population Highlights Arab American Institute Foundation{{Cite web|last1=de la Cruz|first1=G. Patricia|last2=Angela Brittingham|date=December 2003|title=The Arab Population: 2000|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-23.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-23.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|access-date=17 October 2016|website=U.S. Census Bureau}}{{Cite web|title=U.S. Census website|url=https://www.census.gov|access-date=18 March 2015|website=US Bureau of Statistics}}

Arab immigrants began to arrive in Canada in small numbers in 1882. Their immigration was relatively limited until 1945, after which time it increased progressively, particularly in the 1960s and thereafter.{{Cite web|title=The Arab Community in Canada|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007009-eng.htm|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Statcan.gc.ca}} According to the website "Who are Arab Canadians", Montreal, the Canadian city with the largest Arab population, has approximately 267,000 Arab inhabitants.{{Cite web|date=12 March 2015|title=Home|url=http://www.rcinet.ca/arabs-canada/|website=Canadians of Arab Origin – Who are they?}}

Latin America has the largest Arab population outside of the Arab World.{{Cite web|date=8 May 2015|title=Out of MENA: Nine cities the Arab Diaspora calls home|url=http://www.albawaba.com/slideshow/out-mena-nine-cities-arab-diaspora-calls-home-691942|website=Al Bawaba}} Latin America is home to anywhere from 17–25 to 30 million people of Arab descent, which is more than any other diaspora region in the world.{{Cite news|title=Arab roots grow deep in Brazil's rich melting pot|work=The Washington Times|url=http://m.washingtontimes.com/news/2005/jul/11/20050711-092503-1255r/?page=all|access-date=17 April 2016}}{{Cite web|title=Origem e destino dos imigrantes do Levante|url=http://brasil500anos.ibge.gov.br/territorio-brasileiro-e-povoamento/arabes/origem-e-destino-dos-imigrantes|access-date=11 April 2016|publisher=ibge}} The Brazilian and Lebanese governments claim there are 7 million Brazilians of Lebanese descent.{{Cite web|title=Lebanese Republic|url=http://www.itamaraty.gov.br/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=7223:lebanese-republic&catid=155&lang=en&Itemid=478|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923004630/http://www.itamaraty.gov.br/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=7223:lebanese-republic&catid=155&lang=en&Itemid=478|archive-date=23 September 2015|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Itamaraty.gov.br}}{{Cite web|date=1996|title=Lebanon: Geography|url=http://www.libano.org.br/olibano_geografia.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529005221/http://www.libano.org.br/olibano_geografia.htm|archive-date=29 May 2008|website=Embassy of Lebanon in Brazil|language=pt}} Also, the Brazilian government claims there are 4 million Brazilians of Syrian descent.{{Cite magazine|title=The Arabs of Brazil|url=http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200505/the.arabs.of.brazil.htm|magazine=Saudi Aramco World|access-date=17 September 2011}}{{Cite news|date=23 April 2010|title=Sleiman meets Brazilian counterpart, Lebanese community|work=The Daily Star|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb//News/Lebanon-News/2010/Apr-23/57092-sleiman-meets-brazilian-counterpart-lebanese-community.ashx#axzz0rLGUHTtA}}{{Cite web|date=1996|title=O Líbano: Geografia|trans-title=Lebanon: Geography|url=http://www.libano.org.br/olibano_geografia.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101112211835/http://www.libano.org.br/olibano_geografia.htm|archive-date=12 November 2010|publisher=Lebanese Embassy in Brazil|language=pt}}{{Cite web|title=Estadão de Hoje|url=http://www.estadao.com.br/estadaodehoje/20091222/index.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130101021406/http://www.estadao.com.br/estadaodehoje/20091222/index.htm|archive-date=1 January 2013|access-date=17 September 2011|publisher=Estadao.com.br}} Other large Arab communities includes Argentina (about 3,500,000{{Cite web|title=Sirios, turcos y libaneses|trans-title=Syrians, Turks and Lebanese|url=http://www.oni.escuelas.edu.ar/olimpi98/BajarondelosBarcos/Colectividades/Turcos,%20sirios%20y%20libaneses/inmigraci%C3%B3n.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211122017/http://www.oni.escuelas.edu.ar/olimpi98/bajarondelosbarcos/Colectividades/Turcos%2C%20sirios%20y%20libaneses/inmigraci%C3%B3n.htm|archive-date=11 December 2008|publisher=oni.escuelas.edu.ar|language=es}}{{Cite web|date=October 2009|title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2009/10/Muslimpopulation.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619214725/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2009/10/Muslimpopulation.pdf|archive-date=19 June 2018|access-date=4 November 2016|publisher=Pew Research Center|page=24}})

The interethnic marriage in the Arab community, regardless of religious affiliation, is very high; most community members have only one parent who has Arab ethnicity.{{Cite news |last=Barros |first=Carolina |date=23 August 2012 |title=Argentina's Syrians |url=http://www.buenosairesherald.com/article/109558/argentina's-syrians |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151130112314/http://www.buenosairesherald.com/article/109558/argentina's-syrians |archive-date=30 November 2015 |access-date=4 November 2016 |work=Buenos Aires Herald}} Colombia (over 3,200,000{{Cite web|title=Colombia y Medio Oriente|url=https://www.larepublica.co/analisis/simon-gaviria-munoz-401830/colombia-y-medio-oriente-3350223|access-date=2022-07-12|website=Diario La República|date=26 April 2022|language=es}}{{Cite web|date=2011-07-06|title=Brazil-Arab News Agency – Colombia awakens to the Arab world|url=http://www2.anba.com.br/noticia_diplomacia.kmf?cod=8701931|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706150728/http://www2.anba.com.br/noticia_diplomacia.kmf?cod=8701931|archive-date=6 July 2011|access-date=2022-06-19}}{{Cite web|date=2019-03-07|title=Los palestinos que encontraron un segundo hogar en el centro de Bogotá|url=https://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/mas-regiones/los-palestinos-que-encontraron-un-segundo-hogar-en-el-centro-de-bogota-334782|access-date=2022-06-19|website=El Tiempo|language=spanish}}), Venezuela (over 1,600,000),[http://www.aljadid.com/content/arabs-making-their-mark-latin-america-generations-immigrants-colombia-venezuela-and-mexico Habeeb Salloum, "Arabs Making Their Mark in Latin America: Generations of Immigrants in Colombia, Venezuela and Mexico"], Al Jadid, Vol. 6, no. 30 (Winter 2000). Mexico (over 1,100,000),{{Cite web|last=Sierra|first=Mauricio|date=2021-06-16|title=Arab Ancestry in Latin America|url=https://berkeleyhighjacket.com/column/arab-ancestry-in-latin-america/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805180425/https://berkeleyhighjacket.com/column/arab-ancestry-in-latin-america/|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 August 2021|access-date=2022-02-15|website=Berkeley High Jacket|quote=Arab Mexicans are an important group within Mexican society. There are around 1,100,000 Mexican citizens of Arab descent}} Chile (over 800,000),{{Cite web|title=Zalaquett pone a Chile como modelo de convivencia palestino-judía|url=http://www.lanacion.cl/zalaquett-pone-a-chile-como-modelo-de-convivencia-palestino-judia/noticias/2009-10-16/160813.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308011730/http://www.lanacion.cl/zalaquett-pone-a-chile-como-modelo-de-convivencia-palestino-judia/noticias/2009-10-16/160813.html|archive-date=8 March 2016|website=La Nación}}Arab and Jewish immigrants in Latin America: images and realities, by Ignacio Klich, Jeff Lesser, 1998, p. 165.{{Cite news|last=Nemy|first=Enid|date=14 September 1969|title=In Santiago Society, No One Cares If Your Name Is Carey or de Yrarrazaval|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1969/09/14/archives/in-santiago-society-no-one-cares-if-your-name-is-carey-or-de.html}} and Central America, particularly El Salvador, and Honduras (between 150,000 and 200,000).{{Cite web|date=27 June 1936|title=The Arabs of Honduras|url=http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200104/the.arabs.of.honduras.htm|access-date=17 September 2011|publisher=Saudiaramcoworld.com}} Arab Haitians (257,000{{Cite web|title=A brief history of Haiti as a destination for groups seeking refuge|url=https://haitiantimes.com/2022/05/19/a-brief-history-of-haiti-as-a-destination-for-groups-seeking-refuge/|website=Haitian Times|date=19 May 2022 |last1=Augustin |first1=Noah }}) a large number of whom live in the capital are more often than not, concentrated in financial areas where the majority of them establish businesses.{{Cite web|title=From Lebanon to Haiti: A Story Going Back to the 19th Century|url=http://al-shorfa.com/en_GB/articles/meii/features/main/2010/01/26/feature-02?format=mobile&mobile=true|access-date=30 January 2014}}

{{main|Arabs in the Caucasus}}

File:Caucasus 1060 map en.svg

In 1728, a Russian officer described a group of Arab nomads who populated the Caspian shores of Mughan (in present-day Azerbaijan).Genko, A. The Arabic Language and Caucasian Studies. USSR Academy of Sciences Publ. Moscow-Leningrad. 8–109 It is believed that these groups migrated to the South Caucasus in the 16th century.Zelkina, Anna. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ih6b9iupT6oC&pg=PA101 Arabic as a Minority Language]. Walter de Gruyter, 2000; {{ISBN|3110165783}} p. 101 The 1888 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica also mentioned a certain number of Arabs populating the Baku Governorate of the Russian Empire.Baynes, Thomas Spencer (ed). "Transcaucasia." Encyclopædia Britannica. 1888. p. 514 They retained an Arabic dialect at least into the mid-19th century,[http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus2/Bakihanov/framevved.htm Golestan-i Iram] by Abbasgulu Bakikhanov. Translated by Ziya Bunyadov. Baku: 1991, p. 21 there are nearly 30 settlements still holding the name Arab (for example, Arabgadim, Arabojaghy, Arab-Yengija, etc.). From the time of the Arab conquest of the South Caucasus, continuous small-scale Arab migration from various parts of the Arab world occurred in Dagestan. The majority of these lived in the village of Darvag, to the north-west of Derbent. The latest of these accounts dates to the 1930s. Most Arab communities in southern Dagestan underwent linguistic Turkicisation, thus nowadays Darvag is a majority-Azeri village.Seferbekov, Ruslan. [http://www.tabasaran.com/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=171 Characters Персонажи традиционных религиозных представлений азербайджанцев Табасарана.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216032153/http://www.tabasaran.com/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=171|date=16 December 2008}}Stephen Adolphe Wurm et al. [https://books.google.com/books?id=glU0vte5gSkC&pg=PA966 Atlas of languages of intercultural communication]. Walter de Gruyter, 1996; p. 966

{{main||Arabs in India|Arab Indonesians|Iranian Arabs|Arabs in Khorasan|Ahwazi Arabs|Arabs in Japan|Arab Malaysians||Arabs in the Philippines|Arab Singaporeans|Sri Lankan Moors}}

