alpha wave

Human alpha rhythm has strong generators{{Clarify|date=January 2025}} in parieto-occipital areas{{Cite journal |last1=Salmelin |first1=R. |last2=Hari |first2=R. |date=October 1994 |title=Characterization of spontaneous MEG rhythms in healthy adults |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0013469494901872 |journal=Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology |language=en |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=237–248 |doi=10.1016/0013-4694(94)90187-2|pmid=7523073 |url-access=subscription }}{{cite journal |last1=Caffarra |first1=Sendy |last2=Kanopka |first2=Klint |last3=Kruper |first3=John |last4=Richie-Halford |first4=Adam |last5=Roy |first5=Ethan |last6=Rokem |first6=Ariel |last7=Yeatman |first7=Jason D. |date=2023 |title=Development of the Alpha Rhythm Is Linked to Visual White Matter Pathways and Visual Detection Performance |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=44 |issue=6 |page=e0684232023 |doi=10.1523/jneurosci.0684-23.2023 |issn=0270-6474 |pmc=11059423 |doi-access=free|pmid=38124006 }} which can be coherent with sources in the pulvinar and lateral geniculate nucleus.{{Cite journal |last1=Lopes da Silva |first1=F.H |last2=Vos |first2=J.E |last3=Mooibroek |first3=J |last4=van Rotterdam |first4=A |date=December 1980 |title=Relative contributions of intracortical and thalamo-cortical processes in the generation of alpha rhythms, revealed by partial coherence analysis |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0013469480900115 |journal=Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology |language=en |volume=50 |issue=5–6 |pages=449–456 |doi=10.1016/0013-4694(80)90011-5|pmid=6160987 |hdl=1874/15631 |hdl-access=free }} They are generated in other neocortical areas as well. Oscillations in the alpha band called a mu wave can be found over the primary motor cortex.{{Cite journal |last1=Pfurtscheller |first1=G |last2=Neuper |first2=Ch |last3=Andrew |first3=C |last4=Edlinger |first4=G |date=June 1997 |title=Foot and hand area mu rhythms |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0167876097007605 |journal=International Journal of Psychophysiology |language=en |volume=26 |issue=1–3 |pages=121–135 |doi=10.1016/S0167-8760(97)00760-5|pmid=9202999 |url-access=subscription }} At multi-electrode study performed in non-human primates reported alpha oscillations widespread across neocortex {{Cite journal |last1=Hoffman |first1=Steven J. |last2=Dotson |first2=Nicholas M. |last3=Lima |first3=Vinicius |last4=Gray |first4=Charles M. |date=2024-06-06 |title=The Primate Cortical LFP Exhibits Multiple Spectral and Temporal Gradients and Widespread Task-Dependence During Visual Short-Term Memory |journal=Journal of Neurophysiology |language=en |doi=10.1152/jn.00264.2023 |issn=0022-3077 |pmc=11383615 |pmid=38842507}}

One study reported that cortical alpha leads pulvinar (thalamic) alpha, challenging prevailing theories of a thalamic pacemaker. Based on intracranial recordings in epileptic patients it was reported that alpha acts within the nervous system by propagating from cortex to thalamus.{{cite journal | vauthors = Halgren M, Ulbert I, Bastuji H, Fabó D, Erőss L, Rey M, Devinsky O, Doyle WK, Mak-McCully R, Halgren E, Wittner L, Chauvel P, Heit G, Eskandar E, Mandell A, Cash SS | display-authors = 6 | title = The generation and propagation of the human alpha rhythm | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 116 | issue = 47 | pages = 23772–23782 | date = November 2019 | pmid = 31685634 | pmc = 6876194 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1913092116 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2019PNAS..11623772H }} It remains to be determined if these findings generalize to healthy participants.

