aerobic exercise

File:1896 Olympic marathon.jpg

{{See also|Exercise#History|Fitness culture|History of physical training and fitness}}

Archibald Hill, a British physiologist, introduced the concepts of maximal oxygen uptake and oxygen debt in 1922.{{cite journal | vauthors = Hale T | title = History of developments in sport and exercise physiology: A. V. Hill, maximal oxygen uptake, and oxygen debt | journal = Journal of Sports Sciences | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 365–400 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 18228167 | doi = 10.1080/02640410701701016 | s2cid = 33768722 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Bassett DR, Howley ET | title = Maximal oxygen uptake: "classical" versus "contemporary" viewpoints | journal = Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise | volume = 29 | issue = 5 | pages = 591–603 | date = May 1997 | pmid = 9140894 | doi = 10.1097/00005768-199705000-00002 | doi-access = free }} German physician Otto Meyerhof and Hill shared the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their independent work related to muscle energy metabolism.{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1922/summary/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1922|website=NobelPrize.org|access-date=2018-10-11}} Building on this work, scientists began measuring oxygen consumption during exercise. Henry Taylor at the University of Minnesota and Swedish scientists Per-Olof Åstrand and Bengt Saltin made notable contributions in the 1950s and 60s.{{cite journal | vauthors = Schantz P | title = Along paths converging to Bengt Saltin's early contributions in exercise physiology | journal = Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports | volume = 25 Suppl 4 | issue = S4 | pages = 7–15 | date = December 2015 | pmid = 26589112 | pmc = 4670711 | doi = 10.1111/sms.12594 }} Contributions were also made by the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory, Copenhagen Muscle Research Centre as well as various German universities.{{Cite journal| vauthors = Seiler S |date=2011|title=A Brief History of Endurance Testing in Athletes |url=http://www.sportsci.org/2011/ss.pdf |journal=Sportscience |volume=15 |issue= 5}}{{Cite web|url=https://uk.humankinetics.com/products/history-of-exercise-physiology|title=History of Exercise Physiology|website=Human Kinetics Europe|access-date=2018-10-11}}

After World War II, health-oriented recreational activities such as jogging became popular.[https://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9780230507494 Fit Bodies. Fitness Culture and Gym] Sassatelli, Roberta. 2006. The Royal Canadian Air Force Exercise Plans, developed by Dr. Bill Orban and published in 1961, helped to launch modern fitness culture.{{Cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1998-jun-22-he-62349-story.html|title=Going Back to the Basics With Calisthenics| vauthors = Krucoff C |date=1998-06-22|work=Los Angeles Times|access-date=2018-10-08|issn=0458-3035|quote=In fact, the popularity of the Royal Canadian Air Force's calisthenics program in the late 1950s helped launch the modern fitness movement.}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/canadas-fitness-movement-5-basic-exercises|title=Five basic exercises for fitness in 1961 |work=CBC Archives|access-date=2018-10-08|quote=The program became famous worldwide.}}

Physical therapists Col. Pauline Potts and Dr. Kenneth H. Cooper,{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhu W | title = What a Journey! What a Contribution!-An Interview With Dr. Kenneth H. Cooper, the 'Father of Aerobics' | journal = Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport | volume = 89 | issue = 2 | pages = 135–142 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 29693511 | doi = 10.1080/02701367.2018.1452488 | s2cid = 13824541 }} both of the United States Air Force, advocated the concept of aerobic exercise. In the 1960s, Cooper started research into preventive medicine. He conducted the first extensive research on aerobic exercise on over 5,000 U.S. Air Force personnel{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_k-TTEFQTkkC|title=Aerobics| vauthors = Cooper KH |publisher=Bantam Books|year=1983|isbn=978-0553274479|edition=revised, reissue|orig-year=1968}}{{cite web | vauthors = Netburn D |title=Dr. Kenneth Cooper got a nation moving through aerobics|date=March 30, 2009|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2009-mar-30-he-aerobics30-story.html|newspaper=Los Angeles Times}} after becoming intrigued by the belief that exercise can preserve one's health. In 1966 he coined the term "aerobics". Two years later, in 1968, he published a book of the same name. In 1970, he created the Cooper Institute for non-profit research and education devoted to preventive medicine. He published a mass-market version of his book The New Aerobics in 1979. Cooper encouraged millions into becoming active and is now known as the "father of aerobics".{{Cite news|url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/press-releases/aerobics-kenneth-cooper-to-receive-harvard-healthy-cup-award/|title="Father of Aerobics" Kenneth Cooper, MD, MPH to receive Healthy Cup Award from Harvard School of Public Health|date=2008-04-16|work=News|access-date=2018-10-08}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.clubindustry.com/forprofits/dr-kenneth-cooper-and-how-he-became-known-father-aerobics|title=Dr. Kenneth Cooper and How He Became Known as the Father of Aerobics|date=2008-09-01|work=Club Industry|access-date=2018-10-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009052640/https://www.clubindustry.com/forprofits/dr-kenneth-cooper-and-how-he-became-known-father-aerobics|archive-date=2018-10-09|url-status=dead}} Cooper's book inspired Jacki Sorensen to create aerobic dancing exercise routines, which grew in popularity in the 1970s in the U.S., and at the same time, Judi Missett developed and expanded Jazzercise.