According to the History of Ibn Khaldun, the Arabs that were once in Central Asia have been either killed or have fled the Tatar invasion of the region.History of Ibn Khaldun However, today many people in Central Asia identify as Arabs. Most Arabs of Central Asia are fully integrated into local populations, and sometimes call themselves the same as locals (for example, Tajiks, Uzbeks) but they use special titles to show their Arab origin such as Sayyid, Khoja or Siddiqui.Arabic As a Minority Language By Jonathan Owens, pg. 184

File:Ketchimalai_Mosque-_Beruwala,_Sri_Lanka.jpg|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/article/Communal-violence-and-political-instability-in-Sri-Lanka--147158.html|access-date=20 May 2020}}]]

There are only two communities in India which claim Arab descent, the Chaush of the Deccan region and the Chavuse of Gujarat.People of India: Vol. XIII: Andhra Pradesh (3 Parts-Set)Edited by D.L. Prasada Rao, N.V.K. Rao and S. Yaseen Saheb, Affiliated East-West PressPeople of India: Volume XXII: Gujarat (3 Parts-Set): Edited by R.B. Lal, P.B.S.V. Padmanabham, Gopal Krishan and Md. Azeez Mohidden, Popular Prakashan for ASI, 2003. These groups are largely descended from Hadhrami migrants who settled in these two regions in the 18th century. However, neither community still speaks Arabic, although the Chaush have seen re-immigration to Eastern Arabia and thus a re-adoption of Arabic.Muslim society in transition Javed, Arifa Kulsoom {{ISBN|8171690963}} In South Asia, where Arab ancestry is considered prestigious, some communities have origin myths that claim Arab ancestry. Several communities following the Shafi'i madhab (in contrast to other South Asian Muslims who follow the Hanafi madhab) claim descent from Arab traders like the Konkani Muslims of the Konkan region, the Mappilla of Kerala, and the Labbai and Marakkar of Tamil Nadu and a few Christian groups in India that claim and have Arab roots are situated in the state of Kerala.Frontiers of embedded Muslim communities in India / editor, Vinod K. Jairath {{ISBN|978-0415668880}} South Asian Iraqi biradri may have records of their ancestors who migrated from Iraq in historical documents. The Sri Lankan Moors are the third largest ethnic group in Sri Lanka, constituting 9.2% of the country's total population.{{Cite web|title=A2 : Population by ethnic group according to districts, 2012|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop42&gp=Activities&tpl=3|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428063924/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop42&gp=Activities&tpl=3|archive-date=28 April 2017|access-date=19 December 2016|website=Census of Population & Housing, 2011|publisher=Department of Census & Statistics, Sri Lanka}} Some sources trace the ancestry of the Sri Lankan Moors to Arab traders who settled in Sri Lanka at some time between the 8th and 15th centuries.{{Cite web|title=Race in Sri Lanka What Genetic evidence tells us|url=http://www.sundaytimes.lk/140126/plus/race-in-sri-lanka-what-genetic-evidence-tells-us-80911.html|access-date=20 July 2014}}{{Cite journal|last=de Munck|first=Victor|year=2005|title=Islamic Orthodoxy and Sufism in Sri Lanka|journal=Anthropos|volume=100|issue=2|pages=401–414 [403]|doi=10.5771/0257-9774-2005-2-401|jstor=40466546}}{{Cite journal|last=Mahroof|first=M.M.M.|year=1995|title=Spoken Tamil Dialects of the Muslims of Sri Lanka: Language As Identity-Classifier|journal=Islamic Studies|volume=34|issue=4|pages=407–426 [408]|jstor=20836916}} There are about 118,866 Arab-Indonesians{{Cite web|last=Shahab|first=Alwi|date=21 January 1996|title=Komunitas Arab Di Pekojan Dan Krukut: Dari Mayoritas Menjadi Minoritas|url=http://www.library.ohiou.edu/indopubs/1996/01/21/0012.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080809013353/http://www.library.ohiou.edu/indopubs/1996/01/21/0012.html|archive-date=9 August 2008|access-date=19 April 2015|language=id}} of Hadrami descent in the 2010 Indonesian census.{{cite book|author=Aris Ananta, Evi Nurvidya Arifin, M Sairi Hasbullah, Nur Budi Handayani, Agus Pramono|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=crKfCgAAQBAJ|title=Demography of Indonesia's Ethnicity (Table 4.38 The 145 Ethnic Groups: Indonesia, 2010)|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|date=2015|isbn=978-9814519878|access-date=29 August 2022}}

{{Main|Afro-Arabs|Baggara Arabs|Ghanaian Arabs|Arabs in Ivory Coast|Lebanese people in Senegal|Lebanese people in Sierra Leone|Diffa Arabs}}

File:Baggara belt.png

Afro-Arabs are individuals and groups from Africa who are of partial Arab descent. Most Afro-Arabs inhabit the Swahili Coast in the African Great Lakes region, although some can also be found in parts of the Arab world.{{Cite book|last=Romero|first=Patricia W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y5hyAAAAMAAJ|title=Lamu|date=1997|publisher=Markus Wiener|isbn=978-1-55876-106-3|page=7|access-date=25 November 2014}}{{Cite book|first1=Gunnar M|last1=Sorbø|first2=Abdel Ghaffar Muhammad|last2=Ahmed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fe3QAQAAQBAJ|title=Sudan Divided: Continuing Conflict in a Contested State|date=2013|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1137338242|page=90|access-date=25 November 2014}} Large numbers of Arabs migrated to West Africa, particularly Côte d'Ivoire (home to over 100,000 Lebanese),{{Cite web|title=Ivory Coast – The Levantine Community|url=http://countrystudies.us/ivory-coast/72.htm|access-date=17 September 2011|publisher=Countrystudies.us}} Senegal (roughly 30,000 Lebanese),[https://web.archive.org/web/20081118213343/http://voanews.com/english/archive/2007-07/2007-07-10-voa46.cfm Lebanese Immigrants Boost West African Commerce], By Naomi Schwarz, voanews.com, 10 July 2007 Sierra Leone (roughly 10,000 Lebanese today; about 30,000 prior to the outbreak of civil war in 1991), Liberia, and Nigeria.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6908065.stm Lebanese man shot dead in Nigeria], BBC News Since the end of the civil war in 2002, Lebanese traders have become re-established in Sierra Leone.{{cite web|title=African Union Summit|url=http://ausummit-accra.org.gh/index1.php?linkid=289&adate=04%2F07%2F2007&archiveid=140&page=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307113837/http://ausummit-accra.org.gh/index1.php?linkid=289&adate=04%2F07%2F2007&archiveid=140&page=1|archive-date=7 March 2012}}{{Cite news|last=Randall|first=Colin|date=19 November 2004|title=The night westerners were hunted for being white|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/1477006/The-night-westerners-were-hunted-for-being-white.html|url-status=live|url-access=subscription|access-date=26 June 2009|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/1477006/The-night-westerners-were-hunted-for-being-white.html|archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}{{Cite book|title=Ivory Coast: A Country Study|publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress|year=1988|editor-last=Handloff|editor-first=Robert E.|series=Country Studies|location=Washington, DC|chapter=The Levantine Community|chapter-url=http://countrystudies.us/ivory-coast/72.htm}} The Arabs of Chad occupy northern Cameroon and Nigeria (where they are sometimes known as Shuwa), and extend as a belt across Chad and into Sudan, where they are called the Baggara grouping of Arab ethnic groups inhabiting the portion of Africa's Sahel. There are 171,000 in Cameroon, 150,000 in Niger{{Cite web|date=25 October 2006|title=Niger's Arabs to fight expulsion|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6081416.stm|access-date=18 December 2017|publisher=BBC News}}), and 107,000 in the Central African Republic.{{Citation|title=Central African Republic|date=2023-03-22|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/central-african-republic/|work=The World Factbook|access-date=2023-03-28|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}

{{Main|Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia|Arab Muslims|Arab Christians|Druze|Arab Jews|Baháʼí Faith}}

Arabs are mostly Muslims with a Sunni majority and a Shia minority, one exception being the Ibadis, who predominate in Oman.See, for example:

• {{Cite book|first=Ori|last=Stendel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t7Ao8dYsCskC&pg=PA45|title=The Arabs in Israel|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|year=1996|isbn=978-1898723240|page=45|access-date=4 March 2014}}
• {{cite book|author=Mohammad Hassan Khalil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PmgkD3Hel5IC&pg=PA297|title=Between Heaven and Hell: Islam, Salvation, and the Fate of Others|date=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0199945412|page=297|access-date=1 March 2014}} Arab Christians generally follow Eastern Churches such as the Greek Orthodox and Greek Catholic churches, though a minority of Protestant Church followers also exists.{{Cite web|title=Christians (in the Arab world)|url=http://www.medea.be/index.html?page=2&lang=en&doc=38|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611202018/http://www.medea.be/index.html?page=2&lang=en&doc=38|archive-date=11 June 2010|access-date=13 April 2010|publisher=Medea.be}} There are also Arab communities consisting of Druze and Baháʼís.{{Citation|title=The Bahá'í World Centre: Focal Point for a Global Community|url=http://info.bahai.org/article-1-6-0-5.html|access-date=2 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629171538/http://info.bahai.org/article-1-6-0-5.html|url-status=dead|publisher=The Baháʼí International Community|archive-date=29 June 2007}}"[http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/Joshua_Landis_Druze_and_Shishakli.htm Shishakli and the Druzes: Integration and Intransigence]" Historically, there were also sizeable populations of Arab Jews around the Arab World.