The experimental and computational models explored by Traub RD et al. suggested cortical- a lamina- and principal neuron subtype specific origin for the visual alpha rhythm.{{cite journal | vauthors = Traub RD, Hawkins K, Adams NE, Hall SP, Simon A, Whittington MA | title = Layer 4 pyramidal neuron dendritic bursting underlies a post-stimulus visual cortical alpha rhythm | journal = Communications Biology | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 230 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32393746 | pmc = 7214406 | doi = 10.1038/s42003-020-0947-8 }}

On the basis of examination of patients with congenital visual defects, it was established that the existence of an efficient and complete visual pathway is necessary for the development of normal EEG activity pattern.{{Cite journal | vauthors = Derkowski W, Kędzia A, Derkowska J |date=2007 |title=Origin of the alpha rhythm based on computer analysis of EEG activity in patients with congenital visual defects. |url=https://zenodo.org/doi/10.5281/zenodo.10624700 |journal=The Computer-aided Scientific Research. |pages=313–318 |language= |publisher=Wrocław Scientific Society |doi=10.5281/ZENODO.10624700 |isbn=978-83-7374-050-1}} This wave begins appearing at around four months, and is initially a frequency of 4 waves per second. The mature alpha wave, at 10 waves per second, is firmly established by age 3. Other research finds an increase in alpha frequency from about 9 Hz at the age of five to about 12 Hz in 21 year olds. This shift has been linked to changes in the optic radiation and correlates with improvement in visual perception. Alpha waves can slow after neural compromise such that which occurs in hepatic encephalopathy.{{Cite journal |last1=Baumgarten |first1=Thomas J. |last2=Neugebauer |first2=Julia |last3=Oeltzschner |first3=Georg |last4=Füllenbach |first4=Nur-Deniz |last5=Kircheis |first5=Gerald |last6=Häussinger |first6=Dieter |last7=Lange |first7=Joachim |last8=Wittsack |first8=Hans-Jörg |last9=Butz |first9=Markus |last10=Schnitzler |first10=Alfons |date=2018 |title=Connecting occipital alpha band peak frequency, visual temporal resolution, and occipital GABA levels in healthy participants and hepatic encephalopathy patients |journal=NeuroImage: Clinical |language=en |volume=20 |pages=347–356 |doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2018.08.013 |pmc=6090010 |pmid=30109194}}

Some researchers posit that there are at least two forms of alpha waves, which may have different functions in the wake-sleep cycle.

Alpha waves are present at different stages of the wake-sleep cycle.{{cite journal | vauthors = Brancaccio A, Tabarelli D, Bigica M, Baldauf D | title = Cortical source localization of sleep-stage specific oscillatory activity | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 6976 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32332806 | pmc = 7181624 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-020-63933-5 | bibcode = 2020NatSR..10.6976B }} The most widely researched is during the relaxed mental state, where the subject is at rest with eyes closed, but is not tired or asleep. This alpha activity is centered in the occipital lobe,{{cite journal | vauthors = Bagherzadeh Y, Baldauf D, Pantazis D, Desimone R | title = Alpha Synchrony and the Neurofeedback Control of Spatial Attention | journal = Neuron | volume = 105 | issue = 3 | pages = 577–587.e5 | date = February 2020 | pmid = 31812515 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuron.2019.11.001 | hdl-access = free | s2cid = 208614924 | doi-access = free | hdl = 11572/252726 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = de Vries IE, Marinato G, Baldauf D | title = Decoding Object-Based Auditory Attention from Source-Reconstructed MEG Alpha Oscillations | journal = The Journal of Neuroscience | volume = 41 | issue = 41 | pages = 8603–8617 | date = October 2021 | pmid = 34429378 | pmc = 8513695 | doi = 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0583-21.2021 }} although there has been speculation that it has a thalamic origin.{{cite journal | vauthors = Domino EF, Ni L, Thompson M, Zhang H, Shikata H, Fukai H, Sakaki T, Ohya I | display-authors = 6 | title = Tobacco smoking produces widespread dominant brain wave alpha frequency increases | journal = International Journal of Psychophysiology | volume = 74 | issue = 3 | pages = 192–198 | date = December 2009 | pmid = 19765621 | pmc = 2788071 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2009.08.011 }}

The second occurrence of alpha wave activity is during REM sleep. As opposed to the awake form of alpha activity, this form is located in a frontal-central location in the brain. The purpose of alpha activity during REM sleep has yet to be fully understood. Currently, there are arguments that alpha patterns are a normal part of REM sleep, and for the notion that it indicates a semi-arousal period. It has been suggested that this alpha activity is inversely related to REM sleep pressure.{{Citation needed|reason=Reliable source needed for the whole sentence|date=May 2016}}