In the 1970s, there was a running boom. It was inspired by the Olympics, the New-York marathon and the advent of cushioned shoes.{{Cite news|title=Running on Empty: An American Sports Tradition Fades|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/03/opinion/running-on-empty-an-american-sports-tradition-fades.html|access-date=2018-10-11|vauthors=Stracher C|work=The New York Times |date=3 November 2012 }}

Aerobics at home became popular worldwide after the release of Jane Fonda's Workout exercise video in 1982.{{Cite journal|url=https://lnu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:742709/FULLTEXT01 | vauthors = Andreasson J, Johansson T |title=The Fitness Revolution. Historical Transformations in the Global Gym and Fitness Culture |journal=Sport Science Review |date=1 January 2014 |volume=23 |issue=3–4 |doi=10.2478/ssr-2014-0006|s2cid=73636110 }}{{Cite web|url=https://www.thebhc.org/sites/default/files/stern_0.pdf|title=The Fitness Movement and the Fitness Center Industry, 1960-2000| vauthors = Stern M |date=2008|website=Business and Economic History On-line|access-date=2018-10-07}} Step aerobics was popular in the 1990s, driven by a step product and program from Reebok shoes.

File:Exercise zones Fox and Haskell.svg shows the split between aerobic (light orange) and anaerobic (dark orange) exercise and heart rate.]]

{{Main|Bioenergetic systems}}

{{More citations needed section|date=October 2011|talk=y}}

Aerobic exercise comprises innumerable forms. In general, it is performed at a moderate level of intensity over a relatively long period of time. For example, running a long distance at a moderate pace is an aerobic exercise, but sprinting is not. Playing singles tennis, with near-continuous motion, is generally considered aerobic activity, while activities with brief bursts of energetic movement within longer periods of casual movement may not be aerobic. Some sports are thus inherently "aerobic", while other aerobic exercises, such as fartlek training or aerobic dance classes, are designed specifically to improve aerobic capacity and fitness. It is most common for aerobic exercises to involve the leg muscles, primarily or exclusively. There are some exceptions. For example, rowing to distances of 2,000 meters or more is an aerobic sport that exercises several major muscle groups, including those of the legs, abdominals, chest, and arms.

File:US Army 51673 aerobathon.jpg exercise instructor motivates her class to keep up the pace.]]

Moderate activities{{Cite web|title=Aerobic Exercise Health: What Is It, Benefits & Examples|url=https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/7050-aerobic-exercise|access-date=2021-11-19|website=Cleveland Clinic}}

• Swimming
• Dancing
• Hiking on flat ground
• Bicycling at less than {{convert|10|mph|km/h}}
• Moderate walking (about {{convert|3.5|mph|km/h}})
• Downhill skiing
• Tennis (doubles)
• Softball
• Gardening
• Light yard work
• Jogging

Vigorous activities

• Brisk walking (about {{convert|4.5|mph|km/h}})
• Bicycling at more than {{convert|10|mph|km/h}}
• Hiking uphill
• Cross-country skiing
• Stair climbing
• Soccer
• Jogging
• Jumping rope
• Tennis (singles)
• Basketball
• Heavy yard work{{Cite web|title=Give your heart a workout: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia|url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/patientinstructions/000763.htm|access-date=2021-03-31|website=medlineplus.gov}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Mellett LH, Bousquet G | title = Cardiology patient page. Heart-healthy exercise | journal = Circulation | volume = 127 | issue = 17 | pages = e571–e572 | date = April 2013 | pmid = 23630089 | doi = 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.112.000880 | doi-access = free }}
• Elliptical training
• Rowing