Before the coming of Islam, most Arabs followed a pagan religion with a number of deities, including Hubal,{{Cite web|title=Is Hubal The Same As Allah?|url=http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/Sources/Allah/hubal.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100325235432/http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/Sources/Allah/hubal.html|archive-date=25 March 2010|access-date=13 April 2010|publisher=Islamic-awareness.org}} Wadd, Allāt,{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEcpkWjYOZQC&q=Allat&pg=PA34|title=Dictionary of Ancient Deities|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0195145045}} Manat, and Uzza. A few individuals, the hanifs, had apparently rejected polytheism in favor of monotheism unaffiliated with any particular religion. Some tribes had converted to Christianity or Judaism. The most prominent Arab Christian kingdoms were the Ghassanid and Lakhmid kingdoms.{{Cite web|title=From Marib The Sabean Capital To Carantania|url=http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/1-29-2005-64989.asp|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051227165349/http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/1-29-2005-64989.asp|archive-date=27 December 2005|access-date=13 April 2010|publisher=Buzzle.com}} When the Himyarite king converted to Judaism in the late 4th century,{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Msn Encarta entry on Himyarites|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570797/himyarites.html|access-date=10 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040704090616/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570797/Himyarites.html|archive-date=4 July 2004|url-status=dead}} the elites of the other prominent Arab kingdom, the Kindites, being Himyirite vassals, apparently also converted (at least partly). With the expansion of Islam, polytheistic Arabs were rapidly Islamized, and polytheistic traditions gradually disappeared.{{Cite web|date=6 January 2009|title=History of Islam|url=http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/islam/history.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100531045659/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/islam/history.html|archive-date=31 May 2010|access-date=13 April 2010|publisher=Mnsu.edu}}{{Cite web|title=Encyclopedia of Politics and Religion|url=http://www.cqpress.com/context/articles/epr_islam.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100428065818/http://www.cqpress.com/context/articles/epr_islam.html|archive-date=28 April 2010|access-date=13 April 2010|publisher=Cqpress.com}}

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Today, Sunni Islam dominates in most areas, vastly so in Levant, North Africa, West Africa and the Horn of Africa. Shia Islam is dominant in Bahrain and southern Iraq while northern Iraq is mostly Sunni. Substantial Shia populations exist in Lebanon, Yemen, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia,{{Cite web|first=Lionel|last=Beehner|title=Shia Muslims in the Mideast|url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/10903/shiite_muslims_in_the_middle_east.html#2|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411123648/http://www.cfr.org/publication/10903/shiite_muslims_in_the_middle_east.html|archive-date=11 April 2010|access-date=13 April 2010|publisher=Cfr.org}} northern Syria and Al-Batinah Region in Oman. There are small numbers of Ibadi and non-denominational Muslims too. The Druze community is concentrated in Levant.{{cite book|title=Middle East Patterns: Places, People, and Politics|first=Colbert|last=C. Held|year=2008|isbn=978-0429962004|page=109|publisher=Routledge|quote=Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora.}}

Christianity had a prominent presence In pre-Islamic Arabia among several Arab communities, including the Bahrani people of Eastern Arabia, the Christian community of Najran, in parts of Yemen, and among certain northern Arabian tribes such as the Ghassanids, Lakhmids, Taghlib, Banu Amela, Banu Judham, Tanukhids and Tayy. In the early Christian centuries, Arabia was sometimes known as Arabia heretica, due to its being "well known as a breeding-ground for heterodox interpretations of Christianity."{{cite book|title=A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered|date=2003|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1860649127|edition=ill., reprint, rev.|page=88|author1=Kamal S. Salibi}}

Christians make up 5.5% of the population of Western Asia and North Africa.{{Cite book|title=Christian Communities in the Middle East|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0198293880|editor-last=Andrea Pacini}} In Lebanon, Christians number about 40.5% of the population.{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Lebanon}} In Syria, Christians make up 10% of the population.{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Syria}} Christians in Palestine make up 8% and 0.7% of the populations, respectively.{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Gaza Strip}}{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=West Bank}} In Egypt, Christians number about 10% of the population. In Iraq, Christians constitute 0.1% of the population.[http://www.arabicbible.com/christian/arab_christians_who_are_they.htm Arab Christians – Who are they?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206024540/http://www.arabicbible.com/christian/arab_christians_who_are_they.htm|date=6 December 2010}}. Arabicbible.com. Retrieved on 3 January 2011.

In Israel, Arab Christians constitute 2.1% (roughly 9% of the Arab population).{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Israel|access-date=18 July 2011|year=2011}} Arab Christians make up 8% of the population of Jordan.{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Jordan|access-date=18 July 2011|year=2011}} Most North and South American Arabs are Christian,{{Cite web|title=The Arab American Institute | Arab Americans|url=http://www.aaiusa.org/arab-americans/22/demographics|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100403085410/http://www.aaiusa.org/arab-americans/22/demographics|archive-date=3 April 2010|access-date=10 March 2010|publisher=Aaiusa.org}} so are about half of the Arabs in Australia who come particularly from Lebanon, Syria and Palestine. One well known member of this religious and ethnic community is Saint Abo, martyr and the patron saint of Tbilisi, Georgia.{{Cite book|last=Mgaloblishvili|first=Tamila|title=Ancient Christianity in the Caucasus|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|isbn=978-0700706334|page=272}} Arab Christians also live in holy Christian cities such as Nazareth, Bethlehem and the Christian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem and many other villages with holy Christian sites.

{{main|Arab culture}}

File:Illustration by David Roberts, digitally enhanced by rawpixel-com 120.jpg

Arab culture is shaped by a long and rich history that spans thousands of years, from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the east, and from the Mediterranean Sea in the north to the Horn of Africa and the Indian Ocean in the southeast. The various religions the Arabs have adopted throughout their history and the various empires and kingdoms that have ruled and took lead of the Arabic civilization have contributed to the ethnogenesis and formation of modern Arab culture. Language, literature, gastronomy, art, architecture, music, spirituality, philosophy and mysticism are all part of the cultural heritage of the Arabs.{{Cite book|first=Doris|last=Behrens-Abouseif|title=Beauty in Arabic culture|date=1999|publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers|isbn=978-1558761995|oclc=40043536}}

{{main|Arabic}}

File:Learning_Arabic_calligraphy.jpg is the artistic practice of writing Arabic script in a decorative and stylized manner.]]

Arabic is a Semitic language of the Afro-Asiatic family.{{Cite news|title=Al-Jallad. The earliest stages of Arabic and its linguistic classification (Routledge Handbook of Arabic Linguistics, forthcoming)|via=Academia.edu|url=https://www.academia.edu/18470301|access-date=27 October 2016 |last1=Al-Jallad |first1=Ahmad }} The first evidence for the emergence of the language appears in military accounts from 853 BCE. Today it has developed widely used as a lingua franca for more than 500 million people. It is also a liturgical language for 1.7 billion Muslims.{{Cite web|date=27 January 2011|title=Executive Summary|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population|access-date=22 December 2011|website=Future of the Global Muslim Population|publisher=Pew Research Center}}{{Cite news|date=27 January 2011|title=Table: Muslim Population by Country|work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|publisher=Features.pewforum.org|url=http://features.pewforum.org/muslim-population/?sort=Pop2030|access-date=18 May 2014}} Arabic is one of six official languages of the United Nations,{{Cite news|title=UN official languages|publisher=United Nations|url=https://www.un.org/en/sections/about-un/official-languages/|access-date=18 October 2015}} and is revered in Islam as the language of the Quran.{{Cite web|date=27 January 2011|title=Table: Muslim Population by Country | Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|url=http://features.pewforum.org/muslim-population/?sort=Pop2030|access-date=18 May 2014|publisher=Features.pewforum.org}}

Arabic has two main registers. Classical Arabic is the form of the Arabic language used in literary texts from Umayyad and Abbasid times (7th to 9th centuries). It is based on the medieval dialects of Arab tribes. Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the direct descendant used today throughout the Arab world in writing and in formal speaking, for example, prepared speeches, some radio broadcasts, and non-entertainment content,{{sfn|Bin-Muqbil|2006|p=14}} while the lexis and stylistics of Modern Standard Arabic are different from Classical Arabic. There are also various regional dialects of colloquial spoken Arabic that both vary greatly from both each other and from the formal written and spoken forms of Arabic.{{Cite web|title=Arabs facts, information, pictures – articles about Arabs|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/anthropology-and-archaeology/people/arabs|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Encyclopedia.com}}

{{Main|Arabian mythology}}

File:Illustration_of_Aladdin_Flying_Away_with_Two_People_from_the_Arabian_Nights.jpg from the One Thousand and One Nights]]

Arabic mythology comprises the ancient beliefs of the Arabs. Prior to Islam the Kaaba of Mecca was covered in symbols representing the myriad demons, djinn, demigods, or simply tribal gods and other assorted deities which represented the polytheistic culture of pre-Islamic. It has been inferred from this plurality an exceptionally broad context in which mythology could flourish.{{Cite book|last=Stetkevych|first=Jaroslav|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OVXC72Td6CsC|title=Muhammad and the Golden Bough: Reconstructing Arabian Myth|date=2000|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0253214133}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O02TygAACAAJ&q=Arabian+mythology|title=Arabian Mythology, Noah's Ark, Hafaza, Jesus, Khidr, Dhul-Qarnayn, Isra and Mi'raj, Luqman, Devil, Throne of God|date=2011|publisher=General Books|isbn=978-1233180516}}

The most popular beasts and demons of Arabian mythology are Bahamut, Dandan, Falak, Ghoul, Hinn, Jinn, Karkadann, Marid, Nasnas, Qareen, Roc, Shadhavar, Werehyena and other assorted creatures which represented the profoundly polytheistic environment of pre-Islamic.{{Cite book|last=Leeming|first=David|url=https://archive.org/details/jealousgodschose00leem_0|title=Jealous Gods and Chosen People: The Mythology of the Middle East|date=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0195348996|page=[https://archive.org/details/jealousgodschose00leem_0/page/119 119]|url-access=registration}}

The most prominent symbol of Arabian mythology is the Jinn or genie.{{Cite web|title=jinni|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/jinni|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=2 January 2024}} Jinns are supernatural beings that can be good or evil.Benjamin W. McCraw, Philosophical Approaches to Demonology Robert Arp Routledge 2017 {{ISBN|978-1315466750}}Qur'ān 55:15 They are not purely spiritual, but are also physical in nature, being able to interact in a tactile manner with people and objects and likewise be acted upon. The jinn, humans, and angels make up the known sapient creations of God.Amira El-Zein Islam, Arabs, and Intelligent World of the Jinn Syracuse University Press 2009 {{ISBN|978-0815650706}} p. 19

Ghouls also feature in the mythology as a monster or evil spirit associated with graveyards and consuming human flesh.{{Cite web|title=The Story of Sidi-Nouman|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/lang1k1/tale31.htm|access-date=5 July 2012}}{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Ghoul Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Ghoul|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O27-ghoul.html|access-date=23 March 2011}} In Arabic folklore, ghouls belonged to a diabolic class of jinn and were said to be the offspring of Iblīs, the prince of darkness in Islam. They were capable of constantly changing form, but always retained donkey's hooves.{{Cite web|title=ghoul|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/ghoul|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=14 June 2024}}

{{main|Arabic literature}}

File:Khalili Collection Islamic Art MSS 0902-61b-62a.jpg]]

The Quran, the main holy book of Islam, had a significant influence on the Arabic language, and marked the beginning of Arabic literature. Muslims believe it was transcribed in the Arabic dialect of the Quraysh, the tribe of Muhammad.{{Cite journal|first=Glen|last=Van Brummelen|date=2013|title=Seeking the Divine on Earth: The Direction of Prayer in Islam|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.4169/mathhorizons.21.1.15|journal=Math Horizons|volume=21|issue=1|pages=15–17|doi=10.4169/mathhorizons.21.1.15|jstor=10.4169/mathhorizons.21.1.15|s2cid=218543141}}{{Cite web|date=2019-09-08|title=الوثائقية تفتح ملف "اللغة العربية"|url=https://doc.aljazeera.net/followup/الوثائقية-تفتح-ملف-اللغة-العربية/|access-date=2020-06-18|website=الجزيرة الوثائقية|language=ar}} As Islam spread, the Quran had the effect of unifying and standardizing Arabic.