It has long been believed that alpha waves indicate a wakeful period during sleep.{{Citation needed|reason=Reliable source needed for the whole sentence|date=May 2016}} This has been attributed to studies where subjects report non-refreshing sleep and have EEG records reporting high levels of alpha intrusion into sleep. This occurrence is known as alpha wave intrusion.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bonnet M, Carley D, Carskadon M, Easton P, Guilleminault C, Harper R, Hayes B, Hirshkowitz M, Ktonas P, Keenan S | display-authors = 6 | collaboration = The Task Force Allas | year = 1992 | title = ASDA report on EEG arousals: scoring rules and examples | journal = Sleep | volume = 15 | issue = 2| pages = 173–184 | doi = 10.1093/sleep/15.2.173 | doi-access = free }} However, it is possible that these explanations may be misleading, as they only focus on alpha waves being generated from the occipital lobe.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}

Mindfulness meditation has been shown to increase alpha wave power in both healthy subjects and patients.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lomas T, Ivtzan I, Fu CH | title = A systematic review of the neurophysiology of mindfulness on EEG oscillations | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 57 | pages = 401–410 | date = October 2015 | pmid = 26441373 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.09.018 | s2cid = 7276590 | url = http://roar.uel.ac.uk/4509/1/A%20systematic%20review%20of%20the%20neurophysiology%20of.pdf }} Practitioners of Transcendental Meditation have demonstrated a one-Hertz reduction in alpha wave frequency relative to controls.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cahn BR, Polich J | title = Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 132 | issue = 2 | pages = 180–211 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 16536641 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.180 | s2cid = 2151810 }}

Alpha wave intrusion occurs when the alpha waves appear with non-REM sleep when delta activity is expected. It is hypothesized to be associated with fibromyalgia with increased phasic alpha sleep activity correlated with clinical manifestations of fibromyalgia, such as longer pain duration.{{cite journal | vauthors = Roizenblatt S, Moldofsky H, Benedito-Silva AA, Tufik S | title = Alpha sleep characteristics in fibromyalgia | journal = Arthritis and Rheumatism | volume = 44 | issue = 1 | pages = 222–230 | date = January 2001 | pmid = 11212164 | doi = 10.1002/1529-0131(200101)44:1<222::AID-ANR29>3.0.CO;2-K | doi-access = }}

Despite this, alpha wave intrusion has not been significantly linked to any major sleep disorder, including chronic fatigue syndrome, and major depression. However, it is common in chronic fatigued patients, and may amplify the effects of other sleep disorders.{{cite journal | vauthors = Manu P, Lane TJ, Matthews DA, Castriotta RJ, Watson RK, Abeles M | title = Alpha-delta sleep in patients with a chief complaint of chronic fatigue | journal = Southern Medical Journal | volume = 87 | issue = 4 | pages = 465–470 | date = April 1994 | pmid = 8153772 | doi = 10.1097/00007611-199404000-00008 | s2cid = 21961157 }}

Following this lapse-of-attention line of thought, a recent study indicates that alpha waves may be used to predict mistakes. In it, MEGs measured increases of up to 25% in alpha brain wave activity before mistakes occurred. This study used common sense: alpha waves indicate idleness, and mistakes are often made when a person is doing something automatically, or "on auto-pilot", and not paying attention to the task they are performing. After the mistake was noticed by the subject, there was a decrease in alpha waves as the subject began paying more attention. This study hopes to promote the use of wireless EEG technology on employees in high-risk fields, such as air traffic controlling, to monitor alpha wave activity and gauge the attention level of the employee.{{cite web|title=Brain Wave Patterns Can Predict Blunders, New Study Finds|url=http://www.news.ucdavis.edu/search/news_detail.lasso?id=9031|work=UC Davis News and Information|publisher=University of California, Davis campus|date=23 March 2009}}