Aerobic exercise and fitness can be contrasted with anaerobic exercise, of which strength training and short-distance running are the most salient examples. The two types of exercise differ by the duration and intensity of muscular contractions involved, as well as by how energy is generated within the muscle.{{Cite web |title=Anaerobic: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia |url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002230.htm |access-date=2022-03-26 |website=medlineplus.gov }} Common kettlebell exercises combine aerobic and anaerobic aspects. Allowing 24 hours of recovery between aerobic and strength exercise leads to greater fitness.{{cite journal | vauthors = Robineau J, Babault N, Piscione J, Lacome M, Bigard AX | title = Specific Training Effects of Concurrent Aerobic and Strength Exercises Depend on Recovery Duration | journal = Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | volume = 30 | issue = 3 | pages = 672–683 | date = March 2016 | pmid = 25546450 | doi = 10.1519/JSC.0000000000000798 | s2cid = 30607588 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Sporer BC, Wenger HA | title = Effects of aerobic exercise on strength performance following various periods of recovery | journal = Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 638–644 | date = November 2003 | pmid = 14636098 | doi = 10.1519/1533-4287(2003)017<0638:eoaeos>2.0.co;2 | s2cid = 22340684 }}

New research on the endocrine functions of contracting muscles has shown that both aerobic and anaerobic exercise promote the secretion of myokines, with attendant benefits including growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and various anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases.{{cite journal | vauthors = Patel H, Alkhawam H, Madanieh R, Shah N, Kosmas CE, Vittorio TJ | title = Aerobic vs anaerobic exercise training effects on the cardiovascular system | journal = World Journal of Cardiology | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = 134–138 | date = February 2017 | pmid = 28289526 | pmc = 5329739 | doi = 10.4330/wjc.v9.i2.134 | doi-access = free }} Myokine secretion in turn is dependent on the amount of muscle contracted, and the duration and intensity of contraction. As such, both types of exercise produce endocrine benefits.

In almost all conditions, anaerobic exercise is accompanied by aerobic (in the presence of oxygen) exercises because the less efficient anaerobic metabolism must supplement the aerobic system due to energy demands that exceed the aerobic system's capacity. During anaerobic exercise, the body must generate energy through other processes than aerobic metabolism, including glycolysis paired with lactic acid fermentation, and the phosphocreatine system to generate energy in the form of ATP.

Depending on the intensity of exercise, the body preferentially utilizes certain fuel forms to meet energy demands. The two main fuel sources for aerobic exercise in the body include fat (in the form of adipose tissue) and glycogen. Amino acids can also be used as a fuel source during aerobic exercise, however in moderate proportions (around 3% of the total energy expenditure during exerciseClauss, M., & Jensen, J. (2025). Effect of exercise intensity, duration, and volume on protein oxidation during endurance exercise in humans: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 35(4): e70038. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.70038). At lower intensity aerobic exercise, the body preferentially uses fat as its main fuel source for cellular respiration, however as intensity increases the body preferentially uses glycogen stored in the muscles and liver or other carbohydrates, as it is a quicker source of energy.{{cite journal | vauthors = Murray B, Rosenbloom C | title = Fundamentals of glycogen metabolism for coaches and athletes | journal = Nutrition Reviews | volume = 76 | issue = 4 | pages = 243–259 | date = April 2018 | pmid = 29444266 | pmc = 6019055 | doi = 10.1093/nutrit/nuy001 }} Aerobic exercise at low or moderate intensity is not a very efficient way to lose fat in comparison to high intensity aerobic exercise. Lipolysis (hydrolysis of triglyceride into fatty acids),{{Cite journal |last1=Merrick |first1=David |last2=Seale |first2=Patrick |date=June 2020 |title=Skinny Fat Cells Stimulate Wound Healing |journal=Cell Stem Cell |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=801–803 |doi=10.1016/j.stem.2020.04.021 |issn=1934-5909|doi-access=free |pmid=32502400 }} not fat burning (conversion of fatty acid to carbon dioxide), explains the intensity-dependent fat mass reduction. It has been shown that fatty acid is consumed for wound healing, where moderate intensity exercise does not produce significant damage like high intensity exercise. The size of adipose tissue is determined by the magnitude of nutrient competition from muscle and lungs for cell regeneration and energy replenishment after exercise.{{cite journal | vauthors = Harris MB, Kuo CH | title = Scientific Challenges on Theory of Fat Burning by Exercise | journal = Frontiers in Physiology | volume = 12 | pages = 685166 | date = 2021 | pmid = 34295263 | pmc = 8290478 | doi = 10.3389/fphys.2021.685166 | doi-access = free }}{{Failed verification|date=October 2023}}