Not only is the Quran the first work of any significant length written in the language, but it also has a far more complicated structure than the earlier literary works with its 114 suwar (chapters) which contain 6,236 ayat (verses). It contains injunctions, narratives, homilies, parables, direct addresses from God, instructions and even comments on how the Quran will be received and understood. It is also admired for its layers of metaphor as well as its clarity, a feature which is mentioned in An-Nahl, the 16th surah.

Al-Jahiz (born 776, in Basra – December 868/January 869) was an Arab prose writer and author of works of literature, Mu'tazili theology, and politico-religious polemics. A leading scholar in the Abbasid Caliphate, his canon includes two hundred books on various subjects, including Arabic grammar, zoology, poetry, lexicography, and rhetoric. Of his writings, only thirty books survive. Al-Jāḥiẓ was also one of the first Arabian writers to suggest a complete overhaul of the language's grammatical system, though this would not be undertaken until his fellow linguist Ibn Maḍāʾ took up the matter two hundred years later.Shawqi Daif, Introduction to Ibn Mada's Refutation of the Grammarians, pg. 48. Cairo, 1947.

There is a small remnant of pre-Islamic poetry, but Arabic literature predominantly emerges in the Middle Ages, during the Golden Age of Islam.{{Cite web|title=Arabic literature|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Arabic-literature|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}} Imru' al-Qais was a king and poet in the 6th century, he was the last king of Kindite. He is among the finest Arabic poetry to date, as well sometimes considered the father of Arabic poetry.{{Cite book|last=Pendergast|first=Tom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OaURAQAAMAAJ|title=Reference Guide to World Literature|date=2003|publisher=St. James Press|isbn=978-1558624900|page=30}} Kitab al-Aghani by Abul-Faraj was called by the 14th-century historian Ibn Khaldun the register of the Arabs.{{cite book|last1=Sawa|first1=George Dimitri|title=Erotica, Love and Humor in Arabia : Spicy Stories from The Book of Songs by al-Isfahani|date=2016|publisher=McFarland & Company|isbn=978-1476663654|page=2}} Literary Arabic is derived from Classical Arabic, based on the language of the Quran as it was analyzed by Arabic grammarians beginning in the 8th century.{{Cite web|title=Literature|url=https://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/arablit.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170102163724/https://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/arablit.htm|archive-date=2 January 2017|website=Library.cornell.edu}}

File:Khalil Gibran - Autorretrato con musa, c. 1911.jpg was a writer, poet and visual artist; he is best known as the author of The Prophet, has since become one of the best-selling books of all time, having been translated into more than 100 languages]]

A large portion of Arabic literature before the 20th century is in the form of poetry, and even prose from this period is either filled with snippets of poetry or is in the form of saj or rhymed prose.{{Cite web|title=Arabic literature|url=http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/entertainment/arabic-literature.html|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Infoplease.com}} The ghazal or love poem had a long history being at times tender and chaste and at other times rather explicit.{{Cite book|last=Richards|first=D.S.|title=Arabic literature in the post-classical period|date=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1139053990|editor-last=Allen|editor-first=Roger|edition=1st|location=Cambridge, UK}} In the Sufi tradition the love poem would take on a wider, mystical and religious importance.

Arabic epic literature was much less common than poetry, and presumably originates in oral tradition, written down from the 14th century or so. Maqama or rhymed prose is intermediate between poetry and prose, and also between fiction and non-fiction.{{Cite book|title=Night and horses and the desert : an anthology of classical Arabic literature|date=2002|publisher=Anchor Books|isbn=978-0385721554|editor-last=Irwin|editor-first=Robert|edition=1st Anchor Books|location=New York}} Maqama was an incredibly popular form of Arabic literature, being one of the few forms which continued to be written during the decline of Arabic in the 17th and 18th centuries.{{Cite web|title=Islamic History in Arabia and Middle East|url=http://www.islamicity.com/mosque/ihame/ref5.htm|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Islamicity.com}}

Arabic literature and culture declined significantly after the 13th century, to the benefit of Turkish and Persian. A modern revival took place beginning in the 19th century, alongside resistance against Ottoman rule. The literary revival is known as al-Nahda in Arabic, and was centered in Egypt and Lebanon. Two distinct trends can be found in the nahda period of revival.{{Cite web|title=Arabic Literature|url=http://www.indigenouspeople.net/arabiclit/|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Indigenouspeople.net}}

The first was a neo-classical movement which sought to rediscover the literary traditions of the past, and was influenced by traditional literary genres—such as the maqama—and works like One Thousand and One Nights. In contrast, a modernist movement began by translating Western modernist works—primarily novels—into Arabic.{{Cite book|last=Gelder|first=Geert Jan Van|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/21087|title=Classical Arabic Literature|date=2012|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0814745113}} A tradition of modern Arabic poetry was established by writers such as Francis Marrash, Ahmad Shawqi and Hafiz Ibrahim. Iraqi poet Badr Shakir al-Sayyab is considered to be the originator of free verse in Arabic poetry.{{Cite web|date=17 September 2013|title=Arabian literature|url=http://www.slideshare.net/JennyOh17/arabian-literature|website=Slideshare.net}}{{Cite book|title=Modern Arabic literature|date=1992|publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press|isbn=978-0521331975|editor-last=Badawi|editor-first=M.M.|edition=1. publ.|location=Cambridge [u.a.]}}{{Cite book|last=Cachia|first=Pierre|url=https://archive.org/details/arabicliterature0000cach|title=Arabic literature : an overview|date=2002|publisher=RoutledgeCurzon|isbn=978-0-7007-1725-5|edition=1. publ.|location=New York|url-access=registration}}

{{main|Arab cuisine}}

File:Petra metzes.jpgs in Petra, Jordan]]

Arab cuisine is largely divided into Khaleeji cuisine, Levantine cuisine and Maghrebi cuisine.{{Cite book|title=Food : a culinary history from Antiquity to the present|date=1999|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0231111546|editor-last=Flandrin|editor-first=Jean-Louis|location=New York|translator-last=Clarissa Botsford|editor-last2=Montanari|editor-first2=Massimo|editor-last3=Sonnenfeld|editor-first3=Albert}} Arab cuisine has influenced other cuisines various cultures, including Ottoman, Persian, and Andalusian.

It is characterized by a variety of herbs and spices, including cumin, coriander, cinnamon, sumac, za'atar, cardamom, mint, saffron, sesame, thyme turmeric and parsley.{{Cite web|title=Food and recipes|url=http://al-bab.com/special-topics/food-and-recipes|website=al-bab.com}}{{Cite web|title=Arabic Cuisine|url=http://www.canadianarabcommunity.com/arabiccuisine.php|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Canadianarabcommunity.com|archive-date=25 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225000342/http://www.canadianarabcommunity.com/arabiccuisine.php|url-status=dead}} Arab cuisine is also known for its sweets and desserts, such as Knafeh, Baklava, Halva, and Qatayef. Arabic coffee, or qahwa, is a traditional drink that is served with dates.

{{main|Arabic art|Nabataean art|Arabic miniature|Arabesque}}

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Arabic art has taken various forms, including, among other things, jewelry, textiles and architecture.{{Cite book|last=d'Avennes|first=Prisse|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B3MWAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Arabic Art in Color|date=1 January 1978|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=978-0486236582}}{{Cite book|title=Arabic art : after monuments in Cairo|date=1 January 2007|publisher=L'Aventurine|isbn=978-2914199605|oclc=216662541}} Arabic script has also traditionally been heavily embellished with often colorful Arabic calligraphy, with one notable and widely used example being Kufic script.{{Cite web|date=25 April 2011|title=A Brief History on Arabic Art: Different Forms of Arabic Artworks Outlined|url=http://www.brighthubeducation.com/history-homework-help/115127-arabic-art-and-architecture-brief-history/|website=Bright Hub Education}} Arabic miniatures (Arabic: الْمُنَمْنَمَات الْعَرَبِيَّة, Al-Munamnamāt al-ʿArabīyah) are small paintings on paper, usually book or manuscript illustrations but also sometimes separate artworks that occupy entire pages. The earliest example dates from around 690 CE, with a flourishing of the art from between 1000 and 1200 CE in the Abbasid caliphate. The art form went through several stages of evolution while witnessing the fall and rise of several Arab caliphates.

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Arab miniaturists got totally assimilated and subsequently disappeared due to the Ottoman occupation of the Arab world. Nearly all forms of Islamic miniatures (Persian miniatures, Ottoman miniatures and Mughal miniatures) owe their existences to Arabic miniatures, as Arab patrons were the first to demand the production of illuminated manuscripts in the Caliphate, it was not until the 14th century that the artistic skill reached the non-Arab regions of the Caliphate.{{Cite web|last=Mihram|first=Danielle|title=Research Guides: Medieval Studies and Research: Manuscripts: Art & Techniques|url=https://libguides.usc.edu/MedRenMSSandRareMatStudies/artandtechniques|access-date=2022-05-27|website=libguides.usc.edu}}{{Cite web|title=Miniature Painting|url=https://www.davidmus.dk/en/collections/islamic/materials/miniatures|access-date=30 December 2017|publisher=The David Collection}}{{Cite journal|date=October 1933|title=Islamic Miniature Painting and Book Illumination|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/pubs/bulletins/1/pdf/3255467.pdf.bannered.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art|volume=28|issue=10|pages=166–171|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406001359/https://www.metmuseum.org/pubs/bulletins/1/pdf/3255467.pdf.bannered.pdf|archive-date=6 April 2012|access-date=28 June 2022}}{{Cite journal|last=Dutton|first=Yasin|date=2016|title=Review of Qur'ans of the Umayyads: A First Overview (Leiden Studies in Islam & Society), François Déroche|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44031130|journal=Journal of Qur'anic Studies|volume=18|issue=1|pages=153–157|doi=10.3366/jqs.2016.0227|issn=1465-3591|jstor=44031130}}La Peinture arabe

Despite the considerable changes in Arabic miniature style and technique, even during their last decades, the early Umayyad Arab influence could still be noticed. Arabic miniature artists include Ismail al-Jazari, who illustrated his own Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices.al-Jazari, The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices: Kitáb fí ma'rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya, transl. & anno. Donald R. Hill. (1973), Springer Science+Business Media.