A study has shown that the appearance of an alpha rhythm with open eyes can be a predictor of visual information processing in working memory.{{cite journal |last=Kozlovskiy |first=Stanislav |last2=Rogachev |first2=Anton |vauthors= |date=December 2021 |title=Appearance of alpha rhythm as a predictor of visual information processing in working memory |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/03010066211059887 |journal=Perception |publisher=Sage |volume=50 |issue=1 |page=50 |doi=10.1177/03010066211059887 |pmid=34989647 |s2cid=245771701 |hdl-access=free |hdl=11368/3007892}} It was shown that the moment of appearance of alpha activity depends on the type of stimulus in memory and the number of visual characteristics (color, shape, etc.) that it needs to keep in memory. The authors suggest that the appearance of the alpha rhythm with open eyes may indicate a temporary shutdown of visual information processing in the primary visual cortex at the moments when the subject analyzes the image in visual memory. At these moments, information is processed in the association areas of the visual cortex (hV4, V3v, VO1, VO2 areas).{{cite book | vauthors = Kozlovskiy S, Rogachev A |chapter=How Areas of Ventral Visual Stream Interact when We Memorize Color and Shape Information |series=Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing |title=Advances in Cognitive Research, Artificial Intelligence and Neuroinformatics |date=2021 |volume=1358 |pages=95–100 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-71637-0_10 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-71636-3 |s2cid=234902744 |issn=2194-5357}}

One study suggests that a "visual flicker paradigm to entrain individuals at their own brain rhythm (i.e. peak alpha frequency)" can neuroenhancement perceptual visual learning, maintained the day following training.

In particular, the entrainment substantially accelerated learning in a discrimination task to detect targets embedded in background clutter or to identify radial vs. concentric Glass patterns embedded in noise compared to entrainment that does not match an individual's alpha frequency.{{cite journal | vauthors = Michael E, Covarrubias LS, Leong V, Kourtzi Z | title = Learning at your brain's rhythm: individualized entrainment boosts learning for perceptual decisions | journal = Cerebral Cortex | volume = 33 | issue = 9 | pages = 5382–5394 | date = April 2023 | pmid = 36352510 | pmc = 10152088 | doi = 10.1093/cercor/bhac426 | doi-access = free }}

• News article about the study: {{cite news |title=Brain-frequency primer accelerates learning and retention |url=https://newatlas.com/health-wellbeing/brain-frequency-learning/ |access-date=15 February 2023 |work=New Atlas |date=1 February 2023 |archive-date=15 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215182922/https://newatlas.com/health-wellbeing/brain-frequency-learning/ |url-status=live }}{{additional citation needed|date=March 2023}}

File:Human EEG with prominent alpha-rhythm.png

Alpha waves were discovered by German neurologist Hans Berger, the inventor of the EEG itself. Alpha waves were among the first waves documented by Berger, along with beta waves, and he displayed an interest in "alpha blockage", the process by which alpha waves decrease and beta waves increase upon a subject opening their eyes. This distinction earned the alpha wave the alternate title of "Berger's Wave".{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}

Berger took a cue from Ukrainian physiologist Vladimir Pravdich-Neminsky, who used a string galvanometer to create a photograph of the electrical activity of a dog's brain. Using similar techniques, Berger confirmed the existence of electrical activity in the human brain. He first did this by presenting a stimulus to hospital patients with skull damage and measuring the electrical activity in their brains. Later he ceased the stimulus method and began measuring the natural rhythmic electrical cycles in the brain. The first natural rhythm he documented was what would become known as the alpha wave. Berger was very thorough and meticulous in his data-gathering, but despite his brilliance, he did not feel confident enough to publish his discoveries until at least five years after he had made them. In 1929, he published his first findings on alpha waves in the journal Archiv für Psychiatrie. He was originally met with derision for his EEG technique and his subsequent alpha and beta wave discoveries. His technique and findings did not gain widespread acceptance in the psychological community until 1937, when he gained the approval of the famous physiologist Lord Adrian, who took a particular interest in alpha waves.{{cite journal | vauthors = Karbowski K | title = Hans Berger (1873-1941) | journal = Journal of Neurology | volume = 249 | issue = 8 | pages = 1130–1131 | date = August 2002 | pmid = 12420722 | doi = 10.1007/s00415-002-0872-4 | s2cid = 32730261 }}

