ackee

Ackee is an evergreen tree that grows about 10 metres tall, with a short trunk and a dense crown. The leaves are paripinnately,{{cite book | author1=Vinken Pierre | author2=Bruyn, GW | year=1995 | title=Intoxications of the Nervous System | publisher=Elsevier Science B.V. | location=Amsterdam, Netherlands | isbn=0-444-81284-9 }} compound {{convert|15|–|30|cm|in|0|abbr=off}} long, with 6–10 elliptical to oblong leathery leaflets. Each leaflet is {{convert|8|–|12|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|5|–|8|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} wide. The inflorescences are fragrant, up to 20 cm long, with unisexual flowers that bloom during warm months.{{cite book | first=Kristen | last=Llamas | year=2003 | title=Tropical Flowering Plants: A Guide to Identification and Cultivation | publisher= Timber Press | isbn=0-88192-585-3 }} Each flower has five greenish-white petals, which are fragrant.{{cite book | first=Robert | last=Riffle | year=1998 | title=The Tropical Look | publisher= Timber Press| isbn=0-88192-422-9 }}

The fruit is pear-shaped and has three lobes (two to four lobes are common).{{Cite book|title=Food safety and quality systems in developing countries|volume=One: Export challenges and implementation strategies|editor=Gordon, André|date=2 June 2015|publisher=Academic Press, Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-801351-9|location=London|oclc=910662541}} {{page number needed|date=February 2024}} When it ripens it turns from green to a bright red to yellow-orange and splits open to reveal three large, shiny black seeds, each partly surrounded by soft, creamy or spongy, white to yellow flesh — the aril having a nut-like flavor and texture of scrambled eggs. The fruit typically weighs {{convert|100|–|200|g|oz|frac=2|abbr=off}}. The tree can produce fruit throughout the year, although January–March and October–November are typically periods of fruit production.

File:2013.11-411-172 Akee,leaves(e-s) Bobo-Dioulasso,BF thu14nov2013-1025h.jpg|Leaves, upper and lower surface

File:Ackee Flower 001.JPG|Inflorescence

File:Akee.jpg|Fruit as it splits upon ripening "smile"

File:2013.11-411-155 Akee,fruit(e-s),seed&aril Bobo-Dioulasso,BF sun10nov2013-1740h.jpg|Showing ripe fruit and seeds with their arils

File:2013.11-411-169 Akee,fruit(part),seed&aril(i-s) Bobo-Dioulasso,BF thu14nov2013-0953h.jpg|Part of ripe fruit, two seeds with their arils still attached

File:2013.11-411-169 Akee,seed&aril(whole,LS) Bobo-Dioulasso,BF thu14nov2013-0953h.jpg|Ripe seeds with their arils (dorsal view and in longitudinal section)

There are up to as many as forty-eight cultivars of ackee, which are grouped into either "butter" or "cheese" types.{{Cite journal|last1=Sinmisola|first1=Aloko|last2=Oluwasesan|first2=Bello M.|last3=Chukwuemeka|first3=Azubuike P.|date=May 2019|title=Blighia sapida K.D. Koenig: A review on its phytochemistry, pharmacological and nutritional properties|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|language=en|volume=235|pages=446–459|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2019.01.017|pmid=30685434|s2cid=195661482 }} The cheese type is pale yellow in color and is more robust and finds use in the canning industry. The butter type is deeper yellow in color, and is more delicate and better suited for certain cuisine.

{{see also|List of Jamaican dishes}}

File:Ackee and Saltfish.jpg, a traditional Jamaican dish]]

Imported to Jamaica from West Africa before 1773,{{cite web|title=This is Jamaica |work=National Symbols of Jamaica |url=http://www.jis.gov.jm/special_sections/This%20Is%20Jamaica/symbols.html |access-date=2006-06-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619153047/http://www.jis.gov.jm/special_sections/This%20Is%20Jamaica/symbols.html |archive-date=19 June 2006 |url-status=dead }} the use of ackee in Jamaican cuisine is prominent. Ackee is the national fruit of Jamaica, whilst ackee and saltfish is the official national dish of Jamaica.{{cite web|title=Top 10 National Dishes|url=http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/travel/top-10/national-food-dishes/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924192351/http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/travel/top-10/national-food-dishes|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 September 2011|website=National Geographic Traveller|date=13 September 2011 |access-date=19 August 2016}}

The ackee is allowed to open fully before picking in order to eliminate toxicity. When it has "yawned" or "smiled", the seeds are discarded and the fresh, firm arils are parboiled in salted water or milk, and may be fried in butter to create a dish. In Caribbean cooking, they may be cooked with codfish and vegetables, or may be added to stew, curry, soup or rice with seasonings.