The Abbasid artist, Yahya Al-Wasiti, who probably lived in Baghdad in the late Abbasid era (12th to 13th-centuries), was one of the pre-eminent exponents of the Baghdad school. In the period 1236–1237, he transcribed and illustrated the book Maqamat (also known as the Assemblies or the Sessions), a series of anecdotes of social satire written by Al-Hariri of Basra.{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Baghdad school – Islamic art|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Baghdad-school|access-date=2022-05-23}} The narrative concerns the travels of a middle-aged man as he uses his charm and eloquence to swindle his way across the Arabic world.{{Cite book|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315121970|title=Art, Awakening, and Modernity in the Middle East|date=2017|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1315121970|editor-last=Esanu|editor-first=Octavian|doi=10.4324/9781315121970}}File:Egitto,_cairo,_placca_decorativa_in_avorio,_XI_sec_-_Louvre_-_OA_6265-1.jpg, 11th–12th century, Egypt]]

With most surviving Arabic manuscripts in western museums,{{Cite web|date=2017-08-30|title=الكنوز الضائعة.. هكذا انتقلت أشهر المخطوطات العربية إلى مكتبات العالم المختلفة|url=https://www.sasapost.com/arabic-manuscripts-in-foreign-libraries/|access-date=2022-05-27|website=ساسة بوست|archive-date=5 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005024423/https://www.sasapost.com/arabic-manuscripts-in-foreign-libraries/|url-status=dead}} Arabic miniatures occupy very little space in modern Arab culture.{{Cite journal|last1=Thābit|first1=Mahmūd|last2=Albin|first2=Michael W.|date=1977|title=The Tragedy of Arabic Manuscripts, (1)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29785032|journal=MELA Notes|issue=12|pages=16–19|issn=0364-2410|jstor=29785032}} Arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines,{{Cite book|last1=Fleming|first1=John|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofdeco00john|title=Dictionary of the Decorative Arts|last2=Honour|first2=Hugh|publisher=Penguin|year=1977|isbn=978-0670820474}} often combined with other elements. Another definition is "Foliate ornament, typically using leaves, derived from stylised half-palmettes, which were combined with spiralling stems".Rawson, 236 It usually consists of a single design which can be 'tiled' or seamlessly repeated as many times as desired.{{Cite book|last=Robinson|first=Francis|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521435109|title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0521669931|url-access=registration}}{{Cite web|title=Arts of the Islamic World (article)|url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-islam/beginners-guide-islamic-world-art/beginners-guide-islamic-art/a/arts-of-the-islamic-world|website=Khan Academy}}

{{Further|Nabataean architecture|Islamic architecture}}

The Arab world is home to around 8%{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/stat/|title=Number of World Heritage Properties by region|author=|website=World Heritage Convention|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=21 November 2023}} of UNESCO World Heritage Sites (List of World Heritage Sites in the Arab states). The oldest examples of architecture include those of pre-Islamic Arabia,{{Cite book|last=Finster|first=Barbara|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three|publisher=Brill|year=2009|isbn=978-9004161658|editor-last=Fleet|editor-first=Kate|chapter=Arabian Peninsula, art and architecture|editor-last2=Krämer|editor-first2=Gudrun|editor-last3=Matringe|editor-first3=Denis|editor-last4=Nawas|editor-first4=John|editor-last5=Rowson|editor-first5=Everett}} as well as Nabataean architecture that developed in the ancient kingdom of the Nabataeans, a nomadic Arab tribe that controlled a significant portion of the Middle East from the 4th century BCE to the 2nd century CE.[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259265552_Nabataean_Architectural_Identity_and_its_Impact_on_Contemporary_Architecture_in_Jordan "Nabataean Architectural Identity and its Impact on Contemporary Architecture in Jordan"], Dirasat, Engineering Sciences.{{cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/naba/hd_naba.htm|title=Nabataean Kingdom and Petra | Essay | the Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|date=October 2000 }} The Nabataeans were known for their skill in carving out elaborate buildings, tombs, and other structures from the sandstone cliffs of the region. One of the most famous examples of Nabataean architecture is the city of Petra, which is located in modern-day Jordan, was the capital of the Nabataean kingdom and is renowned for its impressive rock-cut architecture.{{Cite book|last1=Bloom|first1=Jonathan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=PA79|title=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set|last2=Blair|first2=Sheila S.|date=2009|publisher=OUP US|isbn=978-0195309911}}

Prior to the start of the Arab conquests, Arab tribal client states, the Lakhmids and Ghassanids, were located on the borders of the Sassanid and Byzantine empires and were exposed to the cultural and architectural influences of both.{{Sfn|Shahîd|1995a|pp=401–403}}{{Sfn|Flood|Necipoğlu|2017|p=58}} They most likely played a significant role in transmitting and adapting the architectural traditions of these two empires to the later Arab Islamic dynasties.{{Sfn|Shahîd|1995a|pp=391, 402}}{{sfn|Ettinghausen|Grabar|Jenkins-Madina|2001|pp=4–5}}

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The Arab empire expanded rapidly, and with it, came a diverse range of architectural influences. One of the most notable architectural achievements of the Arab Empire is the Great Mosque of Damascus in Syria, which was built in the early 8th century, was constructed on the site of a Christian basilica and incorporated elements of Byzantine and Roman architecture, such as arches, columns, and intricate mosaics. Another important architectural is the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, which was built in the late 7th century. The mosque features an impressive dome and a large prayer hall, as well as intricate geometric patterns and calligraphy on the walls.Fletcher, Banister [https://books.google.com/books?id=ULcsAAAAYAAJ&q=islam A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method] 4th Edition, London, p. 476.Krautheimer, Richard. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WXwX7fQ2DkUC&q=islam Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture] Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, Penguin Books Ltd., 1965, p. 285.

{{main|Arabic music}}

File:Umm_Kulthum4.jpg was an Arab singer, songwriter, and film actress (1920s–1970s). She has been named among the "200 Greatest Singers of All Time".{{citation|title=Rolling Stone Magazine named iconic singer Umm Kulthum among the greatest 200 singers of all time.|date=8 January 2023|url=https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/121771/Rolling-Stone-Magazine-named-iconic-singer-Umm-Kulthum-among-the}}]]

Arabic music, while independent and flourishing in the 2010s, has a long history of interaction with many other regional musical styles and genres. It is an amalgam of the music of the Arab people in the Arabian Peninsula and the music of all the peoples that make up the Arab world today.{{Cite journal|last=Touma|first=Habib Hassan|date=1972|title=[Review of Das arabische Tonsystem im Mittelalter by Liberty Manik]|department=Book Reviews|journal=Ethnomusicology|volume=16|issue=1|pages=140–144|doi=10.2307/850449|jstor=850449}} Pre-Islamic Arab music was similar to that of Ancient Middle Eastern music. Most historians agree that there existed distinct forms of music in the Arabian peninsula in the pre-Islamic period between the 5th and 7th century CE. Arab poets of that "Jahili poets", meaning "the poets of the period of ignorance"—used to recite poems with a high notes.{{Cite web|date=16 December 2004|title=الغناء في العصر الجاهلي|url=https://www.khaledtrm.net/?p=74}} It was believed that Jinns revealed poems to poets and music to musicians. By the 11th century, Islamic Iberia had become a center for the manufacture of instruments. These goods spread gradually throughout France, influencing French troubadours, and eventually reaching the rest of Europe. The English words lute, rebec, and naker are derived from Arabic oud, rabab, and naqareh.{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Douglas Alton|title=A History of the Lute from Antiquity to the Renaissance|year=2002|publisher=Lute Society of America|isbn=978-0971407107}}{{Cite web|date=20 December 2008|title=Asian Music Tribal Music of India, 32, 1, Fall, 2000/ Winter, 2001|url=http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/journals/archive/am/00449202_ap030061.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220100655/http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/journals/archive/am/00449202_ap030061.html|archive-date=20 December 2008|access-date=18 December 2017}}

A number of musical instruments used in classical music are believed to have been derived from Arabic musical instruments: the lute was derived from the Oud, the rebec (ancestor of violin) from the Maghreb rebab, the guitar from qitara, which in turn was derived from the Persian Tar, naker from naqareh, adufe from al-duff, alboka from al-buq, anafil from al-nafir, exabeba from al-shabbaba (flute), atabal (bass drum) from al-tabl, atambal from al-tinbal,{{Citation|last=Farmer|first=Henry George|title=Historical facts for the Arabian Musical Influence|year=1988|publisher=Ayer Publishing|isbn=040508496X|oclc=220811631|author-link=Henry George Farmer|page=137}} the balaban, the castanet from kasatan, sonajas de azófar from sunuj al-sufr, the conical bore wind instruments,{{Harvnb|Farmer|1988|p=140}} the xelami from the sulami or fistula (flute or musical pipe),{{Harvnb|Farmer|1988|pp=140–41}} the shawm and dulzaina from the reed instruments zamr and al-zurna,{{Harvnb|Farmer|1988|p=141}} the gaita from the ghaita, rackett from iraqya or iraqiyya,{{Harvnb|Farmer|1988|p=142}} geige (violin) from ghichak,{{Harvnb|Farmer|1988|p=143}} and the theorbo from the tarab.{{Harvnb|Farmer|1988|p=144}}

During the 1950s and the 1960s, Arabic music began to take on a more Western tone – artists Umm Kulthum, Abdel Halim Hafez, and Shadia along with composers Mohamed Abd al-Wahab and Baligh Hamdi pioneered the use of western instruments in Egyptian music. By the 1970s several other singers had followed suit and a strand of Arabic pop was born. Arabic pop usually consists of Western styled songs with Arabic instruments and lyrics. Melodies are often a mix between Eastern and Western. Beginning in the mid-1980s, Lydia Canaan, musical pioneer widely regarded as the first rock star of the Middle EastO'Connor, Tom. [https://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2016/Apr-27/349450-lydia-canaan-one-step-closer-to-rocknroll-hall-of-fame.ashx "Lydia Canaan One Step Closer to Rock n' Roll Hall of Fame"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429000832/http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2016/Apr-27/349450-lydia-canaan-one-step-closer-to-rocknroll-hall-of-fame.ashx|date=29 April 2016}}, The Daily Star, Beirut, 27 April 2016.{{Cite web|title=Lydia Canaan: The Mideast's first rock star|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2014/Nov-17/277842-lydia-canaan-the-mideasts-first-rock-star.ashx?|website=dailystar.com.lb|access-date=8 May 2015|archive-date=5 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505080129/http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2014/Nov-17/277842-lydia-canaan-the-mideasts-first-rock-star.ashx|url-status=dead}}

File:Nemesis_Allat_and_dedicater-MBA_Lyon-IMG_0557.JPG, al-Lat and the dedicator. Palmyrene, 2nd–3rd century CE.]]