Alpha waves again gained recognition in the early 1960s and 1970s with the creation of a biofeedback theory relating to brain waves (see below). Such biofeedback, referred to as a kind of neurofeedback, relating to alpha waves is the conscious elicitation of alpha brainwaves by a subject. Two researchers in the United States explored this concept through unrelated experiments. Joe Kamiya, of the University of Chicago, discovered that some individuals had the conscious ability to recognize when they were creating alpha waves, and could increase their alpha activity. These individuals were motivated through a reward system from Kamiya. The second progenitor of biofeedback is Barry Sterman, from the University of California, Los Angeles. He was working with monitoring brain waves in cats and found that, when the cats were trained to withhold motor movement, they released SMR, or mu, waves, a wave similar to alpha waves. Using a reward system, he further trained these cats to enter this state more easily. Later, he was approached by the United States Air Force to test the effects of a jet fuel that was known to cause seizures in humans. Sterman tested the effects of this fuel on the previously-trained cats, and discovered that they had a higher resistance to seizures than non-trained cats.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}

Alpha wave biofeedback has gained interest for having some successes in humans for seizure suppression and for treatment of depression.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kraft U | title = Train Your Brain-Mental exercises with neurofeedback may ease symptoms of attention-deficit disorder, epilepsy and depression--and even boost cognition in healthy brains. | journal = Scientific American | date = 2006 | url = https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/train-your-brain-2007-06 }}

Alpha waves again gained interest in regards to an engineering approach to the science fiction challenge of psychokinesis, i.e. control of movement of a physical object using energy emanating from a human brain. In 1988, EEG alpha rhythm was used in a brain–computer interface experiment of control of a movement of a physical object, a robot.{{cite book | vauthors = Bozinovski S, Sestakov M, Bozinovska L | chapter = Using EEG alpha rhythm to control a mobile robot | title = Proceedings of the Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society | veditors = Harris G, Walker C | pages = 1515–1516 | location = New Orleans | publisher = IEEE | date = 1988 | doi = 10.1109/IEMBS.1988.95357 | isbn = 0-7803-0785-2 | s2cid = 62179588 }}{{cite conference | vauthors = Bozinovski S | title = Mobile robot trajectory control: From fixed rails to direct bioelectric control | veditors = Kaynak O | conference = Proc. IEEE Workshop on Intelligent Motion Control | pages = 63–67 | location = Istanbul | date = 1990 | doi = 10.1109/IMC.1990.687362 }} It was the first experiment to demonstrate control of a physical object, a robot, using EEG.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lebedev M | title = Augmentation of sensorimotor functions with neural prostheses. | journal = Opera Medica and Physiologica | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages = 211–227 | date = 2016 | url = https://operamedphys.org/sites/default/files/pdf/OMP_2016_03_0035.pdf }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Lebedev MA, Nicolelis MA | title = Brain-Machine Interfaces: From Basic Science to Neuroprostheses and Neurorehabilitation | journal = Physiological Reviews | volume = 97 | issue = 2 | pages = 767–837 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 28275048 | doi = 10.1152/physrev.00027.2016 }}

• {{annotated link|Binaural beats}}
• {{annotated link|EEGLAB}}
• {{annotated link|Neural oscillation}}
• {{annotated link|Neurophysiological Biomarker Toolbox}}
• {{annotated link|PGO waves}}

• Delta wave – (0.5 – 3 Hz)
• Theta wave – (4 – 7 Hz)
• Alpha wave – (8 – 12 Hz)
• Mu wave – (7.5 – 12.5 Hz)
• SMR wave – (12.5 – 15.5 Hz)
• Beta wave – (15 – 30 Hz)
• Gamma wave – (>30 Hz)

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• {{Citation | surname = Brazier | given = M. A. B. | title = The Electrical Activity of the Nervous System | journal = Science | year = 1970 | volume = 146 | issue = 3650 | pages = 1423–1428 | publisher = Pitman | doi = 10.1126/science.146.3650.1423 | pmid = 14208567 | place = London}}

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Category:Electrodiagnosis

Category:Meditation

Category:Electroencephalography

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