Ackee contains a moderate amount of carbohydrates, protein, and fat, providing 51–58% of the dry weight of the arils as composed of fatty acids – linoleic, palmitic, and stearic acids.{{Cite web|title=Jamaican Ackee|url=http://wwwchem.uwimona.edu.jm/lectures/ackee.html|access-date=2020-07-17|website=wwwchem.uwimona.edu.jm}} The raw fruit is a rich source of vitamin C.

The ackee is prominently featured in the Jamaican mento style folksong "Linstead Market". In the song, a market seller laments, "Carry mi ackee go a Linstead market. Not a quattie worth sell".{{Cite web|title=Ackee - Jamaican National Symbol|url=https://jis.gov.jm/information/symbols/jamaican-national-fruit-ackee/|access-date=2020-07-16|website=Jamaica Information Service|language=en-GB}}

The Beat's 1982 album Special Beat Service includes the song "Ackee 1-2-3".{{Cite web|title=Ackee 1 2 3 - The English Beat|url=https://www.allmusic.com/song/ackee-1-2-3-mt0006520131|access-date=2022-06-18|website=Allmusic.com|language=en-US}}

File:Hypoglycin A.svg]]

The unripened aril and the inedible portions of the fruit contain hypoglycin toxins including hypoglycin A and hypoglycin B, known as "soapberry toxins".{{cite journal | last1=Isenberg | first1=Samantha L. | last2=Carter | first2=Melissa D. | last3=Graham | first3=Leigh Ann | last4=Mathews | first4=Thomas P. | last5=Johnson | first5=Darryl | last6=Thomas | first6=Jerry D. | last7=Pirkle | first7=James L. | last8=Johnson | first8=Rudolph C. | title=Quantification of metabolites for assessing human exposure to soapberry toxins hypoglycin A and methylenecyclopropylglycine | journal=Chemical Research in Toxicology| volume=28 | issue=9 | date=2 September 2015 | issn=0893-228X | pmid=26328472 | pmc=4592145 | doi=10.1021/acs.chemrestox.5b00205 | pages=1753–1759}} Hypoglycin A is found in both the seeds and the arils, while hypoglycin B is found only in the seeds. Minimal quantities of the toxin are found in the ripe arils.{{Citation|last1=Seeff|first1=Leonard|title=Chapter 35 - Hepatotoxicity of Herbals and Dietary Supplements|date=2013-01-01|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123878175000352|work=Drug-Induced Liver Disease |edition=3|pages=631–657|editor-last=Kaplowitz|editor-first=Neil|place=Boston|publisher=Academic Press|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-387817-5.00035-2|isbn=978-0-12-387817-5|access-date=2020-07-05|last2=Stickel|first2=Felix|last3=Navarro|first3=Victor J.|editor2-last=DeLeve|editor2-first=Laurie D.|url-access=subscription}} In the unripe fruit, depending on the season and exposure to the sun, the concentrations may be up to 10 to 100 times greater.

These two molecules are converted in the body to methylenecyclopropylacetic acid (MCPA), and are toxic with potential lethality. MCPA and hypoglycin A inhibit several enzymes involved in the breakdown of acyl CoA compounds, often binding irreversibly to coenzyme A, carnitine and carnitine acyltransferase I and II,{{cite book | first= Parveen J.| last= Kumar | year=2006 | title= Clinical Medicine | edition= 5| publisher=Saunders (W.B.) Co Ltd | isbn=978-0-7020-2579-2 }} reducing their bioavailability and consequently inhibiting beta oxidation of fatty acids. Glucose stores are consequently depleted leading to hypoglycemia,{{cite book | first= Vishwanath | last= SarDesai | title=Introduction to Clinical Nutrition | publisher=Marcel Dekker Inc. | location=New York | year=2003 | isbn=0-8247-4093-9}} and to a condition called Jamaican vomiting sickness. These effects occur only when the unripe aril (or an inedible part of the fruit) is consumed.{{cite web|url=http://www.scq.ubc.ca/the-ackee-fruit-blighia-sapida-and-its-associated-toxic-effects/|title=The ackee fruit (Blighia sapida) and its associated toxic effects|author=Andrea Goldson|publisher=The Science Creative Quarterly|date=16 November 2005}}