Arab polytheism was the dominant religion in pre-Islamic Arabia. Gods and goddesses, including Hubal and the goddesses al-Lāt, Al-'Uzzá and Manāt, were worshipped at local shrines, such as the Kaaba in Mecca, whilst Arabs in the south, in what is today's Yemen, worshipped various gods, some of which represented the Sun or Moon. Different theories have been proposed regarding the role of Allah in Meccan religion.{{Cite book|first=Neal|last=Robinson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2UL8AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|title=Islam: A Concise Introduction|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1136817731|page=75}}{{Cite book|first=Francis E.|last=Peters|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0OrCo4VyvGkC&pg=PA110|title=Muhammad and the Origins of Islam|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0791418758|page=110}}{{Cite book|first=Daniel C.|last=Peterson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9zpbEj0xA_sC&pg=PA21|title=Muhammad, Prophet of God|date=2007|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0802807540|page=21}} Many of the physical descriptions of the pre-Islamic gods are traced to idols, especially near the Kaaba, which is said to have contained up to 360 of them.{{Cite book|first=Karen|last=Armstrong|url=https://archive.org/details/islamshorthistor00arms_354|title=Islam: A Short History|date=2000|isbn=978-0-8129-6618-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/islamshorthistor00arms_354/page/n50 11]|publisher=Random House Publishing|url-access=limited}} Until about the fourth century, almost all Arabs practised polytheistic religions.{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|p=139}} Although significant Jewish and Christian minorities developed, polytheism remained the dominant belief system in pre-Islamic Arabia.{{Cite book|first=David|last=Nicolle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o3PgFtHzLVEC&pg=PA19|title=The Great Islamic Conquests AD 632–750|date=2012|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=978-1780969985|page=19|author-link=David Nicolle}}

The religious beliefs and practices of the nomadic bedouin were distinct from those of the settled tribes of towns such as Mecca.{{Cite book|first=Reza|last=Aslan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HP1zoWqpqg4C&pg=PA6|title=No God But God: The Origins, Evolution and Future of Islam|date=2008|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-1407009285|page=6}} Nomadic religious belief systems and practices are believed to have included fetishism, totemism and veneration of the dead but were connected principally with immediate concerns and problems and did not consider larger philosophical questions such as the afterlife. Settled urban Arabs, on the other hand, are thought to have believed in a more complex pantheon of deities. While the Meccans and the other settled inhabitants of the Hejaz worshipped their gods at permanent shrines in towns and oases, the bedouin practised their religion on the move.{{Cite book|first=Francis E.|last=Peters|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0OrCo4VyvGkC&pg=PA105|title=Muhammad and the Origins of Islam|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0791418758|page=105}}

Most notable Arab gods and goddesses: 'Amm, A'ra, Abgal, Allah, Al-Lat, Al-Qaum, Almaqah, Anbay, ʿAṯtar, Basamum, Dhu l-Khalasa, Dushara, Haukim, Hubal, Isāf and Nā'ila, Manaf, Manāt, Nasr, Nuha, Quzah, Ruda, Sa'd, Shams, Samas, Syn, Suwa', Ta'lab, Theandrios, al-'Uzzá, Wadd, Ya'uq, Yaghūth, Yatha, Aglibol, Astarte, Atargatis, Baalshamin, Bēl, Bes, Ēl, Ilāh, Inanna/Ishtar, Malakbel, Nabū, Nebo, Nergal, Yarhibol.

{{main|Arabic philosophy}}

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The philosophical thought in the Arab world is heavily influenced by Arabic Philosophy. Schools of Arabic/Islamic thought include Avicennism and Averroism. The first great Arab thinker in the Islamic tradition is widely regarded to be al-Kindi (801–873 A.D.), a Neo-Platonic philosopher, mathematician and scientist who lived in Kufa and Baghdad (modern day Iraq). After being appointed by the Abbasid Caliphs to translate Greek scientific and philosophical texts into Arabic, he wrote a number of original treatises of his own on a range of subjects, from metaphysics and ethics to mathematics and pharmacology.{{Cite web|title=Arabic philosophy|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arabic-philosophy|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=28 January 2024}}

Much of his philosophical output focuses on theological subjects such as the nature of God, the soul and prophetic knowledge. Doctrines of the Arabic philosophers of the 9th–12th century who influenced medieval Scholasticism in Europe. The Arabic tradition combines Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam. Influential thinkers include the non-Arabs al-Farabi and Avicenna. The Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Hebrew and Latin, this contributed to the development of modern European philosophy. The Arabic tradition was developed by Moses Maimonides and Ibn Khaldun.{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Street|first=Tony|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-language/|title=Arabic and Islamic Philosophy of Language and Logic|date=1 January 2015|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}{{Cite web|title=Arabic and Islamic Philosophy – Bibliography – PhilPapers|url=https://philpapers.org/browse/arabic-and-islamic-philosophy|website=philpapers.org}}

{{main|Science in the medieval Islamic world}}

{{see also|Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe}}

File:Houghton_Typ_620.47.452_-_Selenographia,_title.jpg's Selenographia, showing Alhazen {{sic}} representing reason, and Galileo representing the senses.]]

Arabic science underwent considerable development during the Middle Ages (8th to 13th centuries CE), a source of knowledge that later spread throughout Medieval Europe and greatly influenced both medical practice and education. The language of recorded science was Arabic. Scientific treatises were composed by thinkers originating from across the Muslim world. These accomplishments occurred after Muhammad united the Arab tribes and the spread of Islam beyond the Arabian peninsula.{{Cite journal|last1=Falagas|first1=Matthew E.|last2=Zarkadoulia|first2=Effie A.|last3=Samonis|first3=George|date=1 August 2006|title=Arab science in the golden age (750–1258 CE) and today|journal=The FASEB Journal|volume=20|issue=10|pages=1581–1586|doi=10.1096/fj.06-0803ufm|doi-access=free|issn=0892-6638|pmid=16873881|s2cid=40960150}}

Within a century after Muhammed's death (632 CE), an empire ruled by Arabs was established. It encompassed a large part of the planet, stretching from southern Europe to North Africa to Central Asia and on to India. In 711 CE, Arab Muslims invaded southern Spain; al-Andalus was a center of Arabic scientific accomplishment. Soon after, Sicily too joined the greater Islamic world. Another center emerged in Baghdad from the Abbasids, who ruled part of the Islamic world during a historic period later characterized as the "Golden Age" (~750 to 1258 CE).{{Cite web|title=Rediscovering Arabic Science|url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/rediscovering-arabic-science|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220185540/http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/rediscovering-arabic-science|archive-date=20 December 2016|access-date=18 December 2016|website=Muslimheritage.com}}

This era can be identified as the years between 692 and 945,Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam; Conscience and History in a World Civilisation Vol 1. The University of Chicago, 1974, p. 234. and ended when the caliphate was marginalized by local Muslim rulers in Baghdad – its traditional seat of power. From 945 onward until the sacking of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258, the Caliph continued on as a figurehead, with power devolving more to local subordinates.Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam; Conscience and History in a World Civilisation Vol 1. The University of Chicago, 1974, p. 233. The pious scholars of Islam, men and women collectively known as the ulama, were the most influential element of society in the fields of Sharia law, speculative thought and theology.Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of Islam; Conscience and History in a World Civilisation Vol 1. The University of Chicago, 1974, p. 238. Arabic scientific achievement is not as yet fully understood, but is very large.{{Cite book|title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1996|editor-last=Robinson|editor-first=Francis|pages=228–229}} These achievements encompass a wide range of subject areas, especially mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Other subjects of scientific inquiry included physics, alchemy and chemistry, cosmology, ophthalmology, geography and cartography, sociology, and psychology.{{Cite web|title=The Origins of Islamic Science|url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/origins-islamic-science|access-date=18 December 2016|website=Muslimheritage.com|date=30 August 2010}}

File:Maqamat hariri.jpg from the Maqamat of Al-Hariri manuscript.]]

Al-Battani was an astronomer, astrologer and mathematician of the Islamic Golden Age. His work is considered instrumental in the development of science and astronomy. One of Al-Battani's best-known achievements in astronomy was the determination of the solar year as being 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds which is only 2 minutes and 22 seconds off.{{MacTutor Biography|id=Al-Battani|title=Abu Abdallah Mohammad ibn Jabir Al-Battani}} In mathematics, al-Battānī produced a number of trigonometrical relationships. Al-Zahrawi, regarded by many as the greatest surgeon of the Middle Ages.{{Cite book|last=Weinberg|first=Steven|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7rZvBQAAQBAJ&q=alhazen+greatest&pg=PT116|title=To Explain the World: The Discovery of Modern Science|date=2015|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-0241196656}} His surgical treatise "De chirurgia" is the first illustrated surgical guide ever written. It remained the primary source for surgical procedures and instruments in Europe for the next 500 years.{{Cite book|last=Krebs|first=Robert E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MTXdplfiz-cC&q=texts+for+next+500+years+al-zahrawi&pg=PA95|title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance|date=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0313324338}} The book helped lay the foundation to establish surgery as a scientific discipline independent from medicine, earning al-Zahrawi his name as one of the founders of this field.{{Cite book|last=Krebs|first=Robert E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MTXdplfiz-cC&q=%22father+of+surgery%22+al-zahrawi&pg=PA95|title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance|date=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0313324338}}