Among the possible health benefits of regular aerobic exercise are:{{cite web |date= |title=Aerobic exercise: Top 10 reasons to get physical |website=Mayo Clinic |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/fitness/in-depth/aerobic-exercise/art-20045541 |access-date= |publisher=}}

• May improve mood
• Strengthens and enlarges the heart muscle, to improve its pumping efficiency and reduce the resting heart rate, known as aerobic conditioning
• May improve circulation efficiency and reduce blood pressure
• May help maintain independence in later life
• Increases the total number of red blood cells in the body, facilitating transport of oxygen{{Cite journal | vauthors = Mairbäurl H |date=2013 |title=Red blood cells in sports: Effects of exercise and training on oxygen supply by red blood cells |journal=Frontiers in Physiology |volume=4 |page=332 |doi=10.3389/fphys.2013.00332 |pmid=24273518 |pmc=3824146 |issn=1664-042X|doi-access=free }}
• Improves mental health, including reducing stress and lowering the incidence of depression, as well as increased cognitive capacity.{{cite web|url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evolved-primate/200912/cardiovascular-fitness-is-linked-intelligence/|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130924092300/http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evolved-primate/200912/cardiovascular-fitness-is-linked-intelligence/|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 24, 2013|title=Cardiovascular fitness is linked to intelligence}}
• Slightly reduced depression may also be observed, especially if aerobic exercises are used as additional treatment for patients with a hematological malignancy{{cite journal | vauthors = Knips L, Bergenthal N, Streckmann F, Monsef I, Elter T, Skoetz N | title = Aerobic physical exercise for adult patients with haematological malignancies | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 1 | pages = CD009075 | date = January 2019 | issue = 1 | pmid = 30702150 | pmc = 6354325 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD009075.pub3 | collaboration = Cochrane Haematological Malignancies Group }}
• Reduces the risk for diabetes (One meta-analysis has shown, from multiple conducted studies, that aerobic exercise does help lower Hb A_1Clevels for type 2 diabetics.Snowling, N. J., & Hopkins, W. G. (2006). Effects of Different Modes of Exercise

Training on Glucose Control and Risk Factors for Complications in Type 2 Diabetic Patients A meta-analysis. Diabetes Care, 29(11), 518–2527. http://doi.org/10.2337/dc06-1317)

• Moderates the risk of death due to cardiovascular problems{{cite journal | vauthors = Barha CK, Dao E, Marcotte L, Hsiung GR, Tam R, Liu-Ambrose T | title = Cardiovascular risk moderates the effect of aerobic exercise on executive functions in older adults with subcortical ischemic vascular cognitive impairment | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 19974 | date = October 2021 | pmid = 34620933 | pmc = 8497597 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-021-99249-1 | bibcode = 2021NatSR..1119974B }}
• Promotes weight loss{{Cite web |title=10 great reasons to love aerobic exercise |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/fitness/in-depth/aerobic-exercise/art-20045541 |access-date=2023-10-16 |website=Mayo Clinic |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=CDC |date=2023-08-01 |title=Benefits of Physical Activity |url=https://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/basics/pa-health/index.htm |access-date=2023-10-16 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us}}
• Reduces the risk of osteoporosis{{cite journal | vauthors = Tong X, Chen X, Zhang S, Huang M, Shen X, Xu J, Zou J | title = The Effect of Exercise on the Prevention of Osteoporosis and Bone Angiogenesis | journal = BioMed Research International | volume = 2019 | pages = 8171897 | date = 2019-04-18 | pmid = 31139653 | pmc = 6500645 | doi = 10.1155/2019/8171897 | doi-access = free }}
• May improve episodic memory{{Cite journal | vauthors = Aghjayan SL, Bournias T, Kang C, Zhou X, Stillman CM, Donofry SD, Kamarck TW, Marsland AL, Voss MW, Fraundorf SH, Erickson KI | display-authors = 6 |date=2022-02-17 |title=Aerobic exercise improves episodic memory in late adulthood: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Communications Medicine |volume=2 |issue=1 | page = 15 |doi=10.1038/s43856-022-00079-7 | pmid = 35603310 | pmc = 9053291 |s2cid=246963477 |issn=2730-664X}}

Some drawbacks of aerobic exercise include:

• Overuse injuries of the musculoskeletal system because of repetitive exercise, with young athletes (under the age of 19) particularly at risk{{Cite journal |last1=Scheer |first1=Volker |last2=Tiller |first2=Nicholas B. |last3=Doutreleau |first3=Stéphane |last4=Khodaee |first4=Morteza |last5=Knechtle |first5=Beat |last6=Pasternak |first6=Andrew |last7=Rojas-Valverde |first7=Daniel |date=2022-04-01 |title=Potential Long-Term Health Problems Associated with Ultra-Endurance Running: A Narrative Review |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-021-01561-3 |journal=Sports Medicine |language=en |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=725–740 |doi=10.1007/s40279-021-01561-3 |issn=1179-2035 |pmc=8450723 |pmid=34542868}}
• Overtraining syndrome may lead to persistent dysfunction of a number of body systems{{Cite journal |last1=Kreher |first1=Jeffrey B. |last2=Schwartz |first2=Jennifer B. |date=2012 |title=Overtraining Syndrome |journal=Sports Health |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=128–138 |doi=10.1177/1941738111434406 |issn=1941-7381 |pmc=3435910 |pmid=23016079}}
• High volumes of training with insufficient calorie intake puts athletes—particularly female ones—at risk for RED-S
• Aerobic exercise may not be as efficient as other exercise methods. For example, High-intensity interval training (HIIT) has been shown to provide similar benefits in a fraction of the time spent exercising per week.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ito S | title = High-intensity interval training for health benefits and care of cardiac diseases – The key to an efficient exercise protocol | journal = World Journal of Cardiology | volume = 11 | issue = 7 | pages = 171–188 | date = July 2019 | pmid = 31565193 | pmc = 6763680 | doi = 10.4330/wjc.v11.i7.171 | doi-access = free }}

Both the health benefits and the performance benefits, or "training effect", require that the duration and the frequency of exercise both exceed a certain minimum. Most authorities suggest at least twenty minutes performed at least three times per week.'aerobic exercise', Food and Fitness: A Dictionary of Diet and Exercise, Michael Kent, Oxford University Press, 1997.

Aerobic exercise has long been a popular approach to achieving weight loss and physical fitness, often taking a commercial form.

• In the 1970s, Judi Sheppard Missett helped create the market for commercial aerobics with her Jazzercise program,{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/wellness/jazzercise-after-45-years-its-still-here-and-its-still-evolving/2014/07/08/237a060c-02bd-11e4-b8ff-89afd3fad6bd_story.html|title=Jazzercise: After 45 years, it's still here, and it's still evolving| vauthors = Hallett V |date=July 8, 2014|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 8, 2014}} at the same time as Jacki Sorensen was expanding her system of aerobic dancing.{{cite news | vauthors = McCormack P |date=October 16, 1981 |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1981/10/16/Womans-World-Aerobic-Dancing-hips-hips-away/6595372052800/ |title=Womans' World: Aerobic Dancing: 'hips, hips' away! |newspaper=United Press International |access-date=September 17, 2020}}
• In the 1980s, Richard Simmons hosted an aerobic exercise show on television, and followed Jane Fonda's lead by releasing a series of exercise videos.{{Cite web |orig-date=November 13, 2009 |title=This Day in History: April 24: 1982: Jane Fonda's First Workout Video Released |url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/jane-fondas-first-workout-video-released |access-date=March 7, 2023 |website=History Channel}}
• In the 1990s, Billy Blanks's Tae Bo helped popularize cardio-boxing workouts that incorporated martial arts movements.{{Cite web |date=2021-08-10 |title=Billy Blanks Is Fit, Fired Up, and Still Swinging at 65 |url=https://www.menshealth.com/fitness/a37040694/billy-blanks-tae-bo-interview/ |access-date=2023-03-07 |website=Men's Health |language=en-us}} Reebok shoes popularized step aerobics with their Reebok Step device and training program.{{cite web |url=https://sgbonline.com/step-reeboks-rise-to-success-with-angel-martinez/ |title=Step Reebok's Rise To Success… With Angel Martinez |date=September 23, 2019 | vauthors = Hartford T |website=SGB Online |access-date=September 20, 2020}}

• Aerobics
• Endurance training
• Exercise physiology
• Neurobiological effects of physical exercise
• Music and aerobic exercise performance

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• {{Commons category-inline}}

{{Physical exercise|state=expanded}}

Category:Exercise physiology