Though ackee is used widely in traditional dishes, research on its potential hypoglycin toxicity has been sparse and preliminary, requiring evaluation in well-designed clinical research to better understand its pharmacology, food uses, and methods for detoxification.{{cite journal | last1=Sinmisola | first1=Aloko | last2=Oluwasesan | first2=Bello M. | last3=Chukwuemeka | first3=Azubuike P. | title=Blighia sapida K.D. Koenig: A review on its phytochemistry, pharmacological and nutritional properties | journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology| volume=235 | date=10 May 2019 | issn=0378-8741 | pmid=30685434 | doi=10.1016/j.jep.2019.01.017 | pages=446–459| s2cid=195661482 }}

In 2011, it was found that as the fruit ripens, the seeds act as a sink whereby the hypoglycin A in the arils convert to hypoglycin B in the seeds.{{Cite journal |last1=Bowen-Forbes |first1=Camille S. |last2=Minott |first2=Donna A. |date=2011-04-27 |title=Tracking hypoglycins A and B over different maturity stages: implications for detoxification of ackee (Blighia sapida K.D. Koenig) fruits |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=59 |issue=8 |pages=3869–3875 |doi=10.1021/jf104623c |issn=1520-5118 |pmid=21410289|bibcode=2011JAFC...59.3869B }} In other words, the seeds help in detoxifying the arils, bringing the concentration of hypoglycin A to a level which is generally safe for consumption.{{Cite journal |last1=Blake |first1=Orane A. |last2=Bennink |first2=Maurice R. |last3=Jackson |first3=Jose C. |date=February 2006 |title=Ackee (Blighia sapida) hypoglycin A toxicity: dose response assessment in laboratory rats |journal=Food and Chemical Toxicology|volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=207–213 |doi=10.1016/j.fct.2005.07.002 |issn=0278-6915 |pmid=16099087}}

Ackee canned in brine is a commodity item and is used for export by Jamaica, Haiti and Belize.{{Citation|title=Copyright|date=2016-01-01|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128006054000268|work=Regulating Safety of Traditional and Ethnic Foods|pages=iv|editor-last=Prakash|editor-first=Vishweshwaraiah|place=San Diego|publisher=Academic Press|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-800605-4.00026-8|isbn=978-0-12-800605-4|access-date=2020-06-27|editor2-last=Martín-Belloso|editor2-first=Olga|editor3-last=Keener|editor3-first=Larry|editor4-last=Astley|editor4-first=Siân|url-access=subscription}} If propagated by seed, trees will begin to fruit in 3–4 years. Cuttings may yield fruit in 1–2 years.

The fruit has various uses in West Africa and in rural areas of the Caribbean Islands, including use of its "soap" properties as a laundering agent or fish poison. The fragrant flowers may be used as decoration or cologne, and the durable heartwood used for construction, pilings, oars, paddles and casks. In African traditional medicine, the ripe arils, leaves or bark were used to treat minor ailments.

The seeds were formerly used as standardized weights for weighing gold dust, leading to the currency issued by Great Britain in the former colony of Gold Coast to be named the "Gold Coast ackey".{{cite Merriam-Webster|ackey|access-date=26 August 2024}}

{{Reflist}}

{{Sister project links}}

{{WestAfricanPlants|Blighia sapida}}

• [https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20210315-ackee-and-saltfish-jamaicas-breakfast-of-champions Ackee and saltfish: Jamaica's breakfast of champions – BBC Travel]

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{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}

Category:Jamaican cuisine

Category:National symbols of Jamaica

Category:Fruit vegetables

Category:Tropical fruit

Category:Fruits originating in Africa

Category:Flora of West Tropical Africa

Category:Trees of Africa

Category:Sapindaceae

Category:Plants described in 1806

Category:Taxa named by Charles Konig