Other notable Arabic contributions include among other things: the pioneering of organic chemistry by Jābir ibn Hayyān,{{cite journal |last1=Stapleton |first1=Henry E. |author1-link=Henry Ernest Stapleton |last2=Azo |first2=R.F. |last3=Hidayat Husain |first3=M. |year=1927 |title=Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the Tenth Century A.D. |url=http://www.southasiaarchive.com/Content/sarf.100203/231270 |journal=Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal |volume=VIII |issue=6 |pages=317–418 |oclc=706947607}} pp. 338–340; {{Cite book|last=Kraus|first=Paul|title=Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque|publisher=Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale|year=1942–1943|isbn=978-3487091150|location=Cairo|oclc=468740510|author-link=Paul Kraus (Arabist)}} vol. II, pp. 41–42. Note that Jabir ibn Hayyan, if he ever existed at all, may also have been a non-Arab client of the Arab Azd tribe: see {{harvnb|Kraus|1942–1943|loc=vol. I, p. xli, note 1}}, and further Jabir ibn Hayyan#Biography. establishing the science of cryptology and cryptanalysis by al-Kindi,{{Cite book|last=Kahn|first=David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3S8rhOEmDIIC&q=David+Kahn+The+Codebreakers|title=The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet|date=1996|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1439103555|quote=Cryptology was born among the Arabs. They were the first to discover and write down the methods of cryptoanalysis.}}{{Cite book|last=Borda|first=Monica|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lyte2yl1SPAC&q=cryptography+arabs&pg=PA122|title=Fundamentals in Information Theory and Coding|date=2011|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3642203473|page=122|quote=Al Kindi, an Arab scientist from 9th century is considered the father of cryptology, his book on this subject being, at this moment, the oldest available.}}{{Cite web|title=Arab Code Breakers|url=https://simonsingh.net/media/articles/maths-and-science/arab-code-breakers/|website=simonsingh.net}} the development of analytic geometry by Ibn al-Haytham,Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven; Wallis, Faith (2014). Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 237.Kalin, Ibrahim (2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 321. who has been described as the "world's first true scientist",{{Cite news|last=Al-Khalili|first=Jim|date=4 January 2009|title=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm|access-date=11 April 2014}} the discovery of the pulmonary circulation by Ibn al-Nafis,{{Cite book|last1=Kidder|first1=David S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hpzb_yA42TAC&q=Ibn+al-Nafis+circulation&pg=PA122|title=The Intellectual Devotional Biographies: Revive Your Mind, Complete Your Education, and Acquaint Yourself with the World's Greatest Personalities|last2=Oppenheim|first2=Noah D.|date=2010|publisher=Rodale|isbn=978-1605290881}}{{Cite web|title=Ibn an-Nafīs|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ibn-an-Nafis|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=14 March 2024}} the discovery of the itch mite parasite by Ibn Zuhr,{{Cite book|last1=Glick|first1=Thomas F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&q=%22Ibn+Zuhr%22&pg=PA259|title=Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia|last2=Livesey|first2=Steven|last3=Wallis|first3=Faith|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135459321}}{{Page needed|date=June 2024}} the first use of irrational numbers as an algebraic objects by Abū Kāmil,{{Cite book|last1=Akyeampong|first1=Emmanuel Kwaku|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ&q=%22Abu+kamil%22+%22the+first%22&pg=PA62|title=Dictionary of African Biography. 1St- Ed.; 1970|last2=Niven|first2=Mr. Steven J|date=1970|publisher=OUP US|isbn=978-0195382075}} the first use of the positional decimal fractions by al-Uqlidisi,{{Cite web|title=Al-Uqlidisi biography|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Uqlidisi.html|website=www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk}}{{Cite book|last=Selin|first=Helaine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzjpCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA69|title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|date=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-9401714167|page=69|quote=Historian J.L. Berggren, for example, concludes that while the Hindus were the first to use a "cipherized, decimal positional system", the Arabs pioneered in extending this system to "represent parts of the unit by decimal fractions".}} the development of the Arabic numerals and an early algebraic symbolism in the Maghreb,{{Cite book|last=Selin|first=Helaine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzjpCAAAQBAJ&q=%22algebraic+symbolism%22+maghreb&pg=PA831|title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|date=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-9401714167}}{{Cite web|title=Al-Qalasadi biography|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Qalasadi.html|website=www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk}} the Thabit number and Thābit theorem by Thābit ibn Qurra,{{cite book|last=Rashed|first=Roshdi|title=The development of Arabic mathematics: between arithmetic and algebra.|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|year=1994|isbn=978-0792325659|volume=156|location=Dordrecht, Boston & London|pages=278, 279}} the discovery of several new trigonometric identities by Ibn Yunus and al-Battani,{{Cite book|last1=Tonias|first1=Elias C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I0QWDAAAQBAJ&q=Al-Battani+%22trigonometric+identities&pg=PA15|title=Geometric Procedures for Civil Engineers|last2=Tonias|first2=Constantine N.|date=2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3319242958}}{{Cite book|last=Ben-Menahem|first=Ari|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9tUrarQYhKMC&q=%22ibn+yunus%22+%22trigonometric++formula%22&pg=PA565|title=Historical Encyclopedia of Natural and Mathematical Sciences|date=2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3540688310}} the mathematical proof for Ceva's theorem by Ibn Hűd,{{Cite book|last=Holme|first=Audun|url=https://archive.org/details/geometryourcultr0000holm_2nded/page/193/mode/1up?q=ibn|title=Geometry: Our Cultural Heritage|publisher=Springer|year=2010|isbn=978-3642144400|page=[https://archive.org/details/geometryourcultr0000holm_2nded/page/193/mode/1up?q=ibn 194]|url-access=limited}} the invention of the equatorium by al-Zarqali,{{Cite book|last=May|first=Andrew|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=blsqDwAAQBAJ&q=al-Zarqali+Equatorium&pg=PA115|title=The Telescopic Tourist's Guide to the Moon|date=2017|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3319607412}} the discovery of the physical reaction by Avempace,Franco, Abel B.. "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory". Journal of the History of Ideas. Vol. 64(4): 543. the identification of more than 200 new plants by Ibn al-Baitar{{Cite web|title=Ibn al-Baitar – Dictionary definition of Ibn al-Baitar|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ibn-al-baitar|website=encyclopedia.com}} the Arab Agricultural Revolution, and the Tabula Rogeriana, which was the most accurate world map in pre-modern times by al-Idrisi.Bacharach, 2006, p. 140.

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Several universities and educational institutions of the Arab world such as the University of Al Quaraouiyine, Al Azhar University, and Al Zaytuna University are considered to be the oldest in the world. Founded by Fatima al Fihri in 859 as a mosque, the University of Al Quaraouiyine in Fez is the oldest existing, continually operating and the first degree awarding educational institution in the world according to UNESCO and Guinness World Records{{Cite web|title=Oldest university|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/3000/oldest-university|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Guinnessworldrecords.com}}{{Cite web|title=Medina of Fez|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/170|access-date=7 April 2016|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}} and is sometimes referred to as the oldest university.Verger, Jacques: "Patterns", in: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (ed.): A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|978-0521541138}}, pp. 35–76 (35)

There are many scientific Arabic loanwords in Western European languages, including English, mostly via Old French.Lebedel, p.113 This includes traditional star names such as Aldebaran, scientific terms like alchemy (whence also chemistry), algebra, algorithm, alcohol, alkali, cipher, zenith, etc.

Under Ottoman rule, cultural life and science in the Arab world declined. In the 20th and 21st centuries, Arabs who have won important science prizes include Ahmed Zewail and Elias Corey (Nobel Prize), Michael DeBakey and Alim Benabid (Lasker Award), Omar M. Yaghi (Wolf Prize), Huda Zoghbi (Shaw Prize), Zaha Hadid (Pritzker Prize), and Michael Atiyah (both Fields Medal and Abel Prize). Rachid Yazami was one of the co-inventors of the lithium-ion battery,{{Cite web|date=6 January 2014|title=UT Austin's John B. Goodenough Wins Engineering's Highest Honor for Pioneering Lithium-Ion Battery|url=https://news.utexas.edu/2014/01/06/goodenough-wins-highest-engineering-honor|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514211211/http://news.utexas.edu/2014/01/06/goodenough-wins-highest-engineering-honor|archive-date=14 May 2016|access-date=18 December 2018|website=UT News}} and Tony Fadell was important in the development of the iPod and the iPhone.{{Cite news|last=Salter|first=Jessica|date=14 November 2014|title=Tony Fadell, father of the iPod, iPhone and Nest, on why he is worth $3.2bn to Google|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/people-in-technology/10892436/Tony-Fadell-father-of-the-iPod-iPhone-and-Nest-on-why-he-is-worth-3.2bn-to-Google.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140614091359/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/people-in-technology/10892436/Tony-Fadell-father-of-the-iPod-iPhone-and-Nest-on-why-he-is-worth-3.2bn-to-Google.html|archive-date=14 June 2014}}

{{main|Experimental theatre in the Arab world}}

File:Yousef_wahby.jpg, (1898–1982) was a prominent Arab playwright, actor, and director who played a major role in shaping modern Arab theatre.]]

Arab theatre is a rich and diverse cultural form that encompasses a wide range of styles, genres, and historical influences. Its roots in the pre-Islamic era, when poetry, storytelling, and musical performances were the main forms of artistic expressionIt refers to theatrical performances that are created by Arab playwrights, actors, and directors. The roots of Arab theatre can be traced back to ancient Arabic poetry and storytelling, which often incorporated music and dance. In the early Arabic period, storytelling evolved into a more formalized art form that was performed in public gatherings and festivals.{{Cite web|title=Arab theatre|url=https://al-bab.com/arts-and-culture/arab-theatre|access-date=2023-03-19|website=al-bab.com}}{{Cite book|last=Ḥamdān|first=Masʻūd|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/60697132|title=Poetics, politics and protest in Arab theatre : the bitter cup and the holy rain|date=2006|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=1845191064|location=Brighton [England]|oclc=60697132}}

During the Islamic Golden Age in the 8th and 9th centuries, the city of Baghdad emerged as a hub of intellectual and artistic activity, including theatre. The court of the Abbasid Caliphate was home to many influential playwrights and performers, who helped to develop and popularize theatre throughout the Islamic world. Arab theatre has a long tradition of incorporating comedy and satire into its performances, often using humor to address social and political issues.{{Cite book|last=Guo|first=Li|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1157810700|title=Arabic shadow theatre, 1300–1900 : a handbook|date=2020|isbn=978-9004436152|location=Leiden|oclc=1157810700}}

Arab theatre encompasses a wide range of dramatic genres, including tragedy, melodrama, and historical plays. Many Arab playwrights have used drama to address contemporary issues, the role of women in Arab society, and the challenges facing young people in the modern world. In recent decades, many Arab theatre artists have pushed the boundaries of the form, experimenting with new styles and techniques. This has led to the emergence of a vibrant contemporary theatre scene in many Arab countries, with innovative productions and performances that challenge traditional notions of Arab identity and culture.{{Cite magazine|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000109545|title=The Birth of modern Arab theatre|last=Maleh|first=Ghassan|magazine=The UNESCO Courier|year=1997|access-date=2023-03-31}}

{{main|Arab Fashion Council}}

File:Six_cushions_from_Palestine.jpg cushions. From top left, clockwise: Gaza, Ramallah, Ramallah, Nablus, Beit Jalla, Bethlehem.]]

Arab fashion and design have a rich history and cultural significance that spans centuries, each with its unique fashion and design traditions. One of the most notable aspects of Arab fashion is the use of luxurious fabrics and intricate embroidery. Traditional garments, such as the Abaya and Thobe, are often made from high-quality fabrics like silk, satin, brocade, and are embellished with intricate embroidery and beading.{{Cite web|last=Foreman|first=Liza|title=The visionaries modernising Arab fashion|date=26 October 2017 |url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20171026-the-visionaries-contemporising-arab-fashion|access-date=2023-03-19|publisher=BBC}} In recent years, Arab fashion has gained global recognition, with designers like Elie Saab, Zuhair Murad, and Reem Acra showcasing their designs on international runways.{{Cite web|date=2022-02-09|title=The evolution of Arab Fashion|url=https://thechicicon.com/2022/02/09/the-evolution-of-arab-fashion/|access-date=2023-03-19|website=The Chic Icon}}

These designers incorporate traditional Arab design elements into their collections, such as ornate patterns, luxurious fabrics, and intricate embellishments. In addition to fashion, Arab design is also characterized by its intricate geometric patterns, calligraphy, and use of vibrant colors. Arabic art and architecture, with their intricate geometric patterns and motifs, have influenced Arab design for centuries.{{Cite web|title=Arab Fashion Week|url=https://europaregina.eu/fashion-weeks/fashion-weeks-middle-east/arab-fashion-week/|access-date=2023-03-19|website=Europa Regina}} Arab designers also incorporate traditional motifs, such as the paisley and the arabesque, into their work. Overall, Arab fashion elements are rooted in the rich cultural heritage of the Arab world and continue to inspire designers today.{{Cite book|title=Textile Trades, Consumer Cultures, and the Material Worlds of the Indian Ocean : an Ocean of Cloth|date=2018|editor1=Pedro Machado|editor2=Sarah Fee|editor3=Gwyn Campbell|isbn=978-3319582658|location=Cham|oclc=1029071537}}

{{main|Arabic wedding}}

File:Tatouage_au_Henné,_Maroc.jpg tattoo in Morocco]]

Arabic weddings have changed greatly in the past 100 years. Original traditional Arabic weddings are supposed to be very similar to modern-day Bedouin weddings and rural weddings, and they are in some cases unique from one region to another, even within the same country. The practice of marrying of relatives is a common feature of Arab culture.{{Cite book|last=Jehad|first=Al-Omari|title=Understanding the Arab culture : a practical cross-cultural guide to working in the Arab world|date=2008|publisher=How To Books|isbn=978-1848036468|oclc=408662262}}

In the Arab world today between 40% and 50% of all marriages are consanguineous or between close family members, though these figures may vary among Arab nations.{{Cite web|title=Middle East Health Magazine|url=http://www.middleeasthealthmag.com/cgi-bin/index.cgi?http://www.middleeasthealthmag.com/may2012/feature2.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010101037/http://www.middleeasthealthmag.com/cgi-bin/index.cgi?http%3A%2F%2Fwww.middleeasthealthmag.com%2Fmay2012%2Ffeature2.htm|archive-date=10 October 2017|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Middleeasthealthmag.com}}{{Cite journal|vauthors=Bener A, Dafeeah EE, Samson N|year=2012|title=Does consanguinity increase the risk of schizophrenia? Study based on primary health care centre visits|journal=Ment Health Fam Med|volume=9|issue=4|pages=241–8|pmc=3721918|pmid=24294299}} In Egypt, around 40% of the population marry a cousin. A 1992 survey in Jordan found that 32% were married to a first cousin; a further 17.3% were married to more distant relatives.[https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21693632-marriage-between-close-relatives-much-too-common-keeping-it-family Consanguineous marriage: Keeping it in the family]. Economist, 27 February 2016 67% of marriages in Saudi Arabia are between close relatives as are 54% of all marriages in Kuwait, whereas 18% of all Lebanese were between blood relatives.{{Cite web|title=Inbreeding|url=http://www.as.wvu.edu/~kgarbutt/QuantGen/Gen535Papers2/Inbreeding.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220105324/http://www.as.wvu.edu/~kgarbutt/QuantGen/Gen535Papers2/Inbreeding.htm|archive-date=20 December 2017|access-date=18 December 2017|website=As.wvu.edu}} Due to the actions of Muhammad and the Rightly Guided Caliphs, marriage between cousins is explicitly allowed in Islam and the Quran itself does not discourage or forbid the practice.Surah chapter 4, verse 23 Nevertheless, opinions vary on whether the phenomenon should be seen as exclusively based on Islamic practices as a 1992 study among Arabs in Jordan did not show significant differences between Christian Arabs or Muslim Arabs when comparing the occurrence of consanguinity.

{{see also|Genetic studies on Arabs}}Arabs are genetically diverse, arising from admixture with indigenous peoples of pre-Islamic Middle East and North Africa, following the Islamic expansion.{{Cite journal|last1=Hajjej|first1=Abdelhafidh|last2=Almawi|first2=Wassim Y.|last3=Arnaiz-Villena|first3=Antonio|last4=Hattab|first4=Lasmar|last5=Hmida|first5=Slama|date=2018-03-09|title=The genetic heterogeneity of Arab populations as inferred from HLA genes|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=13|issue=3|pages=e0192269|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0192269|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5844529|pmid=29522542|bibcode=2018PLoSO..1392269H|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last1=Teebi|first1=Ahmad S.|last2=Teebi|first2=Saeed A.|date=2005|title=Genetic Diversity among the Arabs|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26679441|journal=Community Genetics|volume=8|issue=1|pages=21–26|doi=10.1159/000083333|jstor=26679441|pmid=15767750|s2cid=21134947|issn=1422-2795}} Genetic ancestry components related to the Arabian Peninsula display an increasing frequency pattern from west to east over North Africa. A similar frequency pattern exist across northeastern Africa with decreasing genetic affinities to groups of the Arabian Peninsula along the Nile river valley across Sudan and South Sudan the more they go south.{{Cite journal|last1=Schlebusch|first1=Carina M.|last2=Jakobsson|first2=Mattias|date=2018-08-31|title=Tales of Human Migration, Admixture, and Selection in Africa|journal=Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics|volume=19|issue=1|pages=405–428|doi=10.1146/annurev-genom-083117-021759|pmid=29727585|s2cid=19155657|issn=1527-8204|doi-access=free}} This genetic cline of admixture is dated to the time of Arab expansion and immigration to the Maghreb and northeast Africa. Genetic research has indicated that Palestinian Arabs and Jews share common genetic ancestry and are closely related.{{Cite web|title=Jews and Arabs Share Recent Ancestry|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/jews-and-arabs-share-recent-ancestry|access-date=2023-06-08|website=science.org}}{{Cite web|date=2020-06-04|title=Confirmed Cousins, Jews and Arabs Genetically and Anciently Linked|url=https://israelbetweenthelines.com/2020/06/04/confirmed-cousins-jews-and-arabs-genetically-and-anciently-linked/|access-date=2023-06-08}}{{cite journal|last1=Nebel|first1=Almut|last2=Filon|first2=Dvora|last3=Weiss|first3=Deborah A.|last4=Weale|first4=Michael|last5=Faerman|first5=Marina|last6=Oppenheim|first6=Ariella|last7=Thomas|first7=Mark G.|date=December 2000|title=High-resolution Y chromosome haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs reveal geographic substructure and substantial overlap with haplotypes of Jews|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/tcga/tcgapdf/Nebel-HG-00-IPArabs.pdf|journal=Human Genetics|volume=107|issue=6|pages=630–641|doi=10.1007/s004390000426|pmid=11153918|s2cid=8136092|quote=According to historical records part, or perhaps the majority, of the Muslim Arabs in this country descended from local inhabitants, mainly Christians and Jews, who had converted after the Islamic conquest in the seventh century CE (Shaban 1971; Mc Graw Donner 1981). These local inhabitants, in turn, were descendants of the core population that had lived in the area for several centuries, some even since prehistorical times (Gil 1992)... Thus, our findings are in good agreement with the historical record...}}{{cite journal|author1=Doron M. Behar|author2=Bayazit Yunusbayev|author3=Mait Metspalu|author4=Ene Metspalu|author5=Saharon Rosset|author6=Jüri Parik|author7=Siiri Rootsi|author8=Gyaneshwer Chaubey|author9=Ildus Kutuev |author10=Guennady Yudkovsky|author11=Elza K. Khusnutdinova|author12=Oleg Balanovsky|author13=Olga Balaganskaya|author14=Ornella Semino|author15=Luisa Pereira|date=July 2010|title=The genome-wide structure of the Jewish people|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/44657170|journal=Nature|volume=466|issue=7303|pages=238–242|bibcode=2010Natur.466..238B|doi=10.1038/nature09103|pmid=20531471|s2cid=4307824 |author20=Michael F. Hammer|author21=Karl Skorecki|author22=Richard Villems|author19=Tudor Parfitt|author18=Batsheva Bonne-Tamir|author16=David Comas|author17=David Gurwitz}}{{cite journal|last1=Atzmon|first1=G|display-authors=etal|year=2010|title=Abraham's Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=86|issue=6|pages=850–859|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015|pmc=3032072|pmid=20560205}}Nebel (2000), quote: By the fifth century CE, the majority of non-Jews and Jews had become Christians by conversion (Bachi 1974). The first millennium CE was marked by the immigration of Arab tribes, reaching its climax with the Moslem conquest from the Arabian Peninsula (633–640 CE). This was followed by a slow process of Islamization of the local population, both of Christians and Jews (Shaban 1971; Mc Graw Donner 1981). Additional minor demographic changes might have been caused by subsequent invasions of the Seljuks, Crusaders, Mongols, Mamelukes and Ottoman Turks. Recent gene-flow from various geographic origins is reflected, for example, in the heterogeneous spectrum of globin mutations among Israeli Arabs (Filon et al. 1994). Israeli and Palestinian Arabs share a similar linguistic and geographic background with Jews. (p. 631) According to historical records part, or perhaps the majority, of the Moslem Arabs in this country descended from local inhabitants, mainly Christians and Jews, who had converted after the Islamic conquest in the seventh century CE (Shaban 1971; Mc Graw Donner 1981). These local inhabitants, in turn, were descendants of the core population that had lived in the area for several centuries, some even since prehistorical times (Gil 1992). On the other hand, the ancestors of the great majority of present-day Jews lived outside this region for almost two millennia. Thus, our findings are in good agreement with historical evidence and suggest genetic continuity in both populations despite their long separation and the wide geographic dispersal of Jews.(p.637){{Citation|last=Kalmar|first=Ivan|title=Is there a Judeo-Christian Tradition?|chapter=4. Jews, Cousins of Arabs: Orientalism, Race, Nation, And Pan-Nation in the Long Nineteenth Century|date=2016-03-21|pages=53–74|publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110416596-005|isbn=978-3110416596|doi-access=free}}{{cite journal|vauthors=Nebel A, Filon D, Brinkmann B, Majumder PP, Faerman M, Oppenheim A|date=November 2001|title=The Y chromosome pool of Jews as part of the genetic landscape of the Middle East|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=69|issue=5|pages=1095–112|doi=10.1086/324070|pmc=1274378|pmid=11573163}} According to a 2016 study, indigenous Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula are direct descendants of the first Eurasian populations established by Out of Africa migrations. They are also very distant from contemporary Eurasians although there is signal of European admixture.{{Cite journal|last1=Rodriguez-Flores|first1=Juan L.|last2=Fakhro|first2=Khalid|last3=Agosto-Perez|first3=Francisco|last4=D. Ramstetter|first4=Monica|date=2016|title=Indigenous Arabs are descendants of the earliest split from ancient Eurasian populations|journal=Genome Research|volume=26|issue=2|pages=151–162|doi=10.1101/gr.191478.115|pmid=26728717|pmc=4728368}}

• Arab Union
• Arab world
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• North African Arabs

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{{Refend}}

• Price-Jones, David. The Closed Circle: an Interpretation of the Arabs. Pbk. ed., with a new preface by the author. Chicago: I. R. Dee, 2002. xiv, 464 p. {{ISBN|1566634407}}
• Ankerl, Guy. Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. INU PRESS, Geneva, 2000. {{ISBN|2881550045}}.
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• [http://www.lasportal.org/Pages/Welcome.aspx www.LasPortal.org]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20161202074825/http://arabculturefund.org/home/index.php ArabCultureFund AFAC] (archived 2 December 2016